Watershed Management

The arid and semi-arid agro-ecological area of Ethiopia cover more than 62% of the total land area. The Somali National
Regional State (SNRS) occupies a large geographical area in the eastern and southeastern part of Ethiopia. The area of SNRS
is estimated at 340,000 km2. This makes rangeland utilization by livestock, the largest land-use system in the country. The
rangelands in the south of the SNRS are occupied mainly by Somali pastoralists who rear mixed herds of camels, sheep, goats
and a few cattle. Rangeland degradation is the most serious challenge for pastoral livelihood in Somali Region. Major
reduction in the quantity and nutritional quality of the vegetation available for grazing in the rangelands as well as
expansion of localized deserts and barren areas are indicated. Major causes of degradation include climatic conditions,
causing drought and arid conditions, and human factors, leading to the overuse of natural resources. Livestock density and
grazing patterns lead to overgrazing, which is one of the major causes of land degradation. Overgrazing results when
livestock density becomes excessive and too many animals are grazed at the same area of rangeland, leading to degradation
of vegetation and the compaction and erosion of the soil. The uncontrolled browsing of trees and shrubs is another aspect of
overgrazing and a patent cause of deforestation, leading to flooding and siltation in adjacent areas because rains are no
longer held back by the sponge effect of the trees and carry with them large loads of eroded soil. Out of the exotic tree species
Prosopis juliflora is currently spreading and encroaching the grazing lands of SNRS and is causing severe negative impacts on
the production and productivity of rangelands. This species is spreading at an alarming rate into best grazing areas. Other
species, such as Acacia drepanolobium, A.seyal, Lantana camara, Partheniumhysterophorus, and species of Commiphora and
Opuntia are also causing serious problems by encroaching in dry and wet season grazing areas. Low and erratic rainfall is
characteristic of the rangelands, and pastoral production systems have always relied upon surface and ground water sources.
Strategic water development interventions have significant impact in contributing to improving range utilization. In the
SNRS Birca (Cistern) and Ella (hand dug wells) are normally owned and managed by individuals. The distribution and type of
water points and watering schedules are major determinants of range use. Pastoralists in SNRS have various traditional
natural resource management strategies, such as mobility and utilization, herd diversity, ecosystem knowledge, local
institution, fodder assessment and defined grazing, indigenous knowledge on species and their utilization. These indigenous
knowledges should be kept and integrated with modern rangeland management and rehabilitation coping strategies to
sustain the range ecology and the livelihood of the pastoralists.
Keywords: Rangeland degradation, rangeland management, bush encroachment, overgrazing, climate change

Collective action in agriculture and natural resource management is all too often perceived of in terms of the mere number of participants, with little consideration given to who participates, why, and the outcomes of inequitable participation. The literature is replete with cases of how uncritical approaches to participation structure positions of privilege vis-a-vis project benefits and the natural resource base (Munk Ravnborg and Ashby, 1996; Rocheleau and Edmunds, 1997; Schroeder, 1993). Yet lessons on how to engage with local communities in ways that promote equitable participation of women, the poor and other stakeholders are only now coming to light. This paper focuses on approaches under development under the rubric of the African Highlands Initiative to bring collective action principles to bear on gender-equitable change processes in natural resource management. The paper utilizes a number of case studies to illustrate the relative strengths and weaknesses of different app...

The study demonstrates the application of GIS technologies and digital model for watershed management in Amlasole Micro-watershed, India. Extensive processing of spatial and attribute data for the study area were performed using GIS technologies for use in WEAP model. DEM for the study area has been created from SRTM data and where Survey of India topographic map was used for validating. Satellite interpreted data for the land use and District level meteorological data were used to prepare the land use and climatic input files for the model run. Various other inputs are used based on field data and experience. With this setup, model was run successfully and the runoff results could be tested against the observed discharged data from the main stream which shows small variation from the model results. Other results could not be verified at field level. However the trend in simulated monthly inflow outflow from the catchment followed the trend in observed rainfall which indicates that the framework can be used for assessing monthly demand supply of the water in the catchment for watershed management and implementation. The model shows alternative results in “what if” questions satisfactorily for deciding more acceptable options for the watershed management purpose.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether water quality parameters commonly associated with primary productivity may be used to predict the susceptibility of a specific water body to exceed proposed fish consumption advisory limitation of 0.3 mg kg −1 . South Dakota currently has nine lakes and impoundments that exceed fish tissue mercury advisory limits of 1.0 mg kg −1 total mercury, far exceeding US Environmental Protection Agency and Food and Drug Administration 0.3 mg kg −1 consumption criteria. Previous studies suggest that increased aquatic productivity may mitigate the effects of biological production and subsequent uptake of methyl mercury through bio-dilution; however, it is uncertain whether these trends may exist within highly alkaline and highly productive aquatic conditions common to South Dakota lakes and impoundments. Water quality parameters and fish tissue mercury data for northern pike and walleye were collected and assessed using existing South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources and Game Fish and Parks data. The data was initially screened using both parametric linear regression and non-parametric Mann-Whitney rank sum comparisons and further assessed using binary logistic regression and stepwise logistic regression methodology. Three separate phosphorus measurements (total, total dissolved, and Trophic State Index) and pH were determined to significantly correlate with increased mercury concentrations for the northern pike-in-impoundments model. However, phosphorus surprisingly was not a strong predictor for the remaining scenarios modeled. For the northern pike-in-natural lakes models, alkalinity was the most significant water quality parameter predicting increased mercury concentrations. Mercury concentrations for the walleye-in-natural lakes models were further influenced by pH and alkalinity. The water quality and fish tissue mercury interrelationships determined within this study suggest aquatic productivity, and consequential eutrophication processes appear to be reasonable indicators of fish tissue mercury susceptibility for aquatic conditions common to South Dakota and highlight the continuing need to minimize eutrophication through effective watershed management strategies.

