Environmental Restoration

The reuse of treated wastewater effluents from wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) is a recent practice in the environmental restoration of marginal areas in combination with tree and shrub planting. In urban areas, an integrated approach to the application of this practice implies (a) reuse of treated domestic wastewater for irrigation of hardy plant species and (b) design of environmentally friendly outdoor landscape including the planting of species acceptable for irrigation with such kind of wastewater. The application of this practice in urban areas is possible through the combined reuse of treated municipal wastewater effluents inside buildings as well as towards the environmental configuration of outdoor spaces in combination with the concurrent planting of hardy plant species and their parallel irrigation with such effluents, within the scope of an integrated, complete reuse. For the successful application of such a plan, it is important to continuously monitor a number of pa...

Agricultural development of the floodplain of the Upper St. Johns River resulted in significant "reclamation" of floodplain wetlands, with associated losses of habitat for wetland dependent wildlife, flood water storage, and degradation of water quality. The loss of floodplain water storage and the presence of agricultural development within the floodplain resulted in both increasing damages associated with flooding events and increasing water supply problems during dry years and seasons. In the late 1940s flooding associated with hurricanes caused extensive damage in southern Florida. In 1949 the U.S. Congress authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) to initiate a project to address water resource issues within the south half of the Florida peninsula, including the Upper St. Johns River Basin. The Florida Legislature created the Central and South Florida Flood Control District as the local sponsor for this project. Since then, there have been numerous plans for restoration of the Upper St. Johns River and the project has evolved as man's understanding of the ecological consequences of hydrologic manipulation has improved. In 2008, the Upper St. Johns Restoration Project received international acclaim when the St. Johns River Water Management District (District) and Corps were awarded the International Thiess Riverprize for outstanding river restoration. This paper will discuss the planning and implementation of a restoration project designed to provide multiple benefits, including water quality improvement, improved flood management, improved water supply, maintenance of minimum river flows, improved habitat for wildlife and public recreational opportunities. The paper will also discuss the importance of interdisciplinary planning and implementation, and adaptive management, utilizing improving scientific and engineering knowledge and tools to ensure that restoration activities accomplish the public objectives of the project.

The positive psychological and physical health effects associated with exposure to natural environments are well recognised. However, previous research in this field has focused almost exclusively upon the visual aspects of the environment, largely ignoring the role of the other senses. This paper reassesses these findings by examining the role senses other than sight play in blind people’s experiences of natural environments. Six people with visual impairments were interviewed regarding their experience of natural environments; interview transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis. The analysis revealed that if the participants felt safe, they reported experiencing restorative effects in the majority of natural environments. Three main themes that contribute to an understanding of the processes involved in psychological restoration emerged: restoration, challenges, sources of experiences. Environmental restoration was reported by participants as being mostly experienced through sound and to a lesser extent through touch and smell.

The interaction of coastal and submarine morphology with the hydrodynamic regimes exerts a control on coastal dynamic processes, conditioning the dispersion of sediments and potential pollutants existing in the area. Thus, the study of such parameters is useful in order to define environmental threats. Within the submerged sector of the Bagnoli coast and particularly in the southern part of the investigated area, there are sediment groups composed of very fine sands located in low-energy zones due to wave refraction and diffraction; they can also be found on the sea bottom and on the manmade structures typical of this zone. These areas show high pollutant levels of N, P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cd, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). The northern area, a place of high-energy hydrodynamic processes, also shows high concentration levels of pollutants due to the presence of secondary cell circulation. Morphological research and analysis of textural characteristics of bottom sediments along the Bagnoli coast allowed the actual processes and their evolution in space and time to be defined. It has also been possible to correlate such processes to the seabed morphology system, the wave formations which affect the coast, the complex system of sediment transport, as well as to the man-made interventions in the area. The results of recent chemical analyses of beach sediments and bottom sediments off the Bagnoli coast were also incorporated. They prove the presence of heavy metals, PAHs and PCBs in high and sometimes very high concentrations. Finally, based on the results of research and analyses, a hypothesis for an intervention for environmental restoration has been formulated in order to renaturalise the coast through dredging and treatment of the sand, both on the seabed and on the emerged beach.

