Desertification

Desertification in some form is estimated to have occurred over about 42% of the 5 million km ~ of arid and semiarid lands in Australia. The most common form of desertification is loss of perennial grasses from grasslands, savannas, and open woodlands, often with a replacement by inedible shrubs. Desertification continues to be a problem, especially during droughts when grazing pressures reduce ground cover, laying bare landscapes to wind and water erosion. But two national programs, Drought Alert and Landcare, are giving new hope in controlling land degradation. Both use a grassroots approach by promoting action through local pastoralist and farmer groups and by encouraging the use of effective techniques for rehabilitating landscapes. A strategic application of ponding banks and contour traps with an eye to the landscape has proven successful in stopping and reversing desertification processes.

https://www.ipcc.ch/srccl/chapter/chapter-3/

IPCC SPECIAL REPORT ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND LAND (SRCCL)

Chapter 3: Climate Change and Land: An IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems

One of the key agreements adopted at the Rio Conference in 1992 was the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Both in practice and research biodiversity has been mainly addressed in a non-urban context, often discussed in relation to issues such as the depletion of rainforests and desertification. However, as more than half of the world population are urban dwellers, it is increasingly urgent to discuss the application of the concept of biodiversity within an urban context. Issues approached in this article are: What does it mean to talk about biodiversity in an urban context? Is biodiversity a meaningful goal for urban politics and planning? Is there empirical evidence of implementing biodiversity in urban politics and planning? After an introduction, the article is organized into four sections. In the second section the concept of biological diversity is defined with special reference to its application in an urban context. Biodiversity and its relationship to urban governance is the topic of the third section, followed by a section analysing examples of how this relationship is practised in selected Swedish cities. The final section highlights five major conclusions with regard to the application of biodiversity in an urban context: (1) that all cities studied have adopted overall 'green' policies, including biodiversity as one component; (2) that local coalitions in favour of implementing biodiversity have been established between employees at different offices, between employees and politicians, and between employees and NGOs; (3) that there are in all cases tangible signs of spatial patterns and structures that are favourable to biodiversity; (4) that urban biodiversity, for its successful implementation, needs to be related, and accommodated to other values given priority in current policymaking, such as recreation; (5) that mainstream biodiversity analysis should be complemented by an urban landscape approach. Finally, the article returns to the more general question of what biodiversity could and should mean in urban planning.

The paper presents results on the use of NOAA AVHRR data for desertification monitoring on a regionalglobal level. It is based on processing of the GIMMS 8 km global NDVI data set. Time series of annually integrated and standardized annual NDVI anomalies were generated and compared with a corresponding rainfall data set (1981-2003). The regions studied include the Mediterranean basin, the Sahel from the Atlantic to the Red Sea, major parts of the drylands of Southern Africa, China-Mongolia and the drylands of South America, i.e. important parts of the desertification prone drylands of the world. It is concluded that the suggested methodology is a robust and reliable way to assess and monitor vegetation trends and related desertification on a regional-global scale. A strong general relationship between NDVI and rainfall over time is demonstrated for considerable parts of the drylands. The results of performed trend analysis cannot be used to verify any systematic generic land degradation/desertification trend at the regional-global level. On the contrary, a "greening-up" seems to be evident over large regions.

Perennial grasslands that dominated the southwest United States during the past 10,000 years have been desertified to varying extents. Desertification is a temporal phenomenon, defined in this paper as a change in the scale of the spatial distribution of resources. We report here on several indicators of desertification, using bare patch indices as surrogates for direct measures. A bare patch index based on canopy cover, which is relevant for precipitation and wind-driven erosion, is not equivalent to another bare patch index based on soil surface measurements, which is relevant for overland water flowdriven erosion. Per cent grass cover, per cent long-lived grass cover, per cent cover of vegetative reproducers, and a relative preference index all yielded sensitive indicators of desertification. The usefulness of some indicators, such as organic litter, depends upon recent environmental history. Other indicators, such as per cent cover due to grazing-resistant species, appear not to be sensitive to desertification and need further development. Range site type may also be important in determining indicator responses, where some indicators were sensitive to a range site while others were not. Overall, we have identified several sensitive indicators of desertification based on vegetational characteristics in varied range sites in the northern Chihuahuan Desert.

Vegetation degradation, especially the disappearance of woody vegetation and a diminished grass cover, has aroused the concern of the Maasai community (semi-nomadic pastoralists) of Kajiado District, Kenya. The district is one of Kenya's arid and semi-arid districts. Over recent years, they have observed their land resources deteriorate due to the desertification process caused by the land use practices of man. They have identified indicators of desertification such as increase of bare lands, which have been invaded by previously unknown grasses and weeds that are of no economic value, and also the disappearance of some useful plant species. It is due to the above concerns that a group of 30 farmers have been very keen to participate in on-farm research to strategize on ways to halt and even reverse the desertification process. The participatory research has identified useful trees that the farmers have been planting around homesteads, as woodlots on their farms to provide woodfuel, shade, and to act as windbreaks. They have also identified species for planting as live fences instead of using thorny tree branches as fencing material, which contributes further to the desertification process. Due to the termite menace on young tree seedlings, the farmers use indigenous knowledge to prepare concoctions using locally available materials, which they apply to planting holes and on seedlings. During awareness campaigns, the farmer research group highlights the need to conserve vegetation resources and also expounds on the concept of planting two trees after one is felled.

