Experimental Aesthetics

Experimental aesthetics has shed light on the involvement of pre-motor areas in the perception of abstract art. However, the contribution of texture perception to aesthetic experience is still understudied. We hypothesized that digital screen-based art, despite its immateriality, might suggest potential sensorimotor stimulation. Original born-digital works of art were selected and manipulated by the artist himself. Five behavioral parameters: Beauty, Liking, Touch, Proximity, and Movement, were investigated under four experimental conditions: Resolution (high/low), and Magnitude (Entire image/detail). These were expected to modulate the quantity of material and textural information afforded by the image. While the Detail condition afforded less content-related information, our results show that it augmented the image's haptic appeal. High Resolution improved the haptic and aesthetic properties of the images. Furthermore, aesthetic ratings positively correlated with sensorimotor ...

In his entire oeuvre Brentano defended a scientific conception of philosophy and advocated the adoption of a rigorous, scientific method. Given this background it might come as a surprise that in his reflections on aesthetics he firmly rejected the classic definition of aesthetics as the science of beauty. This must not be read as an expression of disinterest in – or a dismissal of – aesthetics, though. It is rather an expression of Brentano's view concerning the position of aesthetics in his overall system. He conceived it – on a par with logic and ethics – not as a theoretical science, but as a practical discipline that was rooted in psychology: aesthetics, Brentano suggests, is not constituted by a set of intrinsically related propositions; it rather serves the practical purpose of instructing those who want to experience the beautiful with correct taste or to create works of art. The task of aesthetics is, in other words, to formulate a set of rules or instructions that teach us how to correctly experience beauty, how to come to prefer the more over the less beautiful, but also how to create beauty and how to produce works of art that have the power to bring about aesthetic pleasure in the beholder.

In the past decade, experimental philosophy – the attempt at making progress on philosophical problems using empirical methods – has thrived in a wide range of domains. However, only in recent years has aesthetics succeeded in drawing the attention of experimental philosophers. The present paper constitutes the first survey of these works and of the nascent field of 'experimental philosophy of aesthetics'. We present both recent experimental works by philosophers on topics such as the ontology of aesthetics, aesthetic epistemology, aesthetic concepts, and imagination, as well as research from other disciplines that not only are relevant to philosophy of aesthetics but also open new avenues of research for experimental philosophy of aesthetics. Overall, we conclude that the birth of an experimental philosophy of aesthetics is good news not only for aesthetics but also for experimental philosophy itself, as it contributes to broaden the scope of experimental philosophy.

Judgments of liking and beauty appear to be expressions of a common hedonic state, but they differ in how they engage cognitive processes. We hypothesised that beauty judgments place greater demands on limited executive resources than judgments of liking. We tested this hypothesis by asking two groups of participants to judge works of visual art for their beauty or liking while having to remember the location of 1, 3, or 5 dots in a 4 by 4 matrix. We also examined the effect of individual differences in working memory capacity. Our results show that holding information about the location of the dots in working memory delayed judgments of beauty but not of liking. Also, the greater participants’ working memory capacity, the faster they completed the working memory task when judging liking, but not when judging beauty. Our study provides evidence that judging beauty draws more on working memory resources than judging liking.