A regional greenway network is proposed to reconnect ecologically the fragmented landscapes of south Florida. The natural landscapes of the region have been progressively fragmented on account of agricultural and urban development. It is proposed that the regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees, which was originally developed to facilitate agriculture and urbanization, be ecologically reclaimed and managed to become a network of environmental restoration and cultural opportunity for south Florida. The existing regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees is restrictively underutilized. In general, the value of utility and transportation corridors as natural and cultural resources has not been fully appreciated in south Florida. Their value as resources lies in the ample opportunity they offer for landscape revegetation, wetland reclamation, habitat restoration, and community education and recreation. In particular, the existing regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees represents an extensive resource that can naturally and culturally link the fragmented landscapes of south Florida while maintaining flood control and water conservation. A tripartite method, based on the ecological principles of island biogeography theory and landscape network theory, is used to consider the geographical, morphological, and topological impact on natural diversity and cultural use. Respectively, the effects of network corridor area, network corridor width, and network connectivity and circuitry are described, analyzed, and evaluated for their potential effect on natural diversity and cultural use along the existing regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees. Results indicate that the proposed regional greenway network is characterized by a large area, broad extent, morphological diversity, and topological connectivity. Variation in greenway structure and function along the regional network can accommodate a multitude of environmental concerns and cultural needs faced by the region. The regional greenway network affords ample flexibility, with three types of corridors (line, strip, and stream) within four types of context (urban, suburban, rural, and natural). Recommendations are made to appraise opportunities further at the regional level, conduct ecological corridor research at the landscape scale, and develop a greenway prototype at a specific community site.

This paper compares the ethical and political issues raised by two environmental restoration schemes in England: those of the River Skerne and the A33 near Jwyford Down. Neither example fully restores a 'natural' condition, nor tries to, but both raise questions about how far restoration management.

One of the key conclusions is expected to be the realization that environmental restoration is not only possible but also highly achievable if properly designed and planned for. This research is designed to heighten the contemporary goals of ecologically responsive and environmentally responsible design practices. Another expected outcome is the development of a viable methodology for modeling and simulating environmentally restorative design agenda. And finally, through in depth analyses and comparisons of results the proposed strategies, scenarios, and factors are evaluated for restorative significance and effectiveness.

Infrastructure is the foundation on which industrialized economies are built. As global population has grown and as economies of many regions have expanded, the quantity and scale of infrastructure has increased dramatically. Although some infrastructure is used to move people and commodities, much infrastructure is also used to control natural processes or to extract natural resources. Thus, understanding environmental change necessitates understanding the role of infrastructure in the environment. We review available inventories of infrastructure and current understanding of environmental impacts for different types of infrastructure. We also examine the current status of aging infrastructure and the potential environmental impacts and benefits of infrastructure decommissioning. Finally, we briefly review policies that have facilitated or inhibited infrastructure decommissioning or environmentally oriented modifications of infrastructure operation.

The need for Solid Recovered Fuels (SRF) standardization becomes gradually essential in European Member States and especially in regions, where the development of a specific market for such fuels is under development. The promotion of standardization practices facilitates their public acceptance, supports the development of quality assurance mechanisms and enhances the marketability of the particular waste streams as fuels with a high biogenic content. In the present work the results of an extensive campaign of sampling and analysis of SRF produced in a material recovery facility (MRF) in Athens Greece are presented. The facility is operated by EPANA S.A. and produces about 15.000 t of SRF per year derived from packaging waste. The particular quantity is currently not thermally utilized in industrial applications, despite its high quality. In this sense the standardization will enhance the fuel's marketability and public acceptance. Sampling and analysis of SRF are carried out according to the standard CEN TC 343. The presented data include the results of six months sampling campaign started in June 2011. Proximate and ultimate analyses of the fuel samples are carried out according to European Norms CEN TC 343. Furthermore the chlorine and heavy metals content is determined. The aforementioned analyses and in particular net calorific value (NCV), Hg and Cl are necessary for the classification of the produced fuel in the as an SRF of a certain class in accordance with CEN TC 343. In order to demonstrate a novel concept for the thermal utilization of the specific waste recovered fuel, a lab scale fluidized bed gasifier is currently being developed. In the present work the results of the process calculations for the des ign and dimensioning of the gasifier are presented. The aforementioned calculations are based on thermodynamic equilibrium modeling. The analysis of the waste recovered fuel is used as input parameter and the composition and heating value of the produced syngas is then calculated in dependence of several operational parameters, including the operational temperature and the air fraction. Summing up, the development of standardization practices for Solid Recovered Fuels (SRF) is expected to lead to increased acceptability of the particular fuel types and to the development of quality assurance schemes for the certification of their fuel properties. Furthermore, SRF gasification is considered as a beneficial technology for the thermal utilization of waste derived fuels in terms of technical and environmental related aspects. In this framework process modeling is used for the initial design of the process installation.