A new model for vegetation patterns is introduced. The model reproduces a wide range of patterns observed in water-limited regions, including drifting bands, spots, and labyrinths. It predicts transitions from bare soil at low precipitation to homogeneous vegetation at high precipitation, through intermediate states of spot, stripe, and hole patterns. It also predicts wide precipitation ranges where different stable states coexist. Using these predictions we propose a novel explanation of desertification phenomena and a new approach to classifying aridity.

Historical analysis of botanical literature concerning the trees Gilletiodendron glandulosum and Guibourtia copallifera in Mali’s Manding Plateau reveals that the dominant representation of these plants has helped to perpetuate colonial-era theories of vegetation history, African land management, and natural resource politics in West Africa. The French botanist Aubréville described these plants as proof of the theory of vegetation history that blamed poor land management by rural Africans for a steady and continuing destruction of vegetation from its presumed original forest climax. Although Aubréville’s representation of these trees was justified within the 1930s scientific context he worked, subsequent researchers uncritically maintained his conclusions even though the changed scientific context in which they worked did not justify such representation. Subsequent ecological research also failed to substantiate Aubréville’s representation of these trees, yet several influential modern botanical works have uncritically accepted colonial-era botanical literature founded on his ideas. Thus, modern botanical works have perpetuated a simplistic and inaccurate narrative of resource use under an appearance of objectivity. As a result, policy recommendations based on the modern botanical sources remain almost identical to colonial-era policies. Based on the similarity of colonial-era and modern portrayals of these trees, this paper argues that a regional discursive formation recently described by other authors may be expanded to include southern Mali, which carries negative implications for decentralization reform in Mali.

The need to implement sustainable resource management regimes for semi-arid and arid rangelands is acute as non-adapted grazing strategies lead to irreversible environmental problems such as desertification and associated loss of economic support to society. In these sensitive ecosystems, traditional sectoral, disciplinary approaches will not work to attain sustainability: achieving a collective vision of how to attain sustainability requires interactive efforts among disciplines in a more integrated approach.

As time passes, the AIDS pandemic continues to spike, affecting an estimated 38.6 million people worldwide. In response, a satellite health clinic is being designed by two Cal Poly students to serve the Maasai people living in the Kajiado district in Southern Kenya. The Maasai have traditionally lived as pastoralists, surviving off of their cattle with which they share their water, increasing the risk for contamination. However, as the population of Kenya increases, the land the Maasai have traditionally used for grazing is shrink ing. For this reason, some have turned to farming to maintain their liveli hood. These factors have contributed to the desertification and deforestation of their region. As the lifestyle of the Maasai evolves, they rely more on maize than meat and dairy products for their nutrients. All of these changes have contributed to the evolution of the Maasai culture. We will address these changes in order to better understand the Maasai, as well as highlight pos sible further aid needed to support their survival.

This paper examines the status of land resources in the Sudan after over half a century of unsustainable use. Several studies indicate that about 120 million ha of land, including 64 million ha of soils, are degraded to varying degrees. A remarkably high correlation seems to exist between human population densities and degraded soil in different aridity zones. The most degraded zones were the arid and semi-arid zones where 76% of the human population of the Sudan live. Wind erosion was the most widespread soil degradation type in the arid zone, while water erosion was dominant in the semi-arid zone. Chemical deterioration through nutrient loss was affecting all climatic zones. The central clay plains and the ironstone soils of south-west were the least degraded soil types. Overgrazing is the most widespread cause of soil degradation, particularly around permanent settlements and watering centres, affecting about 30M ha (47%) of the total degraded areas. Clearance of forests and woodlands cover for firewood and charcoal making and overexploitation of vegetation is the second cause of soil degradation affecting 22M ha. Cropping without appropriate nutrient inputs have degraded about 12M ha, particularly in small-scale farming on sandy and loamy soils. When these processes of resource mismanagement coincided with the recent recurrent droughts, collapse of the economic base of fragile areas took place.