Cities are living spaces in which individuals experience with their sensorial properties, collect memories, have visual image, communication and interaction exist. Individual and societies are linked to each other with a language and similarly, cities have pattern system, texture and layers. Therefore, the power of the ability of communication and self-expression of cities can be mentioned. Cities, in historical process, have visual values which they create with the factors such as culture, life style, art, architecture, morphology, climatic conditions. Feeling psychologically and physically good in a certain place is closely related to aesthetic experience and environmental psychology. The main aim of urban design is to realize the multi-component urban variances from ecological balance to socio-cultural life and the spatial designs which the society will feel good by keeping social values. While neuroscience takes decision depending on perception system created by senses, it makes the mechanism and structure of brain observable and visual. The aesthetic experience depended on urban communication and interaction can be expressed as the process which ends when dopamine level increases depending on discovering innovations, feeling pleasure, making a choice. Neuroaesthetics which makes brain's activities measurable while aesthetic perception is experienced has become an interdisciplinary field among health sciences, psychology, art and environmental psychology. The aim of the study is to interpret the urban experience by analysing the studies discussing the subjects of neuroaesthetics, esthetic experience and city together. KENTSEL DENEYİM İLE İLGİLİ NÖROESTETİK ARAŞTIRMALARA YÖNELİK BİR İNCELEME ÖZET: Kentler, duyusal özellikleri ile deneyim yaşanan, anı biriktirebilen, görsel imaja sahip, iletişim ve etkileşim kurulan yaşam alanlarıdır. Kişi ve topluluklar nasıl bir dil birliğine bağlı ise, kentlerin de örüntü sistemi, doku ve katmanları bulunmaktadır. Böylece kentsel sistemin iletişim yeteneğinden ve kendini ifade edebilme gücünden söz edilebilir. Kentlerin tarihsel süreç içinde, kültür, yaşam tarzı, sanat, mimari, morfoloji, iklim koşulları gibi faktörlerle oluşturdukları görsel değerleri bulunmaktadır. Belirli bir mekanda psikolojik ve fizyolojik olarak iyi hissetme, estetik deneyim ve çevresel psikoloji ile yakından ilgilidir. Kentsel tasarımın temel hedefi, ekolojik dengeden sosyo-kültürel yaşama kadar çok bileşenli kentsel değişkenleri, mevcut tarihsel değerleri koruyarak, toplumun kendini iyi hissedeceği mekansal tasarımları gerçekleştirmektir. Nörobilim, duyuların oluşturduğu algı sistemine bağlı kararlar alırken beyin işleyişini ve yapısını, görüntüleme teknikleri ile gözlemlenir ve görselleştirilebilir hale getirmektedir. Kentsel iletişim ve etkileşime bağlı estetik deneyim, yenilikleri keşfetmek, haz duyma, seçim yapma ve bunlara bağlı olarak dopamin seviyesinin yükselmesi ile sonuçlanan süreç olarak ifade edilebilir. Estetik algı deneyimi yaşanırken, beyin faaliyetlerinin ölçümüne olanak tanıyan nöroestetik, sağlık bilimleri, psikoloji, sanat ve çevresel psikoloji arasında

This paper outlines the author’s research focus in Experimental Aesthetics. Based on an analysis of unsolved problems in Experimental Aesthetics, it sketches promising areas of future research.

A thorough analysis of Experimental Aesthetics reveals that some research areas, methods, and types of stimuli have gained much less attention than others. In this paper, a research program for Experimental Aesthetics is outlined that broadens the scope of this relatively young discipline in regard to theoretical problems, and advances the range of available methods.

The paper starts with a short history of Experimental Aesthetics, followed by an analysis of its current strengths and weaknesses. It closes with the proposal of two study series, designed to address methodological problems and gaps, and to focus on (comparatively) neglected areas.

Specifically, for the area of style, there exists a large gap between various long-standing traditions of thorough research with a mostly theoretical focus, and a small and highly dispersed body of empirical and experimental work, which has been rapidly growing over the last years. Whereas the former tradition of stylistics, while theoretically well-founded and with high analytic quality, has paid little attention to empirical verification, the latter (experimental style research, e.g. in cognitive psychology, design research, and marketing) is often not routed in a stable theoretical basis. The proposed research program intends to bridge this gap. All researchers with an interest in empirical and experimental aesthetics are invited to contact me, and discuss further possibilities.

[first published as a research report in 2013]