Watershed management plays an important role in supplying water, especially in arid areas. Adjust the water flow, exploitation of seasonal flood waters and reservation of precipitation is one of the ways to solve water shortage. Objective was study of socioeconomic aspects of some watershed management projects in Mateh-Sang watershed. The study has been carried out using questionnaires that their validity were tested by professionals of watershed management and natural resource experts. Reliability coefficient was determined using SPSS software and Cronbach's alpha coefficient was obtained between 76.0 and 78.0 for different scales. To evaluate the economic impact of watershed management projects in the region, the cost-benefit analysis, questionnaire survey and chi-square test have been used. The benefit cost ratio of 1.03 is obtained which shows the economic feasibility of the projects. Chi-square test results in social debate and evaluation of watershed management project through questionnaires, representing a decrease of migration, reduce flooding, reduce unemployment, flood and sedimentation control, satisfaction of watershed management projects and participate fully in the projects. Also in the economic debate, the results of statistical analysis of the relationship between watershed management projects (mechanical) and increasing the production and vegetation cover, increasing the number of livestock, increasing the amount of water in water resources and increasing the area of farm lands and horticultural lands and reducing the area of bare lands imply a rejection of the null hypothesis and statistical significance of these relationships. In general, watershed mechanical projects in this study have demonstrated the multi-functional positive aspects.

Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. The Study Area lies between 75 0 29' 19" E and 76 0 37' 40" E longitude and 11 0 55' 54" N and 13 0 23' 12.8" N latitude. The study area covers an area of 10874.65 km 2 , having maximum length of 143.73 km. Drainage density is 1.43 km/km 2 hence area is of coarse texture. The length of overlandflow is less than 0.4 indicating more runoff less infiltration. The study of hypsometric properties of watershed using hypsometric integral (HI) and hypsometric curve retrieved in that, HI value is 0.57 and hence watershed falls under the Mature Stage. Circularity ratio is 0.26 which shows that the drainage area is less circular.

Watershed boundaries do not generally coincide with the boundaries of institutes, villages, and Gram Panchayats. It often renders surface water management difficult / inefficient.  This paper explores possibilities of dividing such areas internally as Micro Surface Water Management Units (MSWMUs), taking into consideration internal ridges, valleys, water inflows, and outflows to and from the units to contiguous areas. Thus the watershed concept is applied at the micro-level, even where it does not coincide with natural watershed boundaries. This paper is an experiment taken up within the campus of National Institute of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj (NIRDPR), Hyderabad. To test the approach for surface water management, annual runoff volume (yield) estimations were made for each MSWMUs separately using Strange’s Tables. This method turned out to be a hybrid approach for natural resources management in general and surface water management in particular using man-made administrative boundaries along with natural ridge and valley lines. It gives ways for better management of surface water especially within the administrative boundaries, but not limited to institutes, villages, and Gram Panchayats. How to do it in a technically smart way is the crux of this paper.
Keywords: micro surface water management units, MSWMU, watershed, Strange’s Tables, NIRDPR

Watershed management and early warning flood forecasting system is becoming more and more important especially in relation to anticipated climate change. The characteristics and the validation of the Cetemps HYdrological Model (CHYM) developed by the hydrological group of the Cetemps Center of Excellence are described. CHYM is a grid based model and the main physical processes concerning the hydrological cycle are implemented in the model (Todini and Ciarrapica, 2002; Sorooshian et al., 1995). In the preprocessing phase different data sources are assimilated by the model in order to reconstruct precipitation field on the area of interest. At the moment the available data are the observed rain gauge values, the forecasted MM5 precipitation fields and the satellite rainfall estimation (Grimes et al., 2003). This multisources data acquisition system using observed and forecasted data makes it possible to simulate a time window that span from few days before the event to few days after....