Small livestock (goats, sheep, llamas, camels…) like other agricultural activities could have to face dramatic social, economical and environmental challenges. These challenges are identified underlining that these activities are often important and well present in countries with low incomes or in less favored areas. Although they are often low input production systems with lower environmental impacts, they face desertification and less water availability, genetic erosion, soil degradation and degradation of rangelands, competitions for land use. The needs of policy on more research, education, micro credits, organization and extension are enhanced. A global review of publications in the main scientific journals shows that relatively few works are still dedicated to marketing, Economic development, management and productions systems. The main subjects related to these challenges are the control of emergent diseases and parasites, the improvement of nutrition in harsh conditions, the genetic characterization of local breeds. But these results confirm that most articles have few links with the demand for innovation. The several journals in social science publish relatively few works on these livestock activities. To face these challenges, the discussion proposes new forms of governance in which priority is given to the participation of all stakeholders and the confrontation between local and scientific knowledge. This would have consequences on educational programs and training. The awareness of the public powers on these questions has to be improved by a coordinated and argued active communication. At short term, new types of events and conferences at local and international levels have to be created to manage innovation and transitions towards the necessary destabilizing changes

To which extent do wildfires affect runoff production, soil erosion and sediment transport in upland catchments? This transient effect is investigated here by combining data of long term precipitation, sediment yield and wildfire records with a fine resolution spatially distributed modeling approach to flow generation and surface erosion. The model accounts for changes in the structure and properties of soil and vegetation cover by combining the tube-flux approach to topographic watershed partition with a parsimonious parametrization of hydrologic processes. This model is used to predict hydrologic and sediment fluxes for nine small catchments in Saint Gabriel mountains of southern California under control (pre-fire) and altered (post-fire) conditions. Simulation runs using a 45 years record of hourly precipitation show the passage of fire to significantly modify catchment response to storms with a major effect on erosion and flood flows. The probability of occurrence of major floods in the post-fire season is shown to increase up to an order of magnitude under same precipitation conditions. Also, the expected anomaly of sediment yield can increase dramatically the desertification hazard in upland wildfire prone areas. One should further consider the role of firefloods produced by the combined occurrence of wildfires and storms as a fundamental source of non-stationarity in the assessment of hydrologic hazard.

In the semi-arid Horqin Sandy Land of north China, Caragana microphylla , a leguminous shrub, is the dominant plant species and is widely used in vegetation reestablishment programs to stabilize shifting sand. We collected soil samples and investigated the invaded plant species in an age sequence of 0-, 5-, 13-, 21-, and 28-year-old C. microphylla plantations to assess the effects of the shrub on soil physicochemical properties and development of herbaceous species diversity. Soil samples were taken from two depths (0 Á/5 and 5 Á/20 cm) under the shrub canopy and in the mid-row location between shrubs. Results showed that shrub establishment and development improved soil water holding capacity (WHC), enhanced organic C and total N accumulation, and decreased pH and bulk density. Carbon and nitrogen concentrations increased significantly with increasing plantation age and had increased by 15.3 Á/20.5-fold and 11.1 Á/13.6-fold at 0 Á/5 cm depth at 28 years of plantation compared with non-vegetated dune, although incremental rates were faster in the early establishment stage (0 Á/13 year) than late successional stage (13 Á/28 year). It was found that C. microphylla contributed significant enrichment effects with higher C and N contents under their canopies as compared with alleys. With increased plantation age, the 'islands of fertility' expanded and enrichment ratios decreased. At the same time, C. microphylla facilitated the colonization and development of herbaceous species by ameliorating stressful environmental conditions. Species diversity increased with increasing plantation age. The simple, artificial vegetation system developed toward a complicated, artificial and natural ecosystem capable of reversing desertification. #

Soil crusting decreases infiltration, increases erosion, and impedes vegetation establishment, so reducing the impact of crusting is of major importance in combating desertification. Although surface crusting has been the subject of considerable research over the past 50 years or more, the practical management of soil crusts remains a challenge for many dryland communities. Crusting occurs in two steps, an initial aggregate breakdown period that occurs under rainfall and a subsequent hardening phase during drying. Several factors influence crust development, but the single most important one is soil aggregate stability. Strategies to reduce crusting can be based either on protecting the surface from raindrop impact or improving aggregate stability, or a combination of both. However, crust control is labor and/or capital intensive and must be thought out clearly in terms of the benefits to be achieved.

Dryland degradation rarely translates into linear, declining trends in vegetation cover due to interannual climatic variability. Appropriate indicators of landcover modifications need to be defined for semi-arid regions. Our hypothesis is that degradation can be measured by: (1) a decrease in the resilience of vegetation to droughts; (2) a decrease in rain-use efficiency; and (3) a modification of floristic composition. The objective of this paper is to test the relationships between a remotely sensed indicator of vegetation, rainfall data and field measurements of biomass and floristic composition. The study was based on field measurements of vegetation conditions covering a period of 10 years, in the semi-arid region of the Ferlo in Senegal. Our results indicate that land-cover modifications in the Ferlo are best measured by changes in rain-use efficiency. No consistent trend in the relative abundance of grass species was visible at the scale of the decade, even on the two sites affected by degradation. Just after a drought, a given increase in rainfall results in less biomass production than is the case for normal years.

