Explosives

Urea nitrate is a powerful improvised explosive, frequently used by terrorists in the Israeli arena. It was also used in the first World Trade Center bombing in New York in February 1993. It is difficult to identify urea nitrate in post-explosion debris, since only a very small fraction survives the blast. Also, in the presence of water, it readily decomposes to its original components, urea and nitric acid. It is suspected that post-blast debris of urea nitrate can be confused with ammonium nitrate, the main solid product of urea nitrate thermal decomposition. In a comprehensive study towards identification of urea nitrate in post-blast traces, a spectrophotometric technique for quantitative determination of urea nitrate was developed, and conditions were found for extraction and separation of un-exploded traces of urea nitrate with minimal decomposition. Nevertheless, out of 28 samples collected from a series of three controlled firings of urea nitrate charges, only one gave the typical adduct ion by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis. We found that urea nitrate can be extracted from solid mixtures to organic solvents by using Crown ethers as "host compounds." The adducts thus formed are solid, crystalline compounds that can be characterized by microanalysis and spectroscopic techniques.

The Characterisation of Explosive Weapons Project (CEW) is managed and implemented by the GICHD, and it is guided by a group of 18 experts from disciplines relevant to researching the effects of explosive weapons in populated areas. The specialists consulted pro bono and shared their knowledge in a personal professional capacity. This research was further assisted by the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva as part of an Applied Research Seminar to compile case studies on the use of explosive weapons. The GICHD also engaged Armament Research Services, a specialist technical intelligence consultancy, to lend subject expertise and co-edit the Final Report.

States, the United Nations and civil society organisations continue to raise concerns about the humanitarian impact caused by the use of explosive weapons in populated areas (EWIPA). This issue is currently being examined from political, legal, socio-economic and humanitarian perspectives. The GICHD has undertaken research to provide a technical perspective on the destructive effects of selected explosive weapons to inform the international debate.

The research project attempts to reduce an observed knowledge gap regarding EWIPA. It seeks to provide clarity concerning the immediate physical effects and terminology used when discussing explosive weapons. The project is guided by a group of experts dealing with weapons-related research and practitioners who address the implications of explosive weapons in humanitarian, policy, advocacy and legal fields.

Explosive weapons are generally designed specifically to kill and injure human beings and to destroy or otherwise incapacitate vehicles and infrastructure. Whilst they carry out similar functions when used in populated areas as when they are employed elsewhere, the impact of their use may differ. Indeed, the use of explosive weapons in populated areas has resulted in significant civilian deaths and injuries. In addition to the human cost, our case studies confirm substantial damage to essential infrastructure, homes and businesses.

The research focuses on the inherent technical characteristics of the explosive weapon systems studied and their use in populated areas, examining both the methods and means of warfare. It draws on five technical studies on explosive weapon systems, each of which assesses a common type of weapon system present in contemporary conflict zones. The weaponry covered was chosen on the basis of its ubiquity, notoriety, widespread stockpiling and use in populated areas. The five weapon systems reviewed are 122 mm multi-barrel rocket launchers, 81-120 mm mortars, 152-155 mm artillery guns, 115-125 mm tank guns and the Mk 82 aircraft bomb. The research’s findings focus on the effects of the explosive munitions; inherent accuracy and precision of the five weapon systems employing them; and on their characteristic use including methods to mitigate the impact on civilians.

The purpose of this report is to provide background information on the technical characteristics of indirect-fire weapon systems, examine how and when they are employed, address and explain issues regarding their accuracy and precision, and describe their effects.

The report addresses a range of conventional artillery weapons firing explosive munitions, the use of which is not specifically prohibited or otherwise limited by international law (contrary to weapons such as landmines and cluster munitions, which do have specific restrictions imposed by international law). The weapon systems reviewed in this report are frequently encountered on contemporary battlefields, and commonly held by state armed forces and non-state armed groups.

Section 1 of the report provides a brief developmental history of indirect-fire weapon systems, and gives generic information for the broad categories of indirect-fire artillery systems – guns, mortars, and rockets.
Section 2 discusses the primary considerations affecting the employment of indirect-fire systems, including their role, operational considerations and doctrine.
Section 3 of the report examines the accuracy and precision of indirect-fire systems, and the factors that affect this.
Section 4 of the report examines the effects of explosive munitions.

The mining industry uses large amounts of explosives and a part of them remains undetonated. Since most commercial blasting agents contain ammonium nitrate, there is a direct relationship between explosives use and the ammonium and nitrate levels in mine effluents. Water contamination with nitrogenous compounds can promote corrosion and eutrophication in receiving water bodies and be detrimental to fish.