This paper presents an analytical framework that helps to understand the different aspects and elements of sustainable watershed management and their interactions. Each element has been examined as to how it affects sustainability in relation to the other elements. The framework helps to reveal the important factors contributing to land and water management and the livelihood of the people. The framework outlined here should be applicable to watershed evaluation not only in Kerala in South India but also elsewhere in the world with similar situations.

Agricultural development of the floodplain of the Upper St. Johns River resulted in significant "reclamation" of floodplain wetlands, with associated losses of habitat for wetland dependent wildlife, flood water storage, and degradation of water quality. The loss of floodplain water storage and the presence of agricultural development within the floodplain resulted in both increasing damages associated with flooding events and increasing water supply problems during dry years and seasons. In the late 1940s flooding associated with hurricanes caused extensive damage in southern Florida. In 1949 the U.S. Congress authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) to initiate a project to address water resource issues within the south half of the Florida peninsula, including the Upper St. Johns River Basin. The Florida Legislature created the Central and South Florida Flood Control District as the local sponsor for this project. Since then, there have been numerous plans for restoration of the Upper St. Johns River and the project has evolved as man's understanding of the ecological consequences of hydrologic manipulation has improved. In 2008, the Upper St. Johns Restoration Project received international acclaim when the St. Johns River Water Management District (District) and Corps were awarded the International Thiess Riverprize for outstanding river restoration. This paper will discuss the planning and implementation of a restoration project designed to provide multiple benefits, including water quality improvement, improved flood management, improved water supply, maintenance of minimum river flows, improved habitat for wildlife and public recreational opportunities. The paper will also discuss the importance of interdisciplinary planning and implementation, and adaptive management, utilizing improving scientific and engineering knowledge and tools to ensure that restoration activities accomplish the public objectives of the project.

Recently, the U.S. EPA issued the 303(d) list of impaired waters in Idaho State that contained the causes of impairment. This 303(d) list provides useful information that can be used to determine the Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). Implementation of TMDLs should result in pollutant reductions, which, in turn can lead to the restoration of these water bodies. Flow alteration is one of the potential sources of impairments in the Big Lost River in south-central Idaho, which have some negative impacts on the water quality and beneficial uses. Flow in the Big Lost River is altered, both in quantity and quality, and this reduces recreation activities, affects the fish assemblage, and changes the composition and relative abundance of aquatic species. The effect of riparian vegetation is another factor that needs to be predicted. In addition, three conservation schemes (construction of upstream reservoirs, downstream reservoirs, and canal linings) were proposed to restore flow in the downstream reaches of the river and compensate for water loss during the low flood seasons. However, there is no single predictive model that can be used to appropriately represent each of these issues as management decisions. In this paper, an expert system in the form of a Bayesian network, a graphical diagram of nodes and arcs, was implemented to examine all significant water management variables and relationships among these variables. Lining the irrigation canals was found to be the best scheme, followed by constructing an upstream reservoir. The TMDLs would benefit the water quality in the watershed but would not significantly increase the water quantity and solve the flow alteration problem. Consequently, this can be used to determine the sequence of decisions that can be taken in the future.

The MIKE SHE model is able to simulate the
entire stream flow which includes direct and basic flow.
Many models either do not simulate or use simplistic
methods to determine the basic flow. The MIKE SHE
model takes into account many hydrological data. Since
this study was directed towards the simulation of surface
runoff and infiltration into saturated and unsaturated zone,
the MIKE SHE is an appropriate model for reliable conclusions.
In the current research, the MIKE SHE model
was used to simulate runoff in the area of Sperchios River
basin. Meteorological data from eight rainfall stations
within the Sperchios River basin were used as inputs.
Vegetation as well as geological data was used to perform
the calibration and validation of the physical processes of
the model. Additionally, ArcGIS program was used. The
results indicated that the model was able to simulate the
surface runoff satisfactorily, representing all the hydrological
data adequately. Some minor differentiations appeared
which can be eliminated with the appropriate
adjustments that can be decided by the researcher0s
experience.