This study describes a GIS-based software tool for the qualitative assessment of desertification risk. The tool integrates results from several land degradation models into ArcGIS using the object-oriented programming language Visual Basic. The integration of GIS and models is based on different coupling approaches. The proposed methodology was developed and tested on Sardinia Island (Italy). Six driving factors of desertification (overgrazing, vegetation productivity, soil fertility, water erosion, wind erosion and seawater intrusion) were model-simulated over two time periods to investigate the spatio-temporal evolution pattern of desertification-prone areas. Model results were normalized, weighted and combined into an Integrated Desertification Index (IDI) ranging from 0 to 1 (representing the best and the worst conditions, respectively), and classified into five desertification risk levels. The implementation, performance of the methodology and benefits provided by the modelling approach to land management authorities for monitoring processes of land degradation are fully described in the paper.

The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.

In Morocco the crisis narrative of desertification has been invoked for decades to facilitate and justify policy and legal changes that have systematically disadvantaged pastoralists and damaged the environment. The existing data from southern Morocco, however, do not support the claims of widespread desertification due to overgrazing or other pastoral activities. Furthermore, many anti-desertification and range improvement projects in southern Morocco have not succeeded. In an effort to rethink desertification and range ecology in Morocco, this paper presents an overview of the indigenous knowledge of range ecology among the Aarib, a group of camel pastoralists in southern Morocco, and compares it to the ''expert'' knowledge of Moroccan range managers. It suggests that this expert knowledge is based on questionable evidence and that it has been privileged over local knowledge primarily for political, economic and administrative reasons. The discrepancies between expert and indigenous knowledges of range ecology presented here underscore the need to reconsider range ecology in Morocco, taking indigenous ecological knowledge into account. Doing so may point the way to more successful development and conservation projects which are more environmentally appropriate and socially just. Not doing so will likely exacerbate environmental degradation in the region.

In the last decades, the detection of drought occurrences and assessment of its severity using satellite data are becoming popular in disaster, desertification, crop production, phenology, land cover change and climate change studies. To detect the drought effects on different vegetation types, many methodologies have been developed, mostly relying on the use of vegetation indices. This communication reports the first attempt to assess the capability of MODIS NDVI, Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) from 2000 to 2006 time-series to detect the 2005 drought in Amazonia. To reach this objective, monthly composites of the MOD13A2 product were generated from period. Then, monthly anomalies were calculated, considering anomalous values when lower than-1 standard deviation (sd) or higher than 1 sd. Rainfall data provided by the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) was also acquired for the same time-series with the objective of supporting the understanding of vegetation response with the precipitation. Water deficit data calculated based on the TRMM data were also used to guide the sampling scheme. A land cover map for South America updated with natural land cover changes detected by the Near Real Time Deforestation Detection Project (DETER) was used as a mask to avoid false anomalies in the Brazilian Amazon. In general, NDWI and EVI showed to be sensitive and consistent for the temporal series used. NDVI presented a high variability and though a difficult interpretation. Critical months in the NDWI and EVI series coincided with the months with higher water stress calculated based on the TRMM data. EVI also showed to detect changes in the canopy structure. These preliminary results suggest that this is a strong methodology to be used in the spatial analysis of the extent of the drought effects in the vegetation. Literfall data will be incorporate in this research for validation purposes.

A vegetação do bioma Caatinga vem sendo afetado com a constante ação antrópica.  A pesquisa em tela tem como foco o envolvimento de um pool de atores sociais no processo de produção de mudas de Juazeiro (Zizyphus joazeiro), espécie desse bioma, para distribuição, sem ônus, à população com o intuito de contribuir na revejetação do espaço rural e urbano. Um total de 250 mudas com até cinco cm de altura, foram manejadas com o auxílio de uma foice, sob a copa de uma planta adulta situada na localidade Quixaba/Caicó/RN. O transporte aconteceu dentro de sacolas plásticas até o Centro de Produção de Mudas Xique-xique (CPMX), unidade de produção de mudas do município de São José do Seridó/RN. Todas foram transplantadas para embalagens plásticas de um quilograma. Do total, 24 mudas correspondente a 9,6% que chegaram ao CPMX sem a presença do substrato envolvendo o sistema radicular não sobreviveram.  As 226 plantas restantes morreram 18 unidades, correspondente a 7,9%. Portanto, um total de 208 mudas permaneceu temporariamente nas dependências do CPMX.  No monitoramento de distribuição os atores sociais foram assim distribuídos: estudantes, a quem foram entregues 85 mudas; governo do município de São José do Seridó, 25; entidades privadas, 92; a categoria “outros”, contemplando populares que desejam o plantio dessa xerófita na zona rural e urbana de suas respectivas municipalidade, um total de 45 mudas.

SEEDLING PRODUCTION OF NATIVE SPECIES FOR PLANTING IN SEMIARID WITH SOCIETY PARTICIPATION: REPORT OF AN EXPERIENCE WITH JUAZEIRO (Zizyphusjoazeiro).