Continuous deterioration of the natural resource base has become a serious threat to both the ecological systems and economic production in Ethiopia. Many of these problems have been attributed directly or indirectly to the rapid dwindling of the country's forest cover which is associated with unsustainable forest use and management. Closing community woodlands from human and livestock intervention to promote natural regeneration of forests has been one of the environmental restoration strategies pursued in the degraded highland areas of northern Ethiopia. However, local pressure to use reforested community lands for economic benefit has become a major threat to forest sustainability.

Extracellular polysaccharides are as structurally and functionally diverse as the bacteria that synthesise them. They can be present in many forms, including cell-bound capsular polysaccharides, unbound "slime", and as O-antigen component of lipopolysaccharide, with an equally wide range of biological functions. These include resistance to desiccation, protection against nonspecific and specific host immunity, and adherence. Unsurprisingly then, much effort has been made to catalogue the enormous structural complexity of the extracellular polysaccharides made possible by the wide assortment of available monosaccharide combinations, non-carbohydrate residues, and linkage types, and to elucidate their biosynthesis and export. In addition, the work is driven by the commercial potential of these microbial substances in food, pharmaceutics and biomedical industries. Most recently, bacteria-mediated environmental restoration and bioleaching have been attracting much attention owing to their potential to remediate environmental effluents produced by the mining and metallurgy industries. In spite of technological advances in chemistry, molecular biology and imaging techniques that allowed for considerable expansion of knowledge pertaining to the bacterial surface polysaccharides, current understanding of the mechanisms of synthesis and regulation of extracellular polysaccharides is yet to fully explain their structural intricacy and functional variability.

Rewilding is a strategy for the conservation of complete, self-sustaining ecosystems, primarily involving the protection and, where necessary, reintroduction, of populations of keystone species in large, connected reserve networks. A potential method of preserving ecosystem functions and biodiversity, it is now receiving a great deal of practical and political attention, particularly in North America. In Scotland, where many native species

The aim of the study was to investigate petroleum waste remediation and toxicity reduction by five bacterial strains: Ralstonia picketti SRS (BP-20), Alcaligenes piechaudii SRS (CZOR L-1B), Bacillus subtilis (I 0 -1a), Bacillus sp. (T-1), and Bacillus sp. (T 0 -1), previously isolated from petroleum-contaminated soils. Petroleum hydrocarbons were significantly degraded (91%) by the mixed bacterial cultures in 30 days (reaching up to 29% in the first 72 h). Similarly, the toxicity of the biodegraded petroleum waste decreased 3-fold after 30 days. This work shows the influence of bacteria on hydrocarbon degradation and associated toxicity, and its dependence on the specific microorganisms present. The ability of these mixed cultures to degrade hydrocarbons and reduce toxicity makes them candidates for environmental restoration applications at other hydrocarbon-contaminated environments.

Long term monitoring optimization (LTMO) has proved a valuable method for reducing costs, assuring proper remedial decisions are made, and streamlining data collection and management requirements over the life of a monitoring program. A three-tiered approach for LTMO has been developed that combines a qualitative evaluation with an evaluation of temporal trends in contaminant concentrations, and a spatial statistical analysis. The results of the three evaluations are combined to determine the degree to which a monitoring program addresses the monitoring program objectives, and a decision algorithm is applied to assess the optimal frequency of monitoring and spatial distribution of the components of the monitoring network. Ultimately, application of the three-tiered method can be used to identify potential modifications in sampling locations and sampling frequency that will optimally meet monitoring objectives. To date, the three-tiered approach has been applied to monitoring programs at 18 sites and has been used to identify a potential average reduction of over one-third of well sampling events per year. This paper discusses the three-tiered approach methodology, including data compilation and site screening, qualitative evaluation decision logic, temporal trend evaluation, and spatial statistical analysis, illustrated using the results of a case study site. Additionally, results of multiple applications of the three-tiered LTMO approach are summarized, and future work is discussed.

