Imperatives

Kant based his ethical theory on the belief that reason should be used to determine how people ought to act. He did not attempt to prescribe specific actions but instructed that reason should be used to determine how to behave.

The Categorical Imperative is supposed to provide a way for us to evaluate moral actions and to make ml judgments. It is not a command to perform specific actions -- it does not say, respect your elders". As commands or moral laws all persons must follow, regardless of their desires or extenuating circumstances. As morals, these imperatives are binding on everyone and imperatives are simply an ought. If the action is represented as goods in itself and therefore as necessary for a will which it accords with reason then that's a categorical imperative.

This paper attempted to examine the validity of the definition of vocative in Japanese by focusing on expressions of request. First, we analyzed syntactic features of words (or phrases) which refer to the hearer but are not followed by particles, and which take the role of the subject in the following utterance. Then, we discussed the syntactic non-integration of vocative, based on the fact that it is impossible to shift between the vocative and wa/ga. Finally, we explained that the vocative is chosen in conditions when a request occurs long after the vocative phrase and when this phrase itself is long.

Este artículo describe la estructura morfosintáctica de construcciones prohibitivas (imperativas negativas) en cinco lenguas mayas del subgrupo cholano-tseltalano. Estas lenguas, aunque son estrechamente emparentadas, utilizan al menos tres distintas estrategias gramaticales para expresar el significado prohibitivo. El análisis corrobora la observación tipológica de que la naturaleza semántica del prohibitivo es más compleja que una simple combinación de la polaridad negativa y la modalidad imperativa. La variación se estudia bajo el enfoque “microtipológico” que, en este caso particular, es superior a un estudio “macrotipológico” basado en un amplio muestreo de lenguas, ya que permite obtener una perspectiva más detallada y trazar hipótesis sobre posibles cambios diacrónicos.

This paper aims to study the imperative constructions in Ibanag, an Austronesian language spoken mainly in Isabela and Cagayan of the Northern Philippines. The study will focus on two levels: 1) syntactic, and 2) morphological. Syntactic discussion would include the description, notable characteristics and examples of the various types of imperative constructions based on Martin's (1990) classification of the imperative mood in Tagalog. It will then be followed by the morphological discussion which would detail the imperative formation process in Ibanag with regards to the grammatical person. Using a typological approach, patterns, tendencies and restrictions in imperative constructions in Ibanag will be established.

This paper continues a whole series of previous articles on the so-called Russian double verbs, but examines them for the first time on the basis of data from the Russian national corpus. It focuses on just one grammatical form out of the whole paradigm, viz. imperatives in the 2pl. Among the topics
scrutinized and quantified are: the ratio of juxtaposition vs distant position (with one dividing element) of both verbs and of prototypical (asymmetric) vs non prototypical (symmetric) pairs, the inversion of V1 and V2, the scope of negation, pairs with mixed verbal aspect, the desemanticisation of V1, the
historical rise of some V1 and decline of others. The results obtained by this research corroborate the overall picture drawn in our previous works, but provide significant new insights such as the overwhelming predominance of the prototype over symmetric pairs, exclusive negation of V2, prevailing distribution of ipf V1 + pf V2 in aspectually mixed pairs, etc.

“Fifty Baha’i Principles of Unity: A Paradigm of Social Salvation.”
Christopher Buck

Baha’i Studies Review 18 (2012): 3–44. (Published June 23, 2015)
(2017 update, with original Persian & Arabic primary sources added.)

[Presented at Princeton University (February 21, 2014).]

ABSTRACT
The Baha’i Faith, a young world religion, offers principles of unity—from family relations to international relations—as a paradigm for social salvation. These principles may be studied within the analytic prism of an ‘illness/cure’ approach to religious soteriologies—a conceptual model in the phenomenology of religions popularized by Stephen Prothero. World religions are systems of salvation, liberation or harmony. Their respective offers of salvation, liberation or harmony respond directly to the human predicament, as defined by each religion. If humanity is plagued by sin, then Christianity’s redemptive offer of salvation from sin makes perfect sense. Early Buddhism’s offer of liberation—from the fundamental problem of suffering—also fits perfectly in this model. In the Baha’i religion, the plight facing the world is profound estrangement at all levels of society. Therefore the social salvation that the Baha’i religion offers are precepts and practices that augment unity and harmony, as Baha’u’llah proclaims: ‘The distinguishing feature that marketh the pre-eminent character of this Supreme Revelation consisteth in that We have … blotted out from the pages of God’s holy Book whatsoever hath been the cause of strife, of malice and mischief amongst the children of men, and have … laid down the essential prerequisites of concord, of understanding, of complete and enduring unity’. After reviewing Raymond Piper’s typology, fifty (50) Baha’i principles of unity are enumerated and briefly described: types of unity propounded by Baha’u’llah in the Tablet of Unity (Lawḥ-i Ittiḥād); types of unity forecast by ‘Abdu’l-Baha in the ‘The Seven Candles of Unity’; and types of unity articulated by Shoghi Effendi—a splendid array of understudied elements of the Baha’i social gospel. Since the present study is a first extended survey—of the notion of unity vis-à-vis the Baha’i Faith, based squarely on authenticated primary sources—results are preliminary, not definitive.