Abstract:  The vegetation of the Caatinga has been affected by the permanent destructive human action. This research has as focus the involvement of a set of people, from different social representation in the process of production of Juazeiro tree seedlings (Zizyphus joazeiro), a specie of that biome. The project aims at distributing to the population the seedling trees, without charge, in order to contribute to the vegetation of the rural and urban space. The project worked with the total of 250 seedlings with up to five inches high, they were managed with the help of a sickle, under the canopy of a mature plant located in the town Quixaba/Caicó/RN. The plants were carried out inside plastic bags to Center Seedling Production, this center is called Chique-xique (CPMX), a seedling production center in the town of São José Seridó/RN. All of them were transplanted into plastic containers of one kilogram. 24 seedlings, 9,6%, did not survive, they arrived at the tree center (CPMX) without show the presence of the substrate surrounding the root system. Among the remaining 226 plants 18 units died, it corresponds to 7.9%. Therefore, a total of 208 seedlings remained temporarily at the CPMX. In distribution monitoring process people were organized this way: a) students, who were given 85 seedlings; Local Government of São José do Seridó, 25 plants; private entities, 92 trees, other category that covering popular that wished planting this xerophytic in rural and urban areas, we gave them a total of 45 seedlings.

Desertification is a land degradation in areas that are arid, semiarid and areas with low precipitation, resulting from various factors including climatic changes and human activities. 900 million people in 100 countries on earth live in areas with problems of desertification and drought. On the other hand, it has been expressed that the population affected desertification shall be doubled by the year 2025.
30% of the irrigatable agricultural fields (1.5-25 billion ha), 47% of agricultural land dependent of precipitation (3.5-4.0 billion ha) and 73% of pastures (35 billion ha) are affected by desertification at certain levels. These areas have last their productivity totally or partially, due to land degradation. In short, desertification affects approximately 1/6 of the world population and 1/4 of the total world land areas.
Our country feels the severity of desertification less than the regions of the earth that are sensitive in this regard. However, the abuse of our lands irrespective of their capacity, agricultural malpractices, and unhealtly methods of irrigation, over use of lands and overgrazing in pastures, forest removals for opening new agricultural fields
and use of valuable agricultural fields for non-agricultural purposes, lead into land degradation that shall threaten out future. Therefore, Turkey has become a country affected by drought, and with risks of desertification, 86% of its land experiencing a low level, up to severe degree erosion problems.
On these grounds, and within the framework of “United Nations Agreement on Fighting against Desertification”, “National Action Plan for Land and Water Resources in Turkey” has been drafted with regard to our land and water resources within the scope of the General Directorate of Rural Affairs (KHGM), in order for desertification
not to threaten our future.
Problems that have still been intensively experienced in our country and that threaten the land existence causing the loss of land capacity for production such as erosion, soil pollution, soil abuse and use of land for non-agricultural purposes have been considered in developing this program.

Compaction and structural degradation What is the state of soil compaction and structural degradation in Europe? Density (bulk density, packing density, total porosity) g cm-3 or t m-3 ; % CP01 Compaction and structural degradation What is the state of soil compaction and structural degradation in Europe? Air-filled pore volume at a specified suction % CP02 Causes of soil compaction What are the causes and circumstances that result in persistent compaction? Vulnerability to compaction (estimated) Classes CP06 Decline in Soil Biodiversity Key issue Key question Candidate indicator Unit ID Soil Salinisation Key issue Key question Candidate indicator Unit ID Soil Salinisation What is the vertical distribution of water soluble salts in the profiles of salt-affected soils in Europe? Landslides Key issue Key question Candidate Indicator Unit ID Landslide activity What is the status of landslide activity in Europe? Occurrence of landslide activity ha (or km 2) affected per ha (or km 2) LS01 Landslide activity What is the status of displaced material by landslide activity? Volume/weight of displaced material m 3 (or km 3) (or tonnes) of displaced material LS02 Vulnerability to landsliding What is the susceptibility of slope materials to landslide processes? Landslide hazard assessment Variable LS03

Acacias are spectacular angiosperms grouping single canopy species to those of tropical forests. Easy growth, hardiness and drought resistance of these Australian Wattle trees give them variable and great economic importance. Indeed, among other they produce, wood, edible seeds, gums and provide a valuable source of high quality fodder, rich in protein for subsistence and commercial production of livestock because they provide foliage during dry periods in the absence of herbaceous species. In addition, they contribute to the warmer climate of arid and semi-arid areas by reducing evaporation and creating a shadow that slows the soil drying and provide the setting and coastal sand dunes with their lateral root system that promotes better maintenance of the sand particles cohesion. Moreover, their ability to develop a dual symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi confers ecological importance. Indeed, they provide soil enrichment and improvement of soil fertility due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and to explore deep horizons of the soil by their roots. All these factors make it an economic resource of a great environmental and social importance, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, and an excellent candidate for reforestation of Mediterranean areas.

Cultural, Social and Economic Aspects for Greening of Surface Mining Landscapes On the pages of Greening Deserts and in the entire concept, cultural, social, economic and scientific aspects of professional greening and research projects for mining, surface mining and post-mining landscapes are described. Important and additional points are summarized here.