For the first time in the history of our species, the opportunity of halting the expansion of our global population discloses future scenarios of stably coexisting urbanised and non-urbanised ecosystems. The need for the establishment of such scenarios is particularly urgent in tropical regions, whose higher biodiversity is being rapidly eroded by recent and explosive urbanisation and land conversion. It is here proposed that the sustainable management of networks of urbanised and non-urbanised systems, the latter ones being interconnected by transitional systems, or ecotones, is the key to manage increasingly fragmented and isolated natural systems. In a cybernetic perspective, a decrease in internal connectivity both modifies fluxes with the external environment and impairs negative feedbacks, thus decreasing ecosystems' resilience. In particular, conservation efforts focused on traditionally conceived ecosystems have shown to be inappropriate to efficiently manage and protect tropical coastal systems. All these 'systems', although being anthropomorphically perceived as separate, evolved as deeply interconnected networks. The increasing loss of biocomplexity and resilience faced by such networks, is the inevitable consequence of the loss of internal connectivity determined by the loss of ecotones, due to fragmentation, degradation, and anthropogenic impact acting on the periphery of isolated natural areas. In order to sustainably manage natural isolated systems surrounded by urban, agricultural or degraded systems, appropriate management of ecological inputs and outputs, and maintenance of internal connectivity should be urgently implemented. Ecosystem-based management offers a rational perspective: (i) maximising the diversity of the managed systems within the original landscape, and (ii) creating and managing a dynamic network of ecotonal connections maintaining fluxes of energy and matter between them (Ecotonal NeTworks, or ENTs). Being inherently more resilient, such managed networks of natural subsystems would provide more sustainable and richer economic and ecological services, allowing for a rational integration of the highly interconnected urban subsystems.

Watershed programme is an important intervention in dryland areas to improve livestock productivity through increased feed and fodder supply. The present study has focused on the impact of watershed interventions on crop-livestock linkages with particular emphasis on how the interventions have affected the quantity of stovers/straws as livestock feeding materials in bridging the demand-supply gap. The study has been carried out in three typical Shivalik foothill watersheds (two treated and one untreated) in the Panchkula district of Haryana state. The impact of watershed development programme has been estimated by adopting both with and without approach and before and after approach. The untreated watershed has derived 65 per cent of its total income from animal husbandry. On the contrary, this sector has contributed 42 per cent and 20 per cent in two treated watersheds. The availability of supplemental irrigation enabled the villagers to step up cropping intensity. The number of go...

of phytoplankton growth dynamics and nutrient assimilation by a computer simulation model are consistent with studies of field and laboratory populations. The model simulates population dynamics and gross physiology of phytoplankton species in

Turkey has been divided into 26 basins for studies related to water resources development. Surface areas of the basins range between 6,300 – 127,500 km2, the average being approximately 30,000 km2. Compared with nested watershed classification of U.S., the average size of Turkish national basins corresponds to the third-level (basins). Currently, a forth-level (sub-basins) with an average size of 1,820 km2 reside below the basins in U.S. classification. Even these sub-basins are found to be too large to adequately serve many water resource management needs. Two additional levels (watersheds and sub-watersheds) are currently under development in order to solve this problem. Taking this fact into consideration, currently existing basins of Turkey are supposed to be too large for effective water resources management and there is a need for delineation of sub-basins in a scientific manner. In this study, the boundaries of proto-type sub-basins are determined by using DEM-based automated delineation techniques. For this purpose, 30 arc-seconds SRTM30 DEM is re-projected into an equal area projection, hydrologic sinks are filled and inaccurate elevation values are corrected. In order to prevent invalid delineation of closed basins that cover approximately 10% of the country, water bodies located at the center of these basins are extracted from Global Land Cover Characteristics dataset of USGS and excluded from the process. Among the alternatives, Deterministic-8 (D-8) algorithm with modifications by Garbrecht and Martz is used to calculate flow direction and flow accumulation grids. Using these grids, a set of candidate sub-basins are generated by applying different area thresholds. A threshold of 1,000 km2 resulted in 359 sub-basins with an average size of 1,858 km2, both of which are found to be appropriate and manageable for nationwide usage. Similarity of the average size of the delineated sub-basins to that of U.S. sub-basins also supports this result.

Considerable progress in addressing point source (end of pipe) pollution problems has been made, but it is now recognized that further substantial environmental improvements depend on controlling nonpoint source pollution. A watershed approach is being used more frequently to address these problems because traditional regulatory approaches do not focus on nonpoint sources. The watershed approach is organized around the guiding principles of partnerships, geographic focus, and management based on sound science and data. This helps to focus efforts on the highest priority problems within hydrologically-defined geographic areas. Ecological risk assessment is a process

Water scarcity is a leading concern in both arid and semi arid regions. In this article the seasonal and annual rainfall and rainy days data is analysed for the years 1980-2012 to understand rainfall fluctuations in semi arid region of Sangli District of Yerla River basin, Maharashtra. The study area lies in the rain shadow zone of basaltic Deccan Traps region and receives 632.22 mm average annual rainfall. In the area the early rains are scanty and the late rains are capricious, so drought occurs repetitively. The monthly and annual rainfall and rainy days data of Vita and Tasgaon stations obtained from India Meteorological Department were analysed on the computer using Microsoft Excel. Correlation between average annual rainfall and average rainy days are calculated for each station. Temporal variations in rainfall are observed with wet and dry spells during the rainy season. September is the wettest month followed by June, October, July and August. There are little or no rainfall occurred in the pre monsoon period from February to May and sporadic showers occurred during the post monsoon period from mid October to January in the region. Nature and distribution of rainfall are essential for watersheds management and allied studies.