* This updated version (1 November 2017) is dedicated to the loving memory of the present writer’s eldest son, Jason Buck (b. August 20, 1978), who—suddenly, but peacefully—passed away on 26 October 2017, at the young age of 39. See https://www.facebook.com/jason.buck.180.

This paper explores the morphosyntactic features of the imperative constructions in Ayta Mag-antsi, a Sambalic language spoken mainly in Pampanga and in nearby districts in Central Luzon. A short description of the forms of imperatives in Ayta Mag-Antsi would be given while using a comparative approach by comparing the Ayta Mag-Antsi imperatives with Tagalog imperatives. Comparisons will be made by testing the effectivity of Martin's (1990) classification of Tagalog imperatives with Ayta Mag-Antsi imperatives. The paper aims to establish the patterns and restrictions of Ayta Mag-Antsi imperatives using a typological and descriptive approach.

"Directive strategies, i.e. strategies through which the speaker orders someone to do something, are very frequent in everyday speech, and are particularly subject to processes of diachronic renewal. Based on a 200-language sample, this paper provides an extensive survey of the most frequent diachronic processes of emergence of positive directive strategies (imperatives, hortatives, jussives, etc.). Three basic processes are discussed: (i) the grammaticalization of lexical material into markers of orders and commands; (ii) the cooptation of non-directive forms (used in indirect speech acts) as directive strategies; and (iii) the creation of new directive strategies through constructionalization
of various types of insubordinated clauses. The stages and outcomes of these processes are reconstructed on the basis of the available diachronic and synchronic evidence. In some of
these processes, the identity of the performer of the order (addressee, speaker + addressee, third party) turns out to play a crucial role in favouring the development of a non-directive
strategy into a directive one. Other diachronic processes, on the contrary, are shown to be connected to the widespread tendency to express orders in an indirect way, i.e. by putting the face-threatening component of directive speech acts off-stage."

The squib analyses an asymmetry concerning the availability of V-to-C movement with different Romanian finite (the imperative) and non-finite (the gerund) verbal forms in the presence of clausal negation: with imperatives negation blocks V-to-C movement, while with gerunds it does not. We show that it is not the projection of clausal negation per se that blocks V-to-C movement. Rather, the nature of the clausal negators selected (full word vs. affix) is responsible the verb movement asymmetry depicted.

U radu se utvrđuju značenjske razlike između primarnih morfoloških sredstava za izražavanje semantičkih kategorija optativnosti i imperativnosti – optativa i imperativa – s jedne strane te sekundarnih sredstava – oblika glagolskih vremena u atemporalnoj ulozi – s druge strane, pri čemu se primarna morfološka sredstva tumače kao centar kategorije jer izražavaju širok skup značenja – u prvom redu prototipnih, zapovjednih i željnih, ali i neprototipnih kako načinskih, tako i vremenskih kao u slučaju pripovjedačkog imperativa. Uporaba je tih značenjski različitih sredstava prije svega kontekstualno uvjetovana pa se imperativ, perfekt, prezent, performativni glagol naređujem i modalni glagol morati rabe kako bi se izrekla jača zapovijed, kondicional kako bi se izrekla blaža zapovijed, dok je uporaba infinitiva ograničena te on zbog svoje bezličnosti označava vrlo blagu zapovijed. S druge pak strane, u polju optativnosti, modalni se glagol željeti koristi kada se sugovornika želi uvjeriti u predmet želje, osobito u situacijama kada se rabe klišeizirane fraze, dok se druga sredstva, ovisno o situacijskome kontekstu i predmetu želje, smatraju manje-više (ne)obilježenim. Kako je neprototipno imperativno značenje željno, utvrđuju se i značenjske razlike između imperativa i optativa te se na temelju shematičnoga imperativnoga značenja izvodi shematično optativno značenje. Pritom se problematizira i sam status optativa kao glagolskoga načina koji je formalno podudaran glagolskome pridjevu radnom, zbog čega mu se odricalo mjesto u glagolskim oblicima te ga se smještalo isključivo u područje sintakse.
Ključne riječi: glagolski način, optativ, imperativ, značenje