• Establishment and development of a professional network with experts in the fields of culture, business and science – especially in the field of nature conservation, sustainable greening, agriculture, forestry and greenhouse management
• Development and offer of an extensive sociocultural program with art and music, free of charge and paid • Offer and sale of natural products (medicines and crops) and services, see concept and section ‘Services’ • Exhibitions from and for art, not just landscape art
• Involvement of artists and works of art in the landscape and processes • Introduction of landscape planning, nature conservation and socioeconomic areas or fields by integrating suitable and interested institutions, organizations and partners as well as persons and associations with potential or professional competence
• Promotion of the recultivation and rehabilitation of opencast mining areas for a better future use, sustainable nature conservation, cultural, social and economic purposes in connection with the respective municipalities and regions
• Integration of schools, universities and other educational institutions in the development and development process, but also through extra programs, guided tours, trainings, workshops and events
• Sustainable landscaped recreational use, national and international tourism with the best possible natural experience, cultural and artistic life experience
• Sustainable and economical management, optimization and improvement of the energy industry
• Use and adaptation of conditions and properties of opencast mining deserts for realistic desert exploration, especially in the summer • Continuous research and development of forms or techniques of greenhouse, forestry and agriculture
• Development and research of wind, water and solar systems within the framework of the research projects

Further points and extensive information on the topics are extensively described in the Masterplan “Concept and Study on Sustainable Greening Methods, Greenhouse Management, Forestry, Agriculture and Culture Industry for Surface Mining and Post-Mining Landscapes“.

Author: Oliver Gediminas Caplikas / www.Greening-Deserts.com

A critical analysis of the long-term history of the Negev over the past 8000 years, using archaeology as the primary tool of historical reconstruction, provides good perspectives to examine the relationships between pastoral nomadism and desertification. Episodes of desertification of one form or another can be seen at the end of the Chalcolithic period, in the middle of the Early Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, and at the end of Classical times. Detailed comparison of this sequence with periods of pastoral nomadic activity, most especially in the Early and Intermediate Bronze Ages and the Classical era, show no evidence for causal links between pastoral nomadism and desertification. Moreover, they clearly suggest that declines in pastoral nomadic presence in the desert are related primarily to changes in the sedentary infrastructures with which the nomadic systems interacted. In this light, desertification can be seen as a factor independent of and adversely affecting pastoral nomadic adaptations.

Historical background Early 1900: The word "desertification" was introduced by the French scientist Aubreville (1949) in his report "Climats, forêts et désertification de l´Afrique tropicale". The concept was discussed earlier by European and American scientists in terms of increased sand movements, desiccation, desert and Sahara encroachment and man made deserts (

The aridity of the Arabian Peninsula's deserts ranges between arid to hyperarid with hot dry climate, scarce precipitation and sparse vegetation. These harsh environmental conditions enhance some geomorphologic processes more than others, cause specific geotechnical problems, and increase desertification. From west to east, the general physiography of Saudi Arabia shows the Red Sea coastal plains and the escarpment foothills called Tihama followed by the Arabian Shield mountains, the Arabian Shelf plateau and finally the Arabian Gulf coastal plains. Sand moves by wind either as drifting sand or migrating dunes in four major sand seas, over the Arabian Shelf, and in the inter-mountain valleys, in the Arabian Shield causing problems of erosion and deposition. Human activities in the deserts may cause more instability to the sand bodies, enlarging the magnitude of the problem. Fine silty soil particles also move by wind, depositing loess mainly in selected areas downwind in the Tihama. These loess deposits subside and may form earth fissures by the process of hydrocompaction upon wetting. The addition of water can be either natural through storms or man-made through human agricultural or civil activities. Extensive sabkhas exist along the coastal plains of both the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. The sabkha soil may also heave by salt re-crystallization or collapse by wetting. The shallow groundwater brines present in sabkhas also attack and corrode civil structures. Urbanization and excessive groundwater pumping may also deplete the fresh groundwater resources and may cause subsidence, ground fissuring and surface faulting as observed in some locations in the Arabian Shield. Although the average annual precipitation is very low, rain usually falls in the form of torrential storms, collected by dry valley basins and causing floods to unprotected downstream areas on the coastal plains of the Red Sea. The desert environment, being a fragile echo system, needs to be treated with care. Intercommunications between different national and international agencies and education of the layman should help to keep the system balanced and reduce the resulting environmental hazards. In addition, any suggested remedial measures should be planned with nature and engineered with natural materials.

a b s t r a c t This paper illustrates an example of 'early warning' assessment of sensitivity to land degradation (LD) over Italy by monitoring changes of its main determinants during a long-term period (1960e2008) and by providing a short-term evaluation for 2015. These objectives were gained (i) by analysing trends of several climate, vegetation, and land use variables, regarded as the main underlying factors to LD, (ii) by calculating the standard Environmental Sensitive Area Index (ESAI) in 1960(ESAI) in , 1990(ESAI) in , 2000(ESAI) in and 2008 by projecting the ESAI changes in the near future. An evident increase in the number and extent of areas sensitive to LD was observed during the last fifty years in southern Italy. Interestingly, the reduction of rainfall amounts, together with increasing population density and agricultural intensification, are leading northern Italy to a high level of sensitivity too. The applicability of the ESA scheme to a permanent monitoring of LD sensitivity in the Mediterranean landscape was discussed for improvements at the regional scale.