In this paper, we examined twelve riparian forests along urban-rural gradients in Austin, TX (USA), on the relationship among watershed urbanization and the invasion of alien woody species. We assessed the degree of biological invasion by measuring relative alien cover (RAC) of the riparian forests. We also measured environmental variables (15 in total) that characterize the study forests, including impervious surface percentage of corresponding watersheds, stream hydrology of adjacent streams, species diversity, canopy gap percentage, and soil nutrient contents of the riparian forests. Stream hydrology was quantified by the transfer function model. The results indicate that impervious surface percentage was related to stream hydrology: the more the impervious surface in a watershed, the faster streamflow recedes after the storm, and the longer dry period the riparian forest experienced (R 2 = 0.722). Impervious surface percentage was also related to RAC (R 2 = 0.498). Nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) grouped the 15 environmental variables into five dimensions. Multiple regression analysis of RAC on the five NMDS dimensions shows that RAC was related only to the dimension related to hydrological drought. Based on these results, we concluded that watershed urbanization facilitates the invasion of alien species in riparian forests by causing hydrologic drought, particularly in hot and semi-arid regions.

In this study, the conformity of mathematical model of the MUSLE for the estimation of storm-wise sediment yield in plots was examined at Matash Ranch in northern Iran. For the measurement of sediment yield, three plots were established within each openly grazed and manually harvested area. The MUSLE model was applied through determining the entire required inputs for the study plots of 24 storm events, which occurred during the study period from May to September 2004. The quantity results were then statistically compared using paired t-Test analysis. The results of the study verified the disability of the model in sound prediction of sediment yield on storm basis for the study area. Additionally, a high level of agreement beyond 86% was found between estimated and measured sediment yield which created the possibility of comparative evaluation of the effects of different land use managerial approaches on sediment yield in the study area.

Data assimilation techniques have been proven as an effective tool to improve model forecasts by combining information about observed variables in many areas. This article examines the potential of assimilating surface soil moisture observations into a field-scale hydrological model, the Root Zone Water Quality Model, to improve soil moisture estimation. The Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF), a popular data assimilation technique for nonlinear systems, was applied and compared with a simple direct insertion method. In situ soil moisture data at four different depths (5, 20, 40, and 60 cm) from two agricultural fields (AS1 and AS2) in northeastern Indiana were used for assimilation and validation purposes. Through daily update, the EnKF improved soil moisture estimation compared with the direct insertion method and model results without assimilation, having more distinct improvement at the 5 and 20 cm depths than for deeper layers (40 and 60 cm). Local vertical soil property heterogeneity in AS1 deteriorated soil moisture estimates with the EnKF. Removal of systematic bias in the forecast model was found to be critical for more successful soil moisture data assimilation studies. This study also demonstrates that a more frequent update generally contributes in enhancing the open loop simulation; however, large forecasting error can prevent more frequent update from providing better results. In addition, results indicate that various ensemble sizes make little difference in the assimilation results. An ensemble of 100 members produced results that were comparable with results obtained from larger ensembles.

The term Remote Sensing is applied to the study of earth's features from images taken from space through satellites, or from nearer to the earth surface using aircrafts. The major asset of Remote Sensing, namely its capability of rapid & accurate level aerial coverage, becomes crucial during the groundwater exploration in water-scare regions. The technique of remote sensing has picked up in the past half a decade, largely due to the availability of digital computers, improved communication systems, digital imaging techniques and space technology. Remotely sensed data can be said to have its origin in photography, where the information about a target area is interpreted from photographs.

Purpose: The study has been carried out to investigate and assess the significance of the potential trend of three variables viz. rainfall, temperature and runoff over the Rangoon watershed in Dadeldhura district of Nepal.Methodology: In this study, trend analysis has been carried out on monthly, seasonal and annual basis using the data period between 1979 to 2010 for rainfall and temperature and 1967 to 1996 for runoff. Mann-Kendall test and Sen’s slope estimate test were applied to identify the existing trend direction and Sen’s slope estimator test were used to detect the trend direction and magnitude of change over time.Main findings: The most important findings are, i) There is warming trends over the Rangoon watershed as Mann-Kendall statistic (Z-value) for most of the maximum temperature values are positive, ii) Rainfall and runoff affected by fluctuations every year though the annual rainfall showing a rising trend whereas runoff showing a falling trend. The rainfall seasona...