In the 1980s, Professor Akira Miyawaki introduced a new and innovative reforestation approach in Japan with the challenge to restore indigenous ecosystems, and maintaining global environments, including disaster prevention and carbon dioxide (CO2) mitigation. Here, natural vegetation successional stages (from bare soil to mature forest) are practically forced and reproduced, accelerating natural successional times. The Miyawaki method has been applied in the Far East, Malaysia, and South America; results have been very impressive, allowing quick environmental restorations of strongly degraded areas. However, these applications have always been made on sites characterized by high precipitation. The same method has never been used in a Mediterranean context distinguished by summer aridity and risk of desertification. A first test was carried out by the University of Tuscia, Department of Forest and Environment (DAF), 11 years ago in Sardinia (Italy) on an area where traditional reforestation methods had failed. For an appropriate Miyawaki application on this site, the original method was modified while maintaining its theoretical principles. Results obtained 2 and 11 years after planting are positive: having compared the traditional reforestation techniques, plant biodiversity using the Miyawaki method appears very high, and the new coenosis (plant community) was able to evolve without further operative support after planting. Therefore, the implementation of supplementary technique along with cost reduction might provide a new and innovative tool to foresters and ecological engineering experts for Mediterranean environmental reforestation program.

Visando prevenir os riscos dos solos e aqüíferos poluídos com diversos tipos de
contaminantes, os quais podem representar um problema ambiental que afeta a
saúde humana, a produtividade de solos agrícolas e a estabilidade de ecossistemas
naturais, vários trabalhos de pesquisa vêm procurando definir novos procedimentos
para a determinação da técnica de remediação mais adequada e eficiente. O uso de
sistemas baseados em plantas para a remediação de solos contaminados
transformou-se em uma área de estudo científico intensa, nos anos recentes. É
necessário, antes de tudo, identificar e selecionar plantas que cresçam bem em
solos contaminados, e que tenham bom desempenho na remoção dos
contaminantes.
A fitorremediação é uma técnica que utiliza plantas como o agente de
descontaminação do solo e da água. É uma alternativa aos métodos convencionais
de remoção física da camada contaminada do solo, ou do tratamento da água ou do
solo com diversas tecnologias, como lavagem dos sedimentos, biorremediação, etc.,
sendo vantajosa principalmente por apresentar potencial para tratamento in situ e
por ser economicamente viável. Além disso, após extrair os contaminantes do solo,
as plantas os armazenam em seus tecidos, permitindo um tratamento subseqüente,
ou os metabolizam, podendo, em alguns casos, transformá-los em produtos menos
tóxicos ou mesmo inócuos. A fitorremediação pode ser empregada em solos
contaminados por substâncias inorgânicas e/ou orgânicas. Resultados promissores
já foram obtidos para metais pesados, hidrocarbonetos, agrotóxicos, explosivos,
solventes clorados e resíduos tóxicos da indústria.
É feita uma apresentação do estado da arte em relação às técnicas de
fitorremediação utilizadas para remediar os problemas de solos contaminados com
diversos tipos de poluição, envolvendo substâncias inorgânicas e poluentes
orgânicos.

Are  the  urban design and planning  strategies  of  the prominent environmental  performance  assessment  systems appropriate methodologies to not only reverse the accumulating degradation in the natural environment but also to restore the deterioration caused by the multiplying human colonization? This study briefly reviews the literature that compares various environmental assessment goals, limitations, criteria, indicators, certification and results found in a number of  assessment and rating systems. It briefly discusses the need for  sustainable environmental design and planning strategies to address regenerativeness and restorativeness. Transforming  sustainable or green design goals into regenerative or restorative ones appears to require a higher degree of conceptual and practical commitment to facilitate such a shift in a timely manner.

The incorporation of the intergenerational equity objective has rendered the traditional Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) approach obsolete for the evaluation of projects presenting an important number of environmental externalities and for those whose impacts extend throughout a long period of time.

you all brought unique strengths and perspectives, and truly made this an interdisciplinary project. In particular, Laurie Richmond spent many hours with me, honing my writing, helping me frame my arguments, and keeping me on schedule. To Dina Moore and the members of YES, I offer my appreciation both for your dedication to the land and for your willingness to work with me. I would also like to thank the agency folks who took the time to speak with me. To my co-workers at the Cultural Resources Facility, Bill, Mel, Matt, Kim, Jamie and Nancy: thank you so much for picking up my slack, for your willingness to engage with the concepts I was bringing up, and suffering through my endless email attachments of interesting articles on heritage! I am grateful to my family, and their support of education. A special acknowledgement to Oma, Alice Walter and my Grandpa, Harold Wiese, whose financial contributions helped ease the burden of higher education. Bryan, Acacia and Veda, thank you for your love, support, encouragement and patience, I am lucky to have you. v