Ce projet de recherche propose d'étudier les stratégies d'adaptation en milieu fragile (désert, steppe) au travers des « desert kites », de grandes constructions faites d’alignements de pierres convergeant vers un enclos (fig. 1). Longtemps considérés comme des pièges de chasse, les kites pourraient aussi avoir servi à la domestication animale. Dans un contexte archéologique large, où les kites semblent avoir été utilisés du Néolithique aux époques subactuelles, nous proposons une approche interdisciplinaire à la croisée de l’anthropologie (archéologie et ethnologie), de la géomatique et des sciences géoarchéologiques et bioarchéologiques.
Le projet couvre un domaine géographique important, qui s’étend du Caucase et de l’Asie Centrale au sud de la péninsule Arabique (Échallier & Braemer, 1995). Un premier inventaire bibliographique et des observations préliminaires d’images satellitaires ont révélé l’existence de plus de 1300 structures, dont 61 % connues et 39 % inédites (fig. 2). Ces découvertes récentes soulignent le potentiel tout à fait exceptionnel du projet : l'étude des kites à travers le temps et l'espace permettra de définir les stratégies d'exploitation des ressources animales en milieux bio-climatiques à fortes contraintes et d'analyser leurs conséquences, directes ou indirectes, sur le milieu.

In this millennium, global drylands face a myriad of problems that present tough research, management, and policy challenges. Recent advances in dryland development, however, together with the integrative approaches of global change and sustainability science, suggest that concerns about land degradation, poverty, safeguarding biodiversity, and protecting the culture of 2.5 billion people can be confronted with renewed optimism. We review recent lessons about the functioning of dryland ecosystems and the livelihood systems of their human residents and introduce a new synthetic framework, the Drylands Development Paradigm (DDP). The DDP, supported by a growing and well-documented set of tools for policy and management action, helps navigate the inherent complexity of desertification and dryland development, identifying and synthesizing those factors important to research, management, and policy communities.

This paper deals with the strategies of households living in a peripheral high-mountain region
in order to cope with the post-Soviet energy crisis. The Soviet modernization project failed at
connecting the region to the grid, and imported coal for heating and fuel for producing electric
energy at high costs over long distances. After the collapse of this alimentation system, people
have substituted energy demands with wood and shrubs, and used increasingly available lowcost
Chinese solar equipment to produce electrical energy. International development actors
have failed to increase acceptance for energy efficiency technologies. Despite the Pamirs’
high potential for solar and wind energy and decreasing installation costs, Soviet-style state
planning of energy infrastructure still favours big hydropower stations, despite their high
(social) costs and the limited potential on the Pamir plateau. The paper will discuss bottomup
effects of household decisions and top-down strategies as potentials and obstacles for a
sustainable energy supply in the Pamirs.

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Soil degradation affects human nutrition and health through its adverse impacts on quantity and quality of food production. Decline in crops' yields and agronomic production exacerbate food-insecurity that currently affects 854 million people globally, and low concentration of protein and micronutrients (e.g., Zn, Fe, Se, B, I) aggravate malnutrition and hidden hunger that affects 3.7 billion people, especially children. Soil degradation reduces crop yields by increasing susceptibility to drought stress and elemental imbalance. Strategies include: improving water productivity, enhancing soil fertility and micronutrient availability, adopting no-till farming and conservation agriculture and adapting to climate change. There are also new innovations such as using remote sensing of plant nutritional stresses for targeted interventions, applying zeolites and nanoenhanced fertilizers and delivery systems, improving biological nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizal inoculation, conserving and recycling (e.g., waste water) water using drip/sub-drip irrigation etc. Judiciously managed and properly restored, world soils have the capacity to grow adequate and nutritious food for present and future populations.

The isolated Easter Island (Rapa Nui) is an outstanding example of land degradation caused by land use in a sensitive ecosystem. The focus of the investigation was placed on Poike peninsula, the most eastern part of Rapa Nui. While Poike peninsula was once supplied with fertile soils, in large areas desertification takes place today. Detailed analysis of soil profiles allowed the reconstruction of the history and of causes and effects of soil erosion and gullying in the context of land use history and cultural evolution. The results of the stratigraphic analysis prove that from the beginning of human settlement around AD 300/600 until AD 1280 the agriculture on Poike peninsula was characterised by sustainable land use and a traditional type of agro-forestry. Soil erosion was not significant. At around AD 1280 the woodland on Poike, dominated by the endemic palm Jubaea sp., was cleared by slashing and burning. Intensive farming on the upper slopes of the volcanic peninsula resulted in sheet erosion lasting until the 20th century. Settlements and ceremonial places which were built around AD 1300 on downslope areas were buried soon by sediments. Agriculture ceased around AD 1400 on downslope areas as the fertile soils were completely eroded. From AD 1400 until the late 19th century sheet erosion and the accumulation of fine-layered sediments migrated upslope. On average 8.6 Mg of soil per hectare and per year were reworked by erosion (eroded and accumulated within the catchment). Gullying began on Rapa Nui with the sudden increase in the number of sheep during the early 20th century. Gullies are still developing on the island and their ongoing enlargement created extended badlands on Poike which pose a significant problem for ecological and archaeological conservation strategies. Gullying rates exceed 190 Mg ha À 1 y À 1 .