First lucidly formulated by Gottlob Frege, the distinction between illocutionary force and semantic content has been largely accepted by philosophers of language and linguists for much of the last century. In recent years it has come under attack. This essay aims to address the cogency of that challenge, by, first, clarifying the phenomena that the force/content distinction is designed to explain, and by providing a refinement of that distinction on which contents are not necessarily propositional, and on which force is an aspect of speaker meaning, but not (except in unusual cases) an aspect of what is said. Second, direct attacks offered Hanks and by Barker and Popa-Wyatt are then assessed and shown to be unsuccessful against the force/content distinction thus refined.  Third, an indirect challenge, which attempts to account for the relevant phenomena while abjuring any force/content distinction, is also considered and shown to be untenable.

Imperatives in Malayalam: Structure, Typology and Relations

P. Sreekumar
Dravidian University, Andhra Pradesh

ABSTRACT

This paper is a descriptive and typological study of the structure and type of imperative construction (henceforth IMC) in Malayalam. Based on the description of the rich glossed data it found that that the canonical IMC in Malayalam is unmarked for gender, number and person. The root forms of the verb with and without lengthening of the final vowel is the morphological realisation of imperative. The gendered vocative particle is copied towards the post verbal position in IMC. Verb initial constructions are found in the IMC of Malayalam against the general word order of SOV in Malayalam. IMC in Malayalam can be embedded and it can be reported without altering the imperative content in reported speech. There are definite seeking and indefinite seeking types of Wh- imperative in Malayalam. More than one verb can be included in IMC with imperative suffix only on the main verb. Negative IMC is formed by lexical word and negative clitics. The subject of IMC in Malayalam can be in nominative, accusative, dative, genitive and vocative cases.

From E. Craig (ed.) The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Routledge, 1997)) Imperatives lie at the heart of both practical and moral reasoning, yet they have been overshadowed by propositions and relegated by many philosophers to the status of ejaculations. One reason for this assimilation is that a sentence's having literal meaning seems to require its having truth conditions, and 'Keep your promises!' appears to lack such conditions just as 'Ouch!' does. Yet in the hopes of explicating a kind of rationality distinctive of the practical and moral domains certain philosophers and logicians have sought in this century to codify the logical properties of imperatives. Because inference has its home in the concept of truth-preservation, one reductionist attempt to develop such a logic translates imperative sentences into declaratives and construes inferential relations among the former in terms of inferential relations among the latter. Since no such reduction seems fully to capture the meaning of imperatives others have expanded our notion of inference to include not just truthbut also satisfaction-preservation, according to which an imperative is satisfied just in case what it enjoins is brought about. A logic capturing what is distinctive of imperatives may shed light on the question whether an 'ought' is derivable from an 'is', and may elucidate the claim that morality is, or comprises, a system of hypothetical imperatives. Further, instructions, which are often formulated with imperatives, as in 'Take two tablets on an empty stomach', are crucial to the construction of plans of action. A proper understanding of imperatives and their inferential properties may thus also illuminate practical reasoning.