RESUMO. Em regiões tropicais, onde interações entre animais e plantas são muito comuns, a efetividade das técnicas de restauração ambiental depende dos animais presentes na área e disponíveis para dispersão de frutas ou sementes. Desta forma, o monitoramento da fauna é um bom indicador do processo de regeneração da mata. Nosso objetivo foi verificar se áreas regeneradas por diferentes métodos na ARIE Morro da Vargem, Ibiraçu, Espírito Santo, apresentam diferenças na riqueza e na composição de espécies e de guildas tróficas de morcegos. Foram realizadas 29 noites de coleta (julho de 2006 a julho 2007), sendo 6 noites de captura na Mata (fragmento florestal), 6 noites no Camará (regeneração com intervenção), 8 no Bosque (regeneração com intervenção) e 9 na Capoeira (regeneração natural). Foram obtidas 564 capturas e 26 espécies. A riqueza estimada foi maior para o Bosque e Camará do que para a Capoeira e a Mata. As áreas não são diferentes com relação à composição de espécies e de guildas tróficas de morcegos. A menor riqueza de espécies na área de Mata pode ser explicada por esta ser um fragmento florestal restrito ao topo de um morro. Já no Bosque as diferentes espécies vegetais plantadas podem fornecer recursos para os morcegos em boa parte do ano. A extensa área de vida das espécies de morcegos e a proximidade entre as áreas comparadas podem ser algumas explicações para a similaridade da composição de espécies e de guildas entre as áreas amostradas.

For decades, industry groups and many media outlets have propagated the notion that environmental protection is bad for
business. However, missing from this public debate has been a detailed accounting of the U.S. economic output and employment
that are created through conservation, restoration, and mitigation actions, which we call the “Restoration Economy.” In this paper, we review related literature, including 14 local and state-level case studies of privately funded environmental restoration projects.We also review federal and state government programs that fund restoration throughout the United States, revealing the complex nature of this sector.We find growing evidence that the restoration industry not only protects public environmental
goods but also contributes to national economic growth and employment, supporting as many as 33 jobs per $1 million invested, with an employment multiplier of between 1.48 and 3.8 (the number of jobs supported by every restoration job) and an
output multiplier of between 1.6 and 2.59 (multiplier for total economic output from investments). The existing literature
also shows that restoration investments lead to significant positive economic and employment impacts and appear to have
particularly localized benefits, which can be attributed to the tendency for projects to employ local labor and materials. While
these initial figures are promising, the extent of environmental restoration activities and benefits at a national level is not yet
well understood. Our findings reveal the need for a methodological framework for more accurately and broadly estimating the size of the U.S. restoration sector and its impact on the U.S. economy.

The Restorative Urban Design Model springs from the direly urgent need to develop multi‐disciplinary, comprehensive, coordinated, concerted, and multi‐faceted real world regulations on urban development and redevelopments in order to stop further invasion of and uncontrolled harm to Nature; to contain and neutralize human development impacts to the environment – at its source – on project site; to restore rehabilitative balances and cycles of natural ecosystems; to integrate urban development process with restoration of Nature Environment. The Model identifies and promotes implementation of a series of urban design principles aimed at restoring environment through application of key strategies within Atmosphere, Ecology, Water, Energy, Mobility, Resources, Wastes, Materials, Places, Community as well as Values. The Restorative Model also demonstrates, in concept, the differentials that would be achieved at applying these strategies at neighborhood scales.

Hydrocarbons released into ecosystems have led to environmental pollution and generated a serious threat to human health. Bioremediation is an effective method to break down hazardous hydrophobic environmental contaminants with avoiding economic and technical disadvantages. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of Bacillus subtilis SE1, a lipopeptide biosurfactant producer isolated from a petrochemical contaminated soil, on biodegradation of gasoline, diesel oil, crude oil and used engine oil in soil microcosms. During 35-day incubation, numbers of soil bacteria in petrochemical contaminated soils with B. subtilis SE1 addition significantly (P < 0.05) increased in comparison with the oil-free soils. Bioaugmentation of SE1 strain also produced a significant (P < 0.05) increase in percent reduction of total phenolic content in oil-polluted soils as compared to the control soils at the end of experiment. This study indicates that B. subtilis SE1 can be a promising hydrocarbon degrader for in situ bioremediation of soil environment polluted with petroleum and petrochemical products.