The Chicago Waterway System (CWS), used mainly for commercial and recreational navigation and for urban drainage, is a 122.8 km branching network of navigable waterways controlled by hydraulic structures. The CWS receives pollutant loads from 3 of the largest wastewater treatment plants in the world, nearly 240 gravity Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO), 3 CSO pumping stations, direct diversions from Lake Michigan, and eleven tributary streams or drainage areas. Even though treatment plant effluent concentrations meet the applicable standards and most reaches of the CWS meet the applicable water quality standards, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) standards are not met in the CWS during some periods. A Use Attainability Analysis was initiated to evaluate what water quality standards can be achieved in the CWS. The UAA team identified several DO improvement alternatives including new supplementary aeration stations. Because of the dynamic nature of the CWS, the DUFLOW model that is capable of simulating hydraulics and water quality processes under unsteady-flow conditions was used to evaluate the effectiveness of new supplementary aeration stations. This paper details the use of the DUFLOW model to size and locate supplementary aeration stations. In order to determine the size and location of supplemental aeration stations, 90% compliance with a 5 mg/l DO standard was used as a planning target. The simulations showed that a total of four new supplementary aeration stations with oxygen supply capacities ranging from 30 to 80 g/s would be sufficient to meet the proposed target DO concentration for the North Branch and South Branch of the Chicago River. There are several aeration technologies, two of which are already being used in the CWS, available and the UAA team determined that the total capital costs of the alternatives range from $35.5 to $89.9 million with annual operations and maintenance costs ranging from $554,000 to $2.14 million. Supplemental aeration stations have been shown to be a potentially effective means to improve DO concentrations in the CWS and will be included in developing an integrated strategy for improving water quality in the CWS.

Mass wasting and channel incision are widespread in the Nemadji River watershed of eastern Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin. While much of this is a natural response to glacial rebound, sediment coring and tree ring data suggest that land use has also influenced these erosional processes. We characterized land use, inventoried mass wasting, surveyed stream channels and collected discharge data along segments of five streams in the Nemadji River watershed. Due to natural relief in this region, wetlands and agricultural lands are concentrated in the flatter terrain of the uplands of the Nemadji watershed, while forestland (coniferous or deciduous) is concentrated in the deeply incised (50-200% slope) stream valleys. Bankfull discharge was higher where forests had been converted from coniferous to deciduous forests and where there were fewer wetlands. Mass wasting increased exponentially with bankfull flows. While mass wasting was not correlated with forest type conversion and agricultural land use, it was negatively dependent upon wetland extent in headwater areas. Interactions between the spatial distribution of land use and terrain obfuscate any clear cause-and-effect relationships between land use, hydrology and fluvial processes. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Soil Conservation Service (SCS) model has been applied in the present study for the estimation of runoff from an agricultural watershed. The Karso watershed is about 2793 ha, is a part of Damodar Barakar catchment, which is situated in Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand State. This method involves various types of information related to Hydrologic soil Group, vegetation and antecedent moisture condition of the watershed. The soil map, land use map have been prepared by the information available at Soil Conservation Department, Damaodar Valley Corporation, Hazaribagh and topographical maps were collected from Survey of India, Calcutta. ERDAS IMAGINE-8.4 software was used for the rectification of reference map, soil map and land use map of the watershed. The vector layers were generated in ARC/INFO and used as input to derive modified Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve Number for study area. The SCS model was then applied to estimate the runoff for daily storm and was validated comparing it with the measured runoff of few selected events of monsoon period for the year 1993.

We analysed land cover change processes over a 28-year time period in Central Mexico, by means of integration of existing databases of land cover and land use (1975 and 2000), and updating through visual interpretation of Landsat MSS and ETM þ satellite images and orthophotos (1986, 1996 and 2003). Multitemporal analyses included mapping, evaluation of transition matrices, computation of rates of land use change for the main change processes during each period, and cluster analysis. We used watersheds, subdivided both as sub-watersheds and functional zones, as units of analyses. The processes of land use change in the area were not constant, as most of the land use changes took place over a period of less than ten years. This specific period coincided with both the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, and a major catastrophic earthquake in central Mexico in 1985. Similarly, processes of land use change differed during the periods of analyses in the watershed functional zones. The methodological approach applied in this analysis integrates standard procedures to evaluate land cover and land use change in watersheds. Due to the practical value of the results, the data and information generated during the analysis have been made available to local authorities.

Wetlands have value because their functions have proved to be useful to humans. The unit value for some wetlands also increases with human development (agriculture and urban) because of increased use and/or increased scarcity. Yet, paradoxically, its functions can ...