Following the seminal work of J.L. Austin, we can consider speaking as a social communicative interaction: when we say something (for instance, "Today I am in Zagreb" or "Go home!") we also do something (describing in the first case, prescribing in the second case) and, normally, we produce certain effects on the audience (in the second case, maybe you will really follow my order). The action is threefold: 1 1) We say something, that is we put forward a representational content -glossed also as the "locution", or the "sense" of an utterance; 2) We do something in saying something (ordering, suggesting, asserting, asking, etc.) -and this is the "illocutionary force" (or simply "force" of the utterance); 3) We do something by saying something: that is, we produce psychological or behavioural consequences by means of our utterance (which are imputed to our speech) -Austin called this third element "perlocution". Austin's minimal scheme can be enriched with more levels, in order to map further salient features. For instance, following Grice, we can introduce in our picture 4) the notion of conversational implicature, in order to describe what is meant by the speaker (a content that is inferentially constructed by virtue of the so-called conversational maxims). We can also add 5) the notion of linguistic presupposition, which can provide a powerful tool for the analysis of those contextual elements which are taken for granted by the participants to a communication process, and implicitly associated to certain linguistic expressions. Progressive refinements are possible, but, generally speaking, legal philosophers do not get so far. It is commonly thought that Austin's account (or, more often, the reformulation offered by Searle) 3 can be profitably used also for the analysis of law, starting from the assumption that legal phenomena can be considered as a peculiar form of institutionalized normative speech. This move requires important theoretical choices. One of them is really puzzling: we have to take a stand on the complicated relations between what is said (the locution, or, if you prefer, the sense of an utterance) and what we do in saying something (the illocutionary force: ordering, asking, saying, etc.). The boundaries of this relation are far from being clear: analytic philosophers have proposed many alternative solutions, reaching a very high level of complexity. In spite of the great variety of proposals, all legal philosophers seem to adopt one of the following two strategies:

In this article, I provide a unified explanation for two puzzling phenomena concerning sentence-initial negation: the ban on True Negative Imperatives that is attested in many languages and the ban on sole negative markers in sentence-initial position in V-to-C languages. I argue that both phenomena can be explained once it is assumed after Han (2001) that operators encoding the illocutionary force of a speech act take scope from matrix C° and may not be outscoped by negation. Consequently, a morphosyntactically negative element can appear in a position in C° or Spec,CP only if it is semantically non-negative or if it can reconstruct to a lower position.

We show that a number of movement-related phenomena from Asturian as well as from the Spanish spoken in the Principality of Asturias, especially from the realm of cliticization, are amenable to accounts where the Pronounce-Highest-Copy requirement positing that the highest copy in a movement chain be favored (i.e. pronounced) in PF can be overridden if convergence so demands. Thus, although the head of a movement chain is typically pronounced, certain PF-related considerations sometimes force the pronunciation of a lower copy, hence circumventing a violation (cf. Pronounce Lower Copy). Therefore, the evidence adduced here supports the view that the requirements imposed by the PF component may take precedence over purely syntactic requirements. In this connection, we argue for a novel analysis of the enclitic-proclitic contrast in Asturian and Asturian Spanish in finite and non-finite contexts, alongside extensions to other constructions (e.g. mandatorily postverbal subjects in inversion contexts), which add to the ample stock of phenomena supporting the rather successful Copy Theory of Movement of Chomsky (1995, 2013).

This paper focuses on the morphological marking of imperative mood. Drawing on evidence from longitudinal monolingual and bilingual first language acquisition data, we argue that typological differences play out differently in monolingual and bilingual inflectional development, taking Malayalam and English imperatives as cases in point. We attempt to explain the occurrence of certain imperative forms in the language context by tracing the differences and similarities in the spontaneous acquisition data of two monolingual children and one bilingual child.

The modal variation and morpho-syntactic mismatches of imperatives have challenged model-theoretic linguists, making it hard to unify them as a notional category. Depending on specific theories, imperatives inherently contain an illocutionary operator with directive force (e.g., Han 1998, 1999a/b/c, 2001), a performative necessity modal similar to MUST/SHOULD (e.; among others). Despite the fact that imperatives cannot be simply identified with a single label of modality (i.e., necessity, possibility, deontic, bouletic, teleological etcetera), I propose that there is indeed an underlying property shared by all imperatives unifying and distinguishing them from declaratives: they contribute a nonveridical modal space. In this paper, I study imperatives in terms of nonveridicality and polar partition and argue that their semantic contribution is the presupposition of epistemic uncertainty as to the actualization of a proposition p and the creation of nonveridical modal spaces. Imperatives introduce a preference ordering between p and non-p worlds, and are analyzed as nonveridical operators conveying partial certainty and no inherent directive force. Under this perspective, it is not unexpected that imperative manifests not only as a verbal morphology, but also in the form of particles, i.e., the subjunctive imperatives with na particle in Greek, or that imperatives function modally since nonveridicality characterizes all modalities. Therefore, the dilemma whether imperatives are modals or not becomes redundant; it only matters that imperatives induce nonveridical modal spaces.

Camille Denizot, Donner des ordres en grec ancien. Étude linguistique des formes de l'injonction, Mont-Saint-Aignan, Publications des universités de Rouen et du Havre, 2011, 571 p. Le livre de Camille Denizot (désormais CD) est un important volume qui a pour objectif d'étudier d'un point de vue linguistique les formes de l'injonction (ordre et défense) des périodes archaïque et classique du grec ancien.