Issued by Sandia National Laboratories, operated for the United States Department of Energy by Sandia Corporation. NOTICE This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government, any agency thereof or any of their contractors or subcontractors. The views and opinions expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government, any agency thereof or any of their contractors.

A regional greenway network is proposed to reconnect ecologically the fragmented landscapes of south Florida. The natural landscapes of the region have been progressively fragmented on account of agricultural and urban development. It is proposed that the regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees, which was originally developed to facilitate agriculture and urbanization, be ecologically reclaimed and managed to become a network of environmental restoration and cultural opportunity for south Florida. The existing regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees is restrictively underutilized. In general, the value of utility and transportation corridors as natural and cultural resources has not been fully appreciated in south Florida. Their value as resources lies in the ample opportunity they offer for landscape revegetation, wetland reclamation, habitat restoration, and community education and recreation. In particular, the existing regional system of drainage canals and reservoir levees represents an extensive resource that can naturally and culturally link the fragmented landscapes of south Florida while maintaining flood control and water conservation.

The U.S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the Department of Energy and other Federal, State, and local agencies, is evaluating the hydrogeologic characteristics of the Death Valley regional ground-water flow system. The ground-water flow system covers and area of about 100,000 square kilometers from latitude 35 degrees to 38 degrees 15 minutes North to longitude 115 degrees to 118 degrees

In southern India, tens of thousands of village-level irrigation systems ('tanks' and feeder channels) are in disrepair. This paper analyses the results of a local NGO effort that focused on awareness-raising and advice to bring about self-sustained community action for irrigation system restoration. After designing a model structure that contains both motivational and capacity (social capital) factors, it is found that (pre-existing) collective social capital, as measured through five simple indicators, strongly correlates with success of the NGO strategy. The intensity of the NGO's effort shows a negative correlation with success, however. The discussion focuses on issues of social capital definition and measurement and the practical implications of the concept for environmental action, especially the difference between using existing social capital for environmental management versus the construction of social capital as a basis for later self-sustained environmental work. Keywords Collective action AE Common property resource AE Environmental restoration AE India AE Irrigation AE Social capital 1 Introduction Even though Adam Smith recognized that capital comprises all the ''productive abilities'' of human groups, it is not until recent that the term capital may refer to more than financial and physical stocks (Inkeles, 2000). At present, the concept of Readers should send their comments on this paper to [email protected] within 3 months of publication of this issue.

In 2008, federal regulators issued formal regulations governing wetland and stream mitigation in an effort to improve ecological quality and reduce uncertainty during the mitigation process. In this article, we explore how the federal regulations (“the Rule”) reduce compliance risks assumed by regulators when issuing permits that require wetland and stream mitigation under the U.S. Clean Water Act. Regulatory risk involves the timeliness and adequacy of mitigation provided for permitted impacts. The Rule attempts to accomplish this by requiring more consistent implementation of compensatory mitigation projects in general, largely through a series of provisions that create equivalent ecological and mitigation standards for all sources of mitigation (mitigation banks, permittees and in-lieu fee programs). Between April–May 2009, we administered a national, web-based survey of mitigation bankers and other mitigation professionals (N = 156 responses; 47.7% response rate). Our results reveal banker perceptions that several Corps districts have incompletely implemented equivalent standards, and therefore a variety of barriers to abating regulatory risk continue to exist 1 year after the regulations took effect. Qualitative analysis of respondent comments revealed the reasoning behind these perceptions, including perceptions that regulatory conflicts of interest involving close relationships with in-lieu fee (ILF) programs, as well as regulatory preference for NGO and government sponsored mitigation. Based on our results, it appears that Rule clarification may be necessary to further reduce regulatory uncertainty and promote high quality compensation.

This article addresses the societal and cultural aspects of bioreserves and environmental restoration programmes. It begins with a discussion of bioreserves, then uses the example of a Man and Biosphere (MAB) inspired study of the US Everglades to illustrate how land has been shaped historically by culture and technology. It then demonstrates how current conflicts of values and culture, from both inside and outside the region, from interest groups with both pragmatic and emotional stances, are determining the future of an environment-the Everglades. The article thereby shows how human values and perceptions impact on the development of a sustainable Everglades, using the findings of surveys and public meetings to highlight the interests of the competing communities, ethnic and interest groups involved.