Studies of visual esthetic preference have shown that people without art training generally prefer representational paintings to abstract paintings. This, however, is not always the case: preferences can sometimes go against this usual tendency. We aimed to explore this issue, investigating the relationship between “unusual responses” and reaction time in an esthetic appreciation task. Results of a behavioral experiment confirmed the trend for laypeople to consider as beautiful mostly representational stimuli and as not beautiful mostly abstract ones (“usual response”). Furthermore, when participants gave unusual responses, they needed longer time, especially when considering abstract stimuli as beautiful. We interpreted this longer time as greater involvement of cognitive mastering and evaluation processes during the unusual responses. Results of an fMRI experiment indicated that the anterior cingulate (ACC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and insula were the main structures involved in this effect. We discuss the possible role of these areas in an esthetic appreciation task.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, researchers in the field of so-called neuoaesthetics recruited research subjects who had been untrained in arts and did not have any pronounced interest in aesthetic matters for their laboratory experiments. The prevalent choice of research subjects has recently changed. Currently, a great number of studies uses subjects who are professionally engaged in the art world. In my paper, I describe, analyze, and critically discuss the two research paradigms regarding the subjects involved in the experiments in neuroaesthetics. I claim that although the more recent one can be generally regarded as an improvement of the research framework, it
underestimates the difficulties brought by the notion of expertise in aesthetic perception.

Die Experimentelle Ästhetik gehört zu den ältesten Forschungsrichtungen der Psychologie. Sie wurde von zwei Pionieren der experimentellen Psychologie, Gustav Theodor Fechner und Wilhelm Wundt, begründet. Allerdings wurde das Potential der Experimentellen Ästhetik für die Kunstwissenschaften bislang kaum ausgeschöpft.

Dies hat vor allem zwei Gründe: Zum einen wird die Experimentelle Ästhetik überwiegend von Psychologen betrieben, die ein Interesse für Kunst und ästhetische Wahrnehmung entwickelt haben. Sie hat den „Sprung über die Disziplinengrenze“ in die Kunstwissenschaften bislang nur ausnahmsweise geschafft. Zum anderen hat sich die Experimentelle Ästhetik bislang oft auf die Untersuchung unmittelbarer Reaktionen beschränkt, insbesondere auf ästhetische Gefallensurteile und auf die Anwendung semantischer Differentiale. Komplexe Interpretationen von Kunstwerken, bei denen oft auch Hintergrundwissen einbezogen wird, sind bislang kaum experimentell untersucht worden und stellen eine methodische Herausforderung dar.

Die vorliegende Projektskizze schlägt vor, eine Reihe von Experimenten durchzuführen, die die Interaktion verschiedener Medien, Sinnesmodalitäten und Kunstformen in multimedialen und performativen Künsten untersucht. Sie wurde in der vorliegenden Form nicht realisiert, kann aber Anregungen für andere Forscher*innen bieten, die sich den performativen Künsten empirisch nähern wollen.

Die Experimentelle Ästhetik ist eines der ältesten Forschungsgebiete der Experimentalpsychologie; ihre Entwicklung begann mit den visionären Ideen Gustav Theodor Fechners in den 1870er Jahren. Lange Zeit blieb sie ein kleines Forschungsgebiet, das zwischen Psychologie, philosophischer Ästhetik und Kunstgeschichte angesiedelt war und von wenigen Forschern vorangetrieben wurde, etwa George Birkhoff und Hans J. Eysenck, die verschiedene ‚ästhetische Maße‘ entwickelten. Ab den späten 1960er Jahren revolutionierte Daniel E. Berlyne das Feld mit der Entwicklung neuer Fragestellungen und Untersuchungsmethoden; in den 1980er Jahren begann dann Colin Martindale, Methoden der computergestützten statistischen Korpusanalyse auf große Mengen von Daten (Texte und Musikstücke) anzuwenden, um ästhetische Entwicklungsgesetze nachzuweisen.

Seit den 1990er Jahren haben sich durch die Integration der Neuroästhetik (z.B. Anjan Chatterjee) und den wachsenden Einfluss von Hypothesen der Evolutionären Ästhetik (z.B. Ellen Dissanayake; Winfried Menninghaus) neue Forschungs¬perspek¬tiven für die Experimentelle Ästhetik ergeben, die nach einer Phase rascher Expansion und methodologischer Entwicklung heute als etabliertes Forschungsgebiet mit eigenen Zeitschriften und Institutionen gelten kann. Zuletzt erfolgte 2013 die Gründung des Max Planck-Instituts für Empirische Ästhetik (MPIEA) in Frankfurt/Main.