Dust storms are one of the main environmental challenges, particularly in West Asian Region. The phenomenon has great harmful impacts on the countries of the region including Iran, Iraq, Syria, Kuwait, and other countries around Persian Gulf. Intensification of the phenomenon in recent years made it necessary to find a suitable solution to combat against the devastating events. Therefore, the headquarter of water resources development, drought, erosion and environment assigned a project entitled “Investigation of Dust Storms in West Asian Region” to Geoinformatic Research Institute (GRI) of the University of Tehran in order to study the regional phenomenon. United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) Regional Office of West Asia (ROWA) also supported this project because of its regional nature and the need for participation from national, regional and international organizations.
The output and outcomes of this project entitled “Investigation of Dust Storms in West Asian Region” is three reports:
 Primary Investigation of Dust Storm Sources in West Asia (With an Emphasis on Storms Came to Iran)
 Analysis of Fundamentals, Identification Criteria, and Modeling of Dust Storms (With emphasis on West Asia Region)
 Investigation of factors of dust storms and solutions for combating (With emphasis on West Asia Region)
Members of the team are greatly thankful to kind cooperation of all professors, students, colleagues, and the experts who assisted in conduction of this project. The team is also especially grateful to vice-president for science and technology affairs of Islamic republic of Iran and UNEP-ROWA. All kinds of criticism and suggestions are warmly welcomed by the team members.
Dr. Hossein Ali Bahrami
Secretariat of the headquarter of water resources development, drought, erosion and environment technologies (vice-president for science and technology affairs of Islamic republic of Iran)
Dr. Ali Darvishi Bolourani
The head of International Geoinformatic Reseach Institute of the University of Tehran (GRI) and the executer of the project
Dr. Abdol Majid Hadad
Environemntal Program of United Nations, Regional Office of West Asia (UNEP-ROWA)

Intercropping has a 1000-year old history in Chinese agriculture and is still widespread in modern Chinese agriculture. Nowadays, agricultural systems in China are stigmatized to exhaust high levels of input factors like N fertilizer or irrigation water and to contribute severely to environmental problems like desertification, river eutrophication, soil degradation and greenhouse effect. In this context, monocropping systems have to be revised and may not be the best performing systems any more, considering sustainability, income security and nutritional diversity in rural areas. Therefore, intercropping systems offer alternatives for a more sustainable agriculture with reduced input and stabilized yield. Especially in the last decade this cropping system has been rediscovered by scientific research. Studies showed increased yield of maize and wheat intercropped with legumes: chickpea facilitates P uptake by associated wheat, maize intercropped with peanut improves iron nutrition and faba bean enhances N uptake when intercropped with maize. China's intercropping area is the largest in the world. Nevertheless, there are only few international studies dealing with intercropping distribution, patterns and crops. Most studies deal with nutrient-use efficiency and availability. This study is a first approach to gain an overview of intercropping history, basic factors about interspecific facilitation and competition and distribution of Chinese intercropping systems. Finally, four intercropping regions can be distinguished and are explicitly described with their intercropping intensity, potential and conditions.

The maintenance of elevated soil moisture is an important ecosystem service of the natural ecosystems. Understanding the patterns of soil moisture distribution is useful to a wide range of agencies concerned with the weather and climate, soil conservation, agricultural production and landscape management. However, the great heterogeneity in the spatial and temporal distribution of soil moisture and the lack of standard methods to estimate this property limit its quantification and use in research. This literature based review aims to (i) compile the available knowledge on the methods used to estimate soil moisture at the landscape level, (ii) compare and evaluate the available methods on the basis of common parameters such as resource efficiency, accuracy of results and spatial coverage and (iii) identify the method that will be most useful for forested landscapes in developing countries. On the basis of the strengths and weaknesses of each of the methods reviewed we conclude that the direct method (gravimetric method) is accurate and inexpensive but is destructive, slow and time consuming and does not allow replications thereby having limited spatial coverage. The suitability of indirect methods depends on the cost, accuracy, response time, effort involved in installation, management and durability of the equipment. Our review concludes that measurements of soil moisture using the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) methods are instantaneously obtained and accurate. GPR may be used over larger areas (up to 500 Â 500 m a day) but is not cost-effective and difficult to use in forested landscapes in comparison to TDR. This review will be helpful to researchers, foresters, natural resource managers and agricultural scientists in selecting the appropriate method for estimation of soil moisture keeping in view the time and resources available to them and to generate information for efficient allocation of water resources and maintenance of soil moisture regime.