Problems of water resource management are becoming increasingly severe in most countries of the developing world. Already from early in this century it was recognised, wherever water resource management problems began to manifest themselves, that the most appropriate level upon which to study and confront these problems was the river basin. This paper reviews various approaches that have been taken to river basin management and the way in which these have surfaced from the particular range of problems and the political context from which they emerged. Since the end of the 1970s, the rapid development of Thailand has brought into focus the need for integrated resource management as a basis for overcoming increasingly severe problems of drought and flood. Deforestation is seen as a major cause of these problems and so it is in watershed management that the first initiatives are being taken. The paper describes in some detail the system which has been adopted and finally discusses the political and administrative problems facing implementation of the system.

The present study was carried out to assess the seasonal variations of spring water quality of different locations of Kyunja Gad Watershed, District Rudraprayag, Uttarakhand. Total 7 springs water samples were collected from Kyunja Gad Watershed. Spring water samples collected in winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons of the year 2016 were analyzed for various water physico-chemical characteristics, viz. pH, DO, temperature, Turbidity, Electrical conductivity, Total dissolved solids, Chloride, Total hardness, Fluoride, Nitrate, Sulfate and Iron. The analyses was done according to standard methods for water examination and reported based on the WHO prescribed limit for drinking water. The Result showed the variations of the analyzed parameters in water sample as follows: Turbidity 0.01-1.4 NTU; pH 6.2-8.0; DO 5.19-15.24 mg/l; TDS 31-199 mg/l; Electrical conductivity 61.5-397 μs/cm; Total hardness as 20-176 mg/l; Chloride 2.5-28 mg/l; Nitrate 0.5-10.3 mg/l and Iron 0.1-1.2 mg/l respectively. The analyzed physio-chemical parameters of water samples from all the 7 springs were permissible limit of APHA/ WHO/ BIS 10500: 2012 water quality guidelines.