The main goal of this paper is to describe some functional and formal similarities in the expression of imperatives and hortatives in various languages which are spoken in the Sakhalin Island. The suggestion is made that such similarities might have been contact-induced language changes that resulted from two common mechanisms: structural (inflectional) borrowing and grammatical accommodation. da quod iubes et iube quod vis Augustine of Hippo, Confessiones 10.29.40

В статье анализируются наиболее влиятельные неформальные концепции императивного вывода с точки зрения их прагматической и логической приемлемости. Парадоксы императивного вывода объясняются методологической установкой параллелизма, которой придерживалось большинство исследователей. Отказ от параллелизма позволяет приступить к формулировке прагматических правил для императивов, гарантирующих их эффективное использование.

Affective experiences motivate and rationalize behavior in virtue of feeling good or bad, or their valence. It has become popular to explain such phenomenal character with intentional content. Rejecting evaluativism and extending earlier imperativist accounts of pain, I argue that when experiences feel bad, they both represent things as being in a certain way and tell us to see to it that they will no longer be that way. Such commands have subjective authority by virtue of linking up with a relevant background concern. The imperative content explains but doesn’t constitute world-directed motivation. It also rationalizes action indirectly, by giving rise to an affective seeming that represents the situation as calling for the authoritatively commanded behavior. One experience feels worse than another if its content tells us to bear a higher opportunity cost to comply with the command. Finally, experience-directed motivation is contingent on our being attitudinally (dis)pleased with the character of our experience.

In this article, I consider Russian triclausal constructions (complex sentences including three clauses, one main and two dependent). More specifically, I analyze constructions where C1 (the main clause) embeds C2 (an embedded clause), while C2 in turn embeds C3. In the paper, I mainly concentrate on sentences where C2 is a clause with an unreal meaning, for instance, an argument clause hosted by the verb xotet' 'want', and C3 is an adjunct (temporal) clause. I pose the following questions: 1. How is tense assignment in C3 organized? Is it fully described by the rules of tense assignment that apply to biclausal structures? The answer is that tense assignment in C3 varies significantly from one sentence to another: for instance, in C3 the tense can be interpreted with respect to the event in C2, which is atypical for Russian adjunct clauses. Moreover, in many cases all three of the existing variants (tense marking anchored to the moment of speech, to the event in C1, or to the event in C2) can be used. 2. Are there any syntactic phenomena that are typical for triclausal structures? I claim that there is a special phenomenon, which can be called " syntactic doubling " or " copying, " whereby the verb form in C2 influences the form in C3. Importantly, the situation cannot be described in terms of classical form assignment, where the verb in C2 requires a particular form in C3: rather, the syntactic pattern of the verb in C2 allows different forms to be used in C3, the only requirement being that the forms in C3 and C2 are identical. Sometimes a version of doubling is also observed in biclausal structures, but only one of the types of doubling described here (doubling in argument clauses) can be found in biclausal constructions. Another phenomenon specific to triclausal structures is represented by structures where C3 cannot be definitively assigned a structural position: in such cases it is unclear whether C3 is embedded under C1 or C2. In summary, I conclude that triclausal constructions are not reducible to a combination of two biclausal constructions: C1 + C2 and C2 + C3. For the properties of C3, the properties of both C2 and C1 are relevant.

Aubrey, Michael. 2016. "Greek Prohibitions."  Pages 486-538. InThe Greek Verb Revisited. Edited by Steven E. Runge and Christopher J. Fresch. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press.

I propose that both the STOP DOING X and DO NOT START X meanings are not the meaning of the imperfective and perfective prohibitions, but that they are, nevertheless, usages that naturally arise from a particular set of linguistic conditions. The goal of this study is to determine what those conditions are. Even though an imperfective prohibition does not inherently mean STOP DOING X or a perfective prohibition does not inherently mean DO NOT START X, it does not follow, as we shall see, that there is no relationship between the aspect and the semantic expression.