The Alaska North Slope offers one of the best prospects for increasing U.S. domestic oil and gas production. However, this region faces some of the greatest environmental and logistical challenges to oil and gas production in the world. A number of studies have shown that weather patterns in this region are warming, and the number of days the tundra surface is adequately frozen for tundra travel each year has declined. Operators are not allowed to explore in undeveloped areas until the tundra is sufficiently frozen and adequate snow cover is present. Spring breakup then forces rapid evacuation of the area prior to snowmelt. Using the best available methods, exploration in remote arctic areas can take up to three years to identify a commercial discovery, and then years to build the infrastructure to develop and produce. This makes new exploration costly. It also increases the costs of maintaining field infrastructure, pipeline inspections, and environmental restoration efforts. New technologies are needed, or oil and gas resources may never be developed outside limited exploration stepouts from existing infrastructure.

The studies and findings discussed in this chapter of the 2006 South Florida Environmental Report-Volume I are presented within four main fields: (1) wildlife ecology, (2) plant ecology, (3) ecosystem ecology, and (4) landscape ecology. Programs of study were based on the short-term and long-term needs of the South Florida Water Management District (District or SFWMD) including operations, regulations, permitting, environmental monitoring, Everglades Forever Act mandates, and the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan. Wildlife: Monitoring of wading bird nesting success is a coordinated effort between the District, Everglades National Park, the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, University of Florida, the National Audubon Society, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Each year, this coordination results in the production of the Annual Wading Bird Report. The estimated number of wading bird nests in South Florida in 2005 was 31,869. This is a 41 percent reduction in nest numbers from last year's relatively successful season and a 54 percent decrease from the banner year of 2002, which was the best nesting year on record in South Florida since the 1940s. While the 2005 estimate is relatively high compared to the average of recent decades, it represents a sharp divergence from the general rising trend in annual numbers of wading bird nests recorded since 1999, and this decline in nest numbers was observed among all wading bird species. Reduced prey availability, as a result of anthropogenic changes in hydrology, is considered the primary factor responsible for the decline in Everglades wading bird populations. This year, two new programs to evaluate how aquatic organisms interact with hydrology were initiated. A crayfish study conducted at the Loxahatchee Impoundment Landscape Assessment (LILA) research facility at the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee Wildlife Refuge found that crayfish respond to the seasonal drawdown by remaining on the ridges and safe from wading bird foraging until water levels become extremely low. As water levels continue to decline, they move into the sloughs where they subsequently become more available to foraging wading birds. The second new program, a spatially intensive survey of exotic fishes in the vicinity of the L-67 canal, suggests that at least two species-and possibly a third-are using marsh habitat for refuge or feeding, and that future studies will be needed to focus on the ecological factors determining the distribution of nonindigenous fish species and to reevaluate species-specific physiological tolerances to seasonal minimum temperature. 6-1 Chapter 6 Volume I: The South Florida Environment Plants: Previous Everglades Consolidated Reports (ECRs) discussed how plants allocate biomass, hydrologic tolerances, competition for nutrients, and physiological mechanisms under various soil and water conditions. The District is beginning to use this information at its weekly operational meetings where issues of water supply, flood control, and environmental restoration are discussed. Consequently, plant studies continue. During this year, the District evaluated an experiment conducted at the LILA facility to assess the drought and flood tolerances of small seedlings of eight dominant tree island species. The survival rate was 39 percent and 37 percent for the three-month drought and the six-month flood, respectively, suggesting that recruitment of seedlings is slightly more sensitive to drought than to flooding. The District also completed a vegetation analysis of half of all the tree islands in the critical-and hydrologically significantregion of Water Conservation Area 3B (WCA-3B). Ecosystem: Previous ECRs have indicated that downstream impacts of Stormwater Treatment Areas 2 and 5 have led to an increase in hydroperiods and water depths, and to more desirable plant species. This trend has continued, in which there has been a doubling of the mean water depth from 0.4 to 0.8 feet due to inflow restoration and better management of the G-402 outflow structure. However, analysis of surface water quality shows that phosphorus concentrations are elevated near the inflow, and continued monitoring of the system is recommended. The ecology of tree islands is also still under investigation. Previous tree island studies found a significant decline in the abundance and aerial extent of these biodiversity "hot spots." To understand the mechanisms underpinning this decline, the District's tree island research continues to focus on (1) characterizing the existing vegetation, (2) creating a baseline dataset, (3) relating patterns of distribution and abundance to hydrology, and (4) evaluating performance measures and alternatives for preservation and restoration. This year, the results from belowground root analysis on tree islands located on WCA-3 were completed. These data indicate that contrary to what was anticipated, and despite the stress of low oxygen, the moderate and long hydroperiod islands had significantly greater amounts of live roots than the short hydroperiod islands. These roots appear to be an adaptive phenotypic response to the stress of flooding. Landscape: The District is continuing to observe the total hydro-biogeochemical system of the Everglades Protection Area. Previous studies of soil nutrients have been significantly updated this year with the completion of a comprehensive spatial analysis of the upper 30 centimeters of soil across the entire Everglades. This chapter also presents some of the first completed gridbased vegetation mapping projects for WCA-2A and the Rotenberger Wildlife Management Area, utilizing 1:24,000 scale color infrared aerial photographs and using a single comprehensive classification system. Also, the District has initiated a new program to evaluate and monitor tree island hydrology by completing the construction of 31 new Class B benchmarks in the interior of WCA-3. To continue our analysis of the pre-drainage system and develop a better understanding of the ecological processes that drive the Everglades, the District has completed a dramatically new elevation contour that, when peer-reviewed, will be used with the Natural System Model to help set restoration performance goals.