Der Verfasser hat (zusammen mit Prof. Emanuele Arielli, IUAV Venedig) einen modalitätsüber¬greifenden experimentellen Ansatz der Stilforschung entwickelt. Stimuli in verschiedenen Kulturbereichen (Architektur, Musik, Design, Literatur u.a.) sind experimentell meist getrennt untersucht worden. Stil dagegen ist ein Aspekt von Kunstwerken und Artefakten, den es in allen Bereichen von Kunst und Kultur gibt und der daher geeignet ist, um modalitätsübergreifende Einflüsse zu untersuchen.

Im Vortrag sollen zwei Studienserien vorgestellt werden: Eine Serie untersuchte die Auswirkungen von kognitiver und emotionaler Empathie auf die Wahrnehmung von Kunstwerken; es handelt sich dabei um Aufmerksamkeit des Beobachters auf mögliche Intentionen und Emotionen der Architekten (Sender des architektonischen Zeichens). Es ergab sich unter anderem, dass gesteigerte Empathie dazu führen kann, dass Stile genauer wahrgenommen und präziser voneinander unterschieden werden. Aus semiotischer Perspektive ist zu fragen, inwieweit hier von einem genaueren Verstehen des architektonischen Zeichens – durch Reflexion über kognitive und emotionale Zustände des Senders und dessen Wirkungsintentionen – ausgegangen werden kann.

Eine zweite Studienserie betrachtete die stilistische Interaktion zwischen Musik und der Wahrnehmung von Architektur.

A simple composition with well-focused center of interest is known to be one of the most important preconditions for the high quality photographs. In digital optics this feature is known as depth of field (Depth Of Field - DOF) and refers to the distance in front of and behind the subject which is said to be "in focus". In the shallow depth of field photographs the object of interest is sharp and the background is blurred, while large depth of field leads to the fact that everything in the frame is sharp enough, and therefore the center of attention is not highlighted. Studies in this research area indicate that the small depth of field photos are often assessed as preferable. Considering that former studies have not explicitly researched this phenomenon, this research was conducted in order to identify dimensions of subjective image experience of the greatest depth of field impact. A total of 46 Belgrade university students were shown sequence of 40 black-and-white art photographs of landscapes (20 of low and 20 of high-DOF). The criterion of image categorization was aperture (small depth-to f5, large depth-through F15). Respondents evaluated each photo on 9 bipolar seven-degree scales that measure three basic dimensions of subjective experience of the form: evaluation (pleasant-unpleasant, happy-sad, clear-overcast), arousal (interesting-boring, complex-simple, versatile-uniform) and regularity (related-unrelated, clear-clear, smooth-tune). The photos were balanced with respect to the other relevant characteristics (ISO value, size, contrast, lightness). Results indicate that the experience of images with large and small DOF differs on dimensions of arousal (t (45) = 8.065, p <0.01) and evaluation (t (45) = 2.023, p <0.05), while on regularity dimension there was no significant difference. Large DOF images were evaluated as more interesting (t (45) = 6.949, p <0.01); complex (t (45) = 8.018, p <0.01) and "diverse" (t (45) = 5.686, p <0.01) , while, on the other hand those with a small DOF were estimated as more pleasant (t (45) = 3.455, p <0.01). These results indicate that the depth of field is primarily associated with the evaluation and arousal as the subjective experience of the form dimensions; photos with a small DOF are seen as simpler, uniform and poorer but cause more intense emotional experience. The findings are consistent with the Berlyne theory of the neural arousal as  the basis of aesthetic preference, according to which complex stimuli tend to be perceived as less pleasant, but more interesting and intriguing at the same time.

This fMRI study investigates the effect of melody on aesthetic experience in listeners naïve to formal musical knowledge. Using simple melodic lines, whose syntactic structure was manipulated, we created systematic acoustic dissonance. Two stimulus categories were created: canonical (syntactically “correct,” in the Western culture) and modified (made of an altered version of the canonical melodies). The stimuli were presented under two tasks: listening and aesthetic judgment. Data were analyzed as a function of stimulus structure (canonical and modified) and stimulus aesthetics, as appraised by each participant during scanning. The critical contrast modified versus canonical stimuli produced enhanced activation of deep temporal regions, including the parahippocampus, suggesting that melody manipulation induced feelings of unpleasantness in the listeners. This was supported by our behavioral data indicating decreased aesthetic preference for the modified melodies. Medial temporal act...