Many pieces of advice, recommendations and warnings in Egyptian teaching texts are introduced by imperative verbal lexemes (which linguists call 'directive speech acts'): Ssp rd.t=f, 'Accept what he gives' ('Ptahhotep' 6, 11), m jr TnH s.t, 'Don't look at her' ('Ani' 16, 13), m mH jb=k…, 'Don't trust…' ('Amenemhat' II, 4), etc. The great number of imperative lexemes in these texts offer a wide range of writings, syntactic constructions and semantic contents. In fact, the same lexeme can appear in several forms in a sole text, with various phonograms and classifiers. This is the case of sAq jb, 'focus' in 'Ptahhotep': (11, 9) vs. (14, 10). From a semantic point of view, there are also notable variations, like the various meanings of sA(w), which is usually translated as 'refrain from', even if it is clearly polysemous: 'Hold back from X' (advice), 'Keep yourself from X' (warning), 'Don't do X' (order), etc. This paper gives an overview of a current project which aims to fill a gap in the Egyptological literature on directive speech acts. Every aspect of the related verbal lexemes is studied, including grammatical analysis, graphemic comparisons, lexicographical and semantic study, as well as their issues and potential conclusions.

The article suggests a comprehensive discussion on the syntactic and semantic
properties of the second-person jussives (used in non-negated clauses) in the language
of Ugaritic poetry. The reconstructed system of volitive (imperativehortative)
verbal forms consisted on two sets of forms: the suppletive imperative
and the full paradigm of jussives in all the personal forms, while the second person
jussives are used as imperatives in reflexive stems, as polite imperatives, and in
purposive clauses. The overview of the imperative-hortative paradigm in other
Semitic languages demonstrates, that the situation reflected in the language of
Ugaritic poetry is an archaic retention: the reflexes of the full paradigm of the
“short” form of prefix conjugation (<*yaqtul) attests for typical irrealis usages in
Akkadian, Arabic, and Modern South Arabian.
Keywords: Imperative-hortative paradigm, jussive, Ugaritic poetry, irrealis

The paper is focused on the phenomenon of syntactic doubling in Russian - a strategy of complementation where the form of the embedded verb repeats the form of the matrix verb. Doubling is highly untypical as a complementation strategy: in doubling structures, even imperative can be found in embedded clauses, which is very rare typologically.

In this paper, I argue that imperatives do not incorporate a covert modal component (contra Han 1998, 1999, 2001; Schwager 2005a, 2005b, 2006a; as Kaufmann 2012) and deontic modals do not incorporate an imperative-like performative component (contra Portner 2004, 2005, 2007, 2009, 2012; Ninan 2005) showing that we do not need extra layers in the logical form adding unnecessary and complicating steps in the interpretation. In addition, I show that imperatives do not have predetermined modal force (universal or existential), and that their range of quantification is not fixed. Finally, I present data illustrating that deontic expressions do not commit the addressee to the realization of the modal proposition, and prove that mood and modal expressions do not always equate with each other.

In this paper, serialized chains of verb forms of the type pojdem posmotrim are first examined with respect to their grammatical homonymy (1PL.IMP vs. FUT1PL) and lexical, syntactic and contextual cues that allow to disambiguate it. In section 2, a thorough analysis of data from the Russian national corpus serves to capture the aspectual and lexical constraints of such chains. The last section contains a systematic comparison of said forms with serialized imperatives in the 2nd pl.

Cuando hablamos del trabajo en Inteligencia, pero también de todo lo que tiene que ver con la
seguridad, las fuerzas armadas o los cuerpos y fuerzas de seguridad del estado, siempre aparecen
dudas, recelos, conflictos y situaciones que nos interrogan sobre los controles, valores y actitudes
que subyacen a los actos de los implicados en estas áreas en cualquiera de sus niveles. Este artículo
ofrece parte del modelo Arconte ©. Este modelo incorpora un proceso de análisis y evaluación
ética de las acciones y de los implicados en las acciones de Inteligencia, que nos permite construir
una aproximación a un marco de referencia teórico y práctico de la ética que necesitaríamos o
podríamos construir para actuar en la labor de Inteligencia. Presentaremos aquí por primera vez
parte de este modelo ya desarrollado, aplicado y en fase de evaluación.
Abstract:
When we speak about the work in Intelligence, but also about everything what it has to see with the
safety, the armed forces or the bodies and security forces of the condition, always there appear
doubts, fears, conflicts and situations that interrogate us on the controls, values and attitudes that
sublie to the acts of the implied ones in these areas in any of his levels. This article offers part of the
model Arconte ©. This model incorporates a process of analysis and ethical evaluation of the
actions and of the implied ones in the actions of Intelligence, which allows us to construct an
approximation to a theoretical and practical frame of reference of the ethics that we would need or
to construct to act in the labor of Intelligence. We will present here for the first time it departs from
this already developed, applied model and in phase of evaluation.