The use of soil bio-engineering techniques in developing countries is a relevant issue for disaster mitigation, environmental restoration and poverty reduction. Research on authochtonal plants suitable for this kind of works and on economic efficiency is essential for the divulgation of such techniques. The present paper is focused on this two HESSD

The purpose of this investigation was to examine storm surge and wave reduction benefits of different environmental restoration features (marsh restoration and barrier island changes), as well as the impact of future wetland degradation on local surge and wave conditions. Storm surge simulations of two representative hurricanes were performed using the ADCIRC storm surge model with the inclusion of radiation stress gradients from the STWAVE nearshore wave model. Coupled model simulations were made for a number of landscape configurations that involved both restored and degraded wetland features. The impact of barrier island condition on hurricane surge and waves was also evaluated. Effects of landscape features were represented by changes in elevation and frictional resistance. Restoration and degradation of marsh resulted in decreases (for restoration cases) and increases (for degradation cases) in both surge and waves. The magnitude of change was correlated with the magnitude of the horizontal extent and elevation changes in the marsh. In general, the wave change patterns are consistent with the water level changes. Deflation of the Chandeleur Islands (barrier island chain) resulted in slightly increased surge. Results suggest that coastal marsh does have surge and wave reduction potential. Results also indicate that the impact of the landscape features is amplified in areas where there are levee ''pockets.'' Barrier islands and coastal ridges reduce wave heights, even if in a degraded condition and thus can reduce wave energy in wetland areas, protecting them from erosion.

Anthropogenic nutrient enrichment and physical characteristics result in low dissolved oxygen concentrations (hypoxia) in estuaries and semienclosed seas throughout the world. Published research indicates that within and near oxygen-depleted waters, finfish and mobile macroinvertebrates experience negative effects that range from mortality to altered trophic interactions. Chronic exposure to hypoxia and fluctuating oxygen concentrations impair reproduction, immune responses, and growth. We present an analysis of hypoxia, nitrogen loadings, and fisheries landings in 30 estuaries and semienclosed seas worldwide. Our results suggest that hypoxia does not typically reduce systemwide fisheries landings below what would be predicted from nitrogen loadings, except where raw sewage is released or particularly sensitive species lose critical habitat. A number of compensatory mechanisms limit the translation of local-scale effects of hypoxia to the scale of the whole system. Hypoxia is, however, a serious environmental challenge that should be considered in fisheries management strategies and be a direct target of environmental restoration. 329 Annu. Rev. Marine. Sci. 2009.1:329-349. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org by 193.242.192.25 on 02/03/09. For personal use only. Click here for quick links to Annual Reviews content online, including: • Other articles in this volume • Top cited articles • Top downloaded articles • Our comprehensive search Further ANNUAL REVIEWS Indirect effects Areas of higher fishing pressure Large marine ecosystem W h o le es tu ar y Hypoxic region Chronic exposure Acute mortality Enriched production Severe hypoxia

We examined how the background (urban/rural) of 282 tertiary students influenced their attitudes and actions including their use of natural areas. Most considered that protection of natural spaces was ‘important’. Childhood residence influenced time spent in natural areas as young adults. When time spent in natural spaces was compared with residence status, non‐urban dwellers more frequently visited natural areas than