Received her M.A. in restoration from Middle East Technical University, Ankara, and Ph.D. in architecture from the University of Manchester, School of Architecture. Research interests include environmental psychology, user satisfaction in connection with the visual perception of space, flexibility in mass housing, wayfinding, image sensation and perception, corporate image, and computer-aided architectural design.

Este artigo resulta da reflexão sobre a construção da obra “(en)CANTO ESCONDIDO”, uma escultura/instalação que intervém in situ captando as relações dinâmicas entre materiais, paisagem e habitats de Coruche, em Portugal. O projeto apela às relações permeáveis entre natureza e cultura. O fluxo de presença/ausência dos animais que visitaram a escultura eram parte integrante da lógica da instalação. A obra pretendeu potenciar relações de observação dinâmicas em que o observador se tornava observado, constatando a sua evidente parte na natureza. “(en)CANTO ESCONDIDO” é simultaneamente um modelo de observatório urbano das migrações (insetos e pássaros) e uma construção arquitetural que invoca relações de convivência e partilha interespécie/intergeracional que incitam a interação e a descoberta de novas relações. A instalação pretendeu levar os observadores a um espaço de imersão, onde a realidade da natureza circundante se funde nas memórias e ficções de cada visitante. Foi uma experiência de partilha e um exercício estético e de reflexão sobre a sustentabilidade na nossa prática que se tornou uma experiência comunitária de partilha com imenso potencial narrativo e reflexivo.

Recent fMRI studies indicate that the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS) and the mirror system are
involved in analyzing goal-directed actions performed by non-human objects. However, these studies have
some limitations: the animations showed moving shapes that resemble humans and human movement, or
showed the interaction of two moving shapes rather than one alone. This may have prompted participants to
assume a human agent instead of an object. To avoid this potential confound, in this study, animations showed
a small circular shape (agent) jumping toward a bigger circular shape (goal) with an obstacle separating them.
We manipulated agency of the small circular shape by showing its movements as self-propelled (Agent
condition) or as launched by a lever mechanism (Non-agent condition). The small shape succeeded in avoiding
an obstacle and reaching the goal object or failed to do so. Our results showed that goal-directed actions
performed by an agentic shape recruited the mirror system (the inferior parietal lobe and the premotor cortex)
in comparison with shapes that were launched. Success or failure to avoid the obstacle had no effect on these
areas. These results complement and further extend previous findings indicating that the mirror system does
not appear to be selective for biological actions and their goals, nor does it require the presence of a human,
human body parts or human-made objects. Instead, it seems to play a general role in representing goal-directed
actions of agents regardless of their form.

1. Arch Psychol (Frankf). 1983;135(2):149-61. Perceptual rating of paintings from different artistic styles as a function of semantic differential scales and exposure time. Bachmann T, Vipper K. PMID: 6670931 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]. ...

Dans le prolongement des travaux de Fechner en esthétique expérimentale, certains théoriciens tentent aujourd'hui de naturaliser l'esthétique. Il s'agirait par exemple de parvenir à observer certaines manifestations du jugement esthétique. L'objet de notre intervention est d'apporter quelques éléments de réflexions sur un tel mouvement, sur ses intérêts et ses gageures, notamment concernant les prudences épistémologiques requises afin d'éviter une approche réductionniste du jugement esthétique.

Este artigo resulta da reflexão sobre a construção da obra “(en)CANTO ESCONDIDO”, uma escultura/instalação que intervém in situ captando as relações dinâmicas entre materiais, paisagem e habitats de Coruche, em Portugal. O projeto apela às relações permeáveis entre natureza e cultura. O fluxo de presença/ausência dos animais que visitaram a escultura eram parte integrante da lógica da instalação. A obra pretendeu potenciar relações de observação dinâmicas em que o observador se tornava observado, constatando a sua evidente parte na natureza. “(en)CANTO ESCONDIDO” é simultaneamente um modelo de observatório urbano das migrações (insetos e pássaros) e uma construção arquitetural que invoca relações de convivência e partilha interespécie/intergeracional que incitam a interação e a descoberta de novas relações. A instalação pretendeu levar os observadores a um espaço de imersão, onde a realidade da natureza circundante se funde nas memórias e ficções de cada visitante. Foi uma experiênc...