Evidence from Arabic-based pidgins, such as Bongor Arabic, Juba Arabic, Pidgin Madame, and Gulf Pidgin Arabic, and from the Arabic-based creole Ki-Nubi, shows that in these varieties verbs often derive from Arabic imperatives. In some of the West European-based pidgins, verbs apparently derive from infinitives in the lexifier. The difference may be explained by the morphology of the verb in the lexifier. In the communicative context of early pidginization, commands are frequent. These are normally expressed by an imperative, but in some languages, the infinitive may function as a directive and thus serve as source for the pidgin verb. A similar explanation possibly applies to the finite use of infinitives in early child language.

In general linguistics, the functions of the perfective and the imperfective aspect have been thoroughly investigated in the domain of realis, especially in the past tense. However, there are languages which exhibit this sort of contrast in other domains, for example, in the imperative. The functions of the aspectual grams in the imperative may differ significantly from those documented in the realis. In the present paper, I argue that this is the case in Lithuanian. I build on the studies of the aspectual contrast in the imperative documented for Russian and Slavonic in general. I test whether the functional contrasts found there exist in Lithuanian as well. The results of this pilot study suggest that with regard to the use of the aspectual grams in the imperative, Lithuanian converges to a large extent with the NorthEastern subgroup of Slavonic.

The paper deals with irregular and suppletive imperatives in a sample of about 200 languages. It demonstrates that by far the most frequent meaning, which is expressed irregularly in the 2nd person imperatives, is 'come': in about 15% of languages the form for 'come (here)!' is suppletive or irregular. Other irregular 2nd person forms are 'go', 'give (me)', 'bring', 'take', 'eat' and 'see'.
In the 1st person plural, the only meaning that is likely to be expressed irregularly or suppletively is 'let's go together' (in about 7% of languages of the sample).

There are two traditions of determining the foundation of legal validity – metaphysical and anti-metaphysical. At the beginning of the 20th century the anti-metaphysical tradition was supplemented by psychological realism, which was developed in the framework of the Uppsala School and the psychological school of Leon Petrażycki. It is possible to trace the common line of reasoning on the problem of legal validity within Continental or psychological legal realism: from Petrażycki (and his students) and Axel Hägerström (and his students, including Alf Ross) to Enrico Pattaro. Psychological legal realism is an approach to law that can be characterized by 1) an orientation toward the study of law in the context of facts of psychophysical reality; 2) the idea of the psychological nature of law; 3) recognition of the authoritative-mystical nature and objectification of legal experiences; 4) the irreducibility of law to the behavioral aspect; etc.
The term “Uppsala School of Legal Realism” denotes the theoretical legal position of scholars from Uppsala – Hagerström and his most faithful students, Anders Vilhelm Lundstedt and Karl Olivekrona – within the framework of a broader Scandinavian legal realism as part of the continental realistic tradition. The philosophical foundations of the Uppsala School of Legal Realism include: rejection of subjectivism and metaphysics, naturalism, non-cognitivism. This school paid special attention to questions about the possibility of scientific knowledge about law, the construction of a value-neutral theory, and the search for reliable methodological foundations for the science of law. The revolt against subjectivism and metaphysics led to the assertion that there is – and can be the subject of scientific knowledge – only one reality, namely spatio-temporal, psychophysical. Since legal concepts do not directly correspond to the facts of such a reality, they are considered as illusions and even magical formulas, which, however, are based on actual psychological facts and have an effect on people's consciousness.
In the framework of the Uppsala School from a realistic point of view law appears as a machinery of coercion, as a factual order based on the organized social force. Within that order the rules of law are independent imperatives and motives of behavior, which have a suggestive, binding effect on the consciousness and behavior of people. The validity of law is determined by the power of organized social coercion and is regarded as a complex phenomenon of the people’s inner world. As a complex psychical fact, legal validity is considered a psychological self-binding engendered by the physical coercion machinery in action and the influence of cultural, social and even biological factors.