An assessment of the Upper Genesee River (UGR) watershed was undertaken to determine sources of nutrient and sediment loss geospatially within the Upper Genesee River watershed and to determine the nutrient and sediment contribution (load) of this segment to the Lower Middle Main Stem of the Genesee River. To accomplish this task, a multifaceted, integrated approach was taken by a combination of monitoring, segment analysis, and modeling (Soil and Water Assessment Tool). To achieve this goal, the river was routinely monitored for discharge, water chemistry, and loss of nutrients and soil for an entire year (3 August 2010 to 23 August 2011) at the USGS gauging station at Wellsville and at Portageville, NY. The Upper Genesee River Soil and Water Assessment Tool (UGR-SWAT) model was created, calibrated, and verified for discharge, sediment, and phosphorus loss using these data. Based on the measured loading data to a subbasin outlet and the SWAT model, segment analysis was performed on selected subwatersheds to determine sources of material loss. The information derived from segment analysis, the SWAT model, and the total amount of nutrients, sediments, and bacteria lost from the watershed served to direct watershed management. Lastly, the UGR-SWAT model was employed to test the effectiveness of BMPs on land use and to determine the minimum potential phosphorus concentration expected in a forested Upper Genesee River watershed as a nutrient target for TMDL development. Genesee River concentrations increased from nonevents to events for soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS), and total coliforms (TC). During hydrometeorologic events, a general and large increase in TSS, TP, and TC was observed from Stannards, NY, to the most northern site of the reach at Portageville, NY, on the Genesee River. On average, concentration of TSS increased from 38.4 ± 21.4 mg/L at Stannards to 618.7 ± 206.8 mg/L at Portageville-an increase of 1,511 % in TSS concentration. Similarly, TP (492%) and TC (275%) increased downstream to Portageville. With the exception of dissolved nitrate, all other analytes were generally elevated in river water during events at both the Portageville and Wellsville sites in all seasons. For example, at Portageville increases of 1,037% and 1,838% in TP concentrations were observed during spring and fall events, respectively. 4. Loss of soil and nutrients were greatest at Portageville throughout each season. For example 246,471 kg of TP (discharge x concentration) was lost annually from the entire Upper Genesee River portion of the watershed at Portageville, NY while only 34,343 kg of TP was lost annually from the upstream site at Wellsville, NY. This is due not only to generally higher concentrations observed at Portageville, but also to considerably higher rates of discharge (almost 232% greater) in comparison to Wellsville. In general and at both Wellsville and Portageville the largest loss of TSS, TP, and TC from the watershed occurred during the spring and autumn. For example, the spring and autumn TP and TSS load represented 83% and 76%, respectively, of the annual load at Portageville and 81% and 79%, respectively, of the annual load at Wellsville. In general, event loading to downstream systems was greater than nonevent loading. Although only 20 hydrometeorologic events occurred during the study year, they accounted for 56% of the SRP loading, 79% of the TP, 85% of the TC, and 89% of the TSS loading at Portageville annually. When all sampling dates of the main stem sites were combined, TSS and TP were highly correlated (r 2 =0.83). 5. Increases in TSS, particularly during events, were observed in two specific segments of the Upper Genesee River. One such peak was observed between sampling sites in Belmont and near Angelica, NY where average event TSS concentrations increased from 93.7 ± 22.8 mg/L at Belmont to 320.1 ± 110.4 mg/L near Angelica. Total phosphorus concentrations were also observed to increase between these sites from 140.5 ± 37.8 µg P/L to 226.6 ± 55.2 µg P/L. Also tributary inventories were conducted between 11 July and 1 August in the Phillips, Cold, Angelica, and the Van Campen Creeks' subwatersheds. At each creek the inventory began at the furthest upstream sampling site and ended at the confluence with the Genesee River. Of the sites studied for erosion (Van Campen, Philips, Cold, and Angelica Creeka, and the main stem of the Genesee River from Belmont to Angelica, NY, and from Caneadea and Fillmore, NY), special note was made of sites combining three observable factors: (1) extreme erosion, (2) adjacent agriculture, and (3) absence of a riparian buffer zone. In total, 13 such sites were documented on the main stem of the river and 13 were observed along the tributaries. Photos of these sites are referenced in Tables 15 and 165 and may be found in the appendix. 6. Five WWTPs are located within the Upper Genesee Basin: Friendship, Houghton, Hume, Belmont, and Wellsville. These WWTPs impact local water quality. For example, at the Freindship WWTP located on Van Campen Creek, TP concentrations increased by 1,419% from 1. Determining the seasonal and annual nutrient and soil loss from the "Upper Genesee River" watershed to the "Lower Middle Main Stem of the Genesee River" using routine water sample collection and analysis and discharge measurements from monitoring stations at the USGS station at Wellsville and Portageville, NY; 2. Identifying the location and magnitude of point and nonpoint sources of nutrients and sediments within the Upper Genesee River watershed using segment analysis; 3. Constructing and calibrating the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT model) for water output, sediment, and total phosphorus loading for the Upper Genesee River. 4. Developing a Total Maximum Daily Load for the Upper Genesee River; 5. Developing a target phosphorus concentration for Upper Genesee River by simulating a 100% forested landuse in the SWAT model; and 6. Providing management scenarios to reduce the impact of Upper Genesee River on the Lower Middle Genesee River Basin based on SWAT results. Methods Upper Genesee Seasonal Sampling Locations Seasonal weekly sampling of the USGS sites at Wellsville and Portageville (Table 2, Figs. 2 and 3) began on 3 August 2010. As sampling progressed, additional sampling sites on the main stem were added at Belmont, Angelica, Caneadea, and Fillmore on 11 January 2011 (Table 2). On 3 May 2011, a main-stem sampling site at Stannards, upstream of the Wellsville sampling site, was also added to the sampling regime. Another main-stem site was added on 7 June 2012 at Belfast, NY. Stream subsurface water samples (1-m depth) were taken at these locations in RBS rinsed 1-L bottles from the middle of the river. Sites were sampled until 23 August 2011. One-L water samples were also collected from four tributaries (Phillips Creek, Van Campen Creek, Angelica Creek, and Cold Creek) (Table 2, Figs. 3 and 4) in the Upper Genesee River watershed.

Within river basins different social, economic, political and physical subsystems interact. When making decisions, policy makers should be aware of such interactions as any new policy will affect more than one subsystem. To determine the adequacy of a specific management policy, an integrated study is needed of a complicated water management system in the basin considering major physical, social, economic and political aspects. The Zayandeh-Rud river basin, in central Iran with a semi-arid climate and large agricultural, industrial and domestic water uses, is an example of a complicated watershed system where the lack of complete knowledge about all the interacting subsystems has led to failure of the policy makers in addressing the water shortage in the basin. Although water shortages occur fairly soon after completion of each new water source, transbasin water diversion is still the major policy of water planners to address ongoing shortages. System dynamics provides a unique framework for integrating the disparate physical, socio-economic and political systems important to watershed management. This approach is used to comprehend the interactions of different drivers of the problem and to convey the experiences, lessons learned, and perceptions gained during the model development process. A simulation model, built based on causal loop diagrams of the problem, shows that transbasin diversion is not the best and only solution to the problem. The results of the model for different scenarios suggest that various options of demand management and population control can be more effective in addressing the water crisis of the basin when combined with transbasin water diversions, increasing water storage capacity and controlling of groundwater withdrawal.

After so many years of patience and support thank you hardly seems enough. Thanks to John, and to Doug and Mark for your guidance and confidence that I would finally reach this point. Thanks to everyone that participated in this research for your generous gift of time and knowledge and to each of the case study organizations for sharing your experiences. To everyone who provided accommodation and other logistical support,