This paper presents the results of two studies conducted at the University IUAV of Venice and focused on the interactions between the aesthetic perception of architecture and background music in audio-visual presentations. We investigated how two musical styles (modern and baroque) influence the judgment of build- ings belonging to the corresponding architectural styles. The two studies therefore connected two different types of artefacts, namely buildings and pieces of music, both of which have conventional meanings and can thus be regarded as semiotic modes, and are also perceived in different perceptual modes, namely visual and auditory perception. The results show that meanings connected with one mode, as measured by ratings on semantic scales, are influenced by another mode.

The haptic turn in fi lm studies, which has been growing in currency since the late 1990s, is gaining support from recent studies in cognitive neuro-science. This article draws on this convergence, as a productive route to investigating experimental cinema. Phil Solomon's concept of "the physical anxiety of form itself" is taken up as a point of departure for close analysis of three fi lms: The Secret Garden (1988), The Snowman (1995), and Walking Distance (1999). The article investigates the artist's optical, chemical, and manual working processes, as well as the specifi c choice of found footage. Relying primarily on Embodied Simulation theory, the focal argument pivots on Solomon's "physical anxiety" as it is instantiated in somatosensory arousal. Solomon's fi lms are analyzed as effective mediators of intersubjective engagement, of the particular "haptic" type. Experimental cinema is thus approached from outside the discursive frame of avant-garde poetics, drawing attention to new perspectives that are currently opening up for moving image studies.

MİMAR ve MİMAR OLMAYAN BENZERLİĞİ METU JFA Advance Online 1 GİRİŞ Bonta'ya (1979) göre, mimarinin anlamı, işlevinden uzaklaştırılabilir veya hatta bazen ayrılabilir; bir yapının gerçek işlevi tasarım sürecinde öngörülenden veya başkaları tarafından algılanandan tamamen farklı olabilir. 1950'lerde Modern Mimarlığa bakıldığında, biçimlerin anlamlarını, işlevleri ile ifade etmeleri gerektiği, farklı bir düşünce ile yapılanın bir kusur olarak algılandığı görülmektedir. 1960'lardan sonra Modern Mimarlık ustalarının mimarileri sadece anlamsal olarak ele alınmıştır (Bonta, 1979). Biçimin ne olduğu ve belirli bir sosyal grup için ne anlama geldiği arasındaki fark burada temel anahtardır. 1960'larda pek çok eleştirmen mimarinin olduğundan farklı anlamlar ifade ettiğini kabul ettiler. Postmodernizmde "mimari kullanıcısıyla daha fazla iletişim kurmalıdır" düşüncesi temel alınmış, bunun için de tasarımcının herkesin anlayabileceği dili kullanması önerilmiştir. Günümüz Postmodern Mimarlığı iletişim üzerinedir; bunu da önceki dönemlerden biçemler ödünç alarak veya yakın çevresindeki yapıların ayrıntılarına başvurarak gerçekleştirir. Örneğin, yeni konut gelişimi Neo-Georgian Dönemi'ne ait olabilir veya sanayi öncesi dönemin geleneksel mimarisinden bir takım elemanları ödünç alabilir. Elemanlar çoğunlukla yapının işlevi ile çok az ilişkili ya da hiç ilişkisiz bir maske etkisindedir (Conway, 1995). Bu etki mimarların iletişim adına istemeyerek başvurdukları bir durum olarak görülebilir. Oysaki asıl istenen tek taraflı bir memnuniyet değil, mimar ve mimar olmayanların kesiştiği paydaları, benzerlikleri yakalamaktır. Mimarlıkta çağrışımsal anlam belki de bu farklılığı azaltarak, benzerlikleri ortaya çıkaracak bir araç olarak görülebilmesi açısından önemlidir. Bu çalışmada tasarıma bir girdi olan çağrışımsal anlamın mimar ve mimar olmayanlar tarafından nasıl algılandığı tartışılmaktadır. İnsanların değer yargıları ve bu değer yargılarını etkileyen etkenler irdelenmiştir. Çalışma iki aşamalı olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Birincisinde gruplar arasındaki ortalamalar alınmıştır. Böylelikle görüntü ve anlamın örtüştüğü imgeler ve