This article focuses on Santiaguense Capeverdean words derived from Portuguese non-infinitive verbal forms and among these, more specifically on those elements which were not recently borrowed from modern Portuguese and do not compete with Capeverdean more basilectal items. In section 1, the category of Capeverdean words under scrutiny is defined contrastively with other similar types of words. In section 2, all known members of this category are examined in turn and according to the characteristics of their respective Portuguese sources. In section 3, a comparative approach is developed, in which the etymological counterparts of the Capeverdean words presented in the previous sections are systematically investigated for other Upper Guinea Creoles (i.e. Guinea-Bissau Creole, Casamance Creole and Papiamentu). The conclusion section stresses the main points of interest of this study, namely (i) the methodology used herein, which combines historical and comparative linguistics, (ii) the centrality of imperative forms as an input for new lexical verb roots in Upper Guinea Creoles and more generally in situations of language acquisition, and (iii) the scientific prospects that a comparison covering a wider sample of Ibero-Romance-based Creoles could offer concerning words derived from Portuguese non-infinitive verbal forms in these languages.
Keywords: Capeverdean; Upper Guinea Creoles; Historical Linguistics; Portuguese.

The paper proposes a new type of control configuration: perspectival control. This involves control of a non-argument PRO that combines with a directive modal operator in the Mood domain. This PRO encodes the individual to whom the public commitments associated with the modal are anchored, and its presence can be detected in the syntax through a subject obviation effect. The empirical focus of the paper are Slovenian directive clauses (imperatives and subjunctives), but the analysis is shown to have implications for analyses of other languages as well as theories of directive clauses and the representation of discourse related information in the syntax.

This article deals with the usage of Slovenian naj and Russian pust’ (пусть). The first part presents a classification of constructions in which naj and pust’ function as particles. Both languages use the respective particle in an indicative, third-person construction that may denote either an indirect incentive (jussive) or express meanings that are related to the imperative mood (i.e., expressing a wish, conveying consensus, approval, or permission). As a peculiarity of the Slovenian naj, I highlight the constructions with a particle and conditional (naj bi), which may signify a low degree of probability (epistemic usage) or forward information from another source (evidential usage). The second part of the article discusses the usage of the lexemes naj and pust’ as conjunctions. The key difference between these lexical items is that naj has been grammaticalized into a complementizer that in connection with imperative verbs introduces object dependent clauses.

The imperative should be thought of as a comparative concept, defined as a sentence type whose only prototypical function is the performance of the whole range of directive speech acts. Furthermore, for a non-­‐second-­‐person form to count as an imperative it must be homogenous with the second-­‐person form, thereby allowing true imperative paradigms to be distinguished from those that recruit alternative structures. This definition of the imperative sentence type allows more accurate cross-­‐linguistic analysis of imperative paradigms, and provides principled grounds for distinguishing between imperative and so-­‐called 'hortative' and 'jussive' forms. It also helps to clarify the irrealis — or better — potential status of imperatives, and suggests an explanation for the cross-­‐ linguistic variability in the non-­‐directive occurrence of imperatives in good wishes.

This article is dedicated to the memory of Stephanie Chrysostomou, a student who unexpectedly passed away in July 2017, struck by a car. Stephanie was a brilliant student, who attended two of the modules I taught at the University of Cyprus, participating energetically in the in-class discussion and conveying brilliant ideas about the speeches of Attic oratory.

This research provides evidence in favour of the fact that Old Spanish, as well as other Old Romance languages (Portuguese and Italian, for example) accommodate to Rivero and Terzi’s (1995: 301, e.g. 1) pattern II in which imperative structures of the languages do not display a different syntax from the one exhibited by main clauses, whereas Modern Spanish should be classified as belonging to pattern I, the imperative constructions of which present their own specific syntax. We put forward that the changes undergone by the word order of imperative sentences through time should be attributed to a syntactization process that tended to detach imperatives from a specific verbal morphology (and also from the syntax of main clauses) and brought about new specific syntactic requirements for them to be licensed. Furthermore, our data allow us to shed light on the theory of linguistic change and the necessary conditions to have transference phenomena from Old Spanish to Hispano-American Spanish. Our data show that, so as to posit that Old Spanish constructions of any sort have been transferred to Hispano-American Spanish, there should be similar configurations in the indigenous languages that enable this transference through language contact and can bring about an increasing use of the structures that already were receding in Peninsular Medieval Spanish.

The study is aimed at detecting stable wording patterns of the utterances with directive function in Russian, and based on the material of speech corpus containing long-term audio recordings of everyday spoken communication. The lemmatized and morphologically annotated mini-corpus in question includes 2030 utterances with 2nd person Sg and Pl verb forms in imperative mood and consists of 11075 word forms. The research involves the data on frequencies of (co-)occurrences of word forms, lemmas, parts of speech within the mini-corpus.