This article reports the results of a study that investigated different aspects of the aesthetic perception of literary style. Excerpts from novels belonging to two broadly defined literary style categories, namely modern and postmodern style, were judged by the participants. Semantic scales corresponding to perceptual qualities of modern and postmodern literature were used. The results indicate that these scales can measure perceptual differences between the selected novels, and that the two novels categorized as modern were experienced differently from those categorized as postmodern. Some of the scales also predicted aesthetic preference for novels. Rating differences on the two scales incoherent—coherent and formal—colloquial predicted the ability to attribute novel excerpts. This finding seems to indicate that the ability to distinguish styles in regard to perceptual qualities helps readers to judge certain similarities of novels.

This paper will offer an overview of the pioneering research of Swedish-born psychologist Carl Seashore (1866–1949), who in 1897, after completing his dissertation, went to direct the Laboratory of Psychology at the State University of Iowa, where he remained for half a century. At the University of Iowa Seashore succeeded in establishing an important research group where many young psychologists started their careers (Miles 1956). As it was normal during the first decades of the institutionalization of experimental psychology in the United States, Seashore’s group was involved in a variety of research subjects, among which the experimental study of aesthetics, and especially the psychology of music (Seashore 1938, 1947). In particular, Seashore was responsible for the development of a series of tests for measuring musical talent, called Seashore’s Measures of Musical Talent, which were subsequently adopted by many schools across the country, and later in other countries (including Spain).
Seashore’s tests consisted in a series of phonographs accompanied by written instructions, which aimed at evaluating children’s physiological and psychological ability for learning music by measuring specific auditory and musical skills, e.g. their ability to distinguish pitch, volume, rhythm, etc. (Seashore 1919, Cary 1922). The paper will address practical aspects about the way in which Seashore’s group conducted research on musical talent at the psychological laboratory (e.g. which sounds were used, which research subjects were tested, etc.), and about the way in which the tests were used at schools. This testing effort must be located within the history of music aptitude testing (Humphreys 1998), and within the contemporary interest in extending the appreciation of classical music in the United States (Chybowski 2008). On the other hand, Seashore’s tests may also be related to the early educational and entertaining applications of the Edison phonograph, and the way in which new audio technologies were transforming and standardizing listening at the time (Hui 2012).
The place of Seashore within the history of music psychology during the first half of the 20th century (Gjerdingen 2002) will be considered, underlining the originality of his ideas, his technological inventiveness, but also his awkward position among different approaches to the discipline. Central to Seashore’s endeavour is the notion of ‘musical talent’ (or ‘musical talents’), which this paper will reassess, taking into account not only past and present criticisms of his understanding of it (Mursell 1934; Gordon 1998), but also the current debates about the place of the concept of ‘musicality’ in music education (Hallam, Cross and Thaut 2009). Besides the many challenging questions that Seashore’s work raises about music education, for instance about the acquisition (or inheritance) of musical skills, or the relationship between receptive and expressive musical abilities, this paper intends to present it mainly as an episode of the relatively obscure history of experimental aesthetics (Malin 2011).

Contrast effects occur when an individual judges a target stimulus as being further removed from its position on some dimension than it actually is, due to exposure to a context stimulus presenting an opposite value on this dimension. In assimilation effects, on the contrary, the reverse occurs such that judgment about the target is brought nearer to the context stimulus. The objective of this article is to verify whether assimilation and contrast can be observed in aesthetic evaluation of visual artworks. The results demonstrated that when the context stimulus was formally similar to one of two artworks used in the comparison (the target) but aesthetically slightly inferior to it, an assimilation effect was observed. In contrast, when the context stimulus was formally similar to the target but definitely of inferior aesthetic quality, a contrast effect was observed. These results demonstrate the impact of contextual factors on aesthetic judgment.