Division of labor

This paper outlines a proposal for the development of educational multiplayer online games based on the activity theory, as an alternative to the current trend in multiplayer gaming and a means of promoting collaboration among students. In order to examine whether online games are engaging for learners, we consider multiple factors regarding game play -such as frequency of game use, gender differences, identification with the characters, and game preferences -as well as some psychosocial factors that may influence learning -such as academic performance, self-esteem, and computer self-efficacy. This paper suggests that online multiplayer educational games should be approached as a complex learning system, based on the principles of activity theory, where the Subjects would interact with other Subjects, Objects and Tools of the game, under specified Rules and create Communities through division of labor, leading to the expected learning outcome. Thus, we suggest taking into account some important issues concerning the Subjects that the activity theory refers to, such as gender differences in playing games, academic performance, self-esteem and computer self-efficacy.

The aggregation of urban population has been described by Bücher and Weber. A sociological study of the growth of the city, however, is concerned with the definition and description of processes, as those of (a) expansion, (b) metabolism, and (c) mobility. The typical tendency of urban growth is the expansion radially from its central business district by a series of concentric circles, as (a) the central business district, (b) a zone of deterioration, (c) a zone of workingmen's homes, (d) a residential area, and (e) a commuters' zone. Urban growth may be even more fundamentally stated as the resultant of processes of organization and disorganization, like the anabolic and katabolic processes of metabolism in the human body. The distribution of population into the natural areas of the city, the division of labor, the differentiation into social and cultural groupings, represent the normal manifestations of urban metabolism, as statistics of disease, crime, disorder, vice, insanity, and suicide are rough indexes of its abnormal expression. The state of metabolism of the city may, it is suggested, be measured by mobility, defined as a change of movement in response to a new stimulus or situation. Areas in the city of the greatest mobility are found to be also regions of juvenile delinquency, boys' gangs, crime, poverty, wife desertion, divorce, abandoned infants, etc. Suggested indexes of mobility are statistics of changes of movement and increase of contacts of city population, as in the increase per capita in the total annual rides on surface and elevated lines, number of automobiles, letters received, telephones, and land values. A cross-section of the city has been selected for the intensive study of urban growth in terms of expansion, metabolism, and mobility.

This paper analyzes the failure of Israel's Ashkenazi (Jewish, of European, Yiddish-speaking origin) feminist peace movement to work within the context of Middle East demographics, cultures, and histories and, alternately, the inabilities of the Mizrahi (Oriental) feminist movement to weave itself into the feminist fabric of the Arab world. Although Ashkenazi elite feminists in Israel are known for their peace activism and human rights work, from the Mizrahi perspective their critique and activism are limited, if not counterproductive. The Ashkenazi feminists have strategically chosen to focus on what Edward Said called the Question of Palestine-a well funded agenda that enables them to avoid addressing the community-based concerns of the disenfranchised Mizrahim. Mizrahi communities, however, silence their own feminists as these activists attempt to challenge the regime or engage in discourse on the Question of Palestine. Despite historical changes, the Ashkenazi-Mizrahi distinction is a racialized formation so resilient it manages to sustain itself through challenges rather than remain a frozen dichotomy.

"Corruption has become one of the most popular topics in the social scientific disciplines. However, there is a lack of interdisciplinary communication about corruption. Models developed by different
academic disciplines are often isolated from each other. The purpose of this paper is to review several major approaches to corruption and draw them closer to each other. Most studies of corruption fall
into three major categories: (i) rational-actor models where corruption is viewed as resulting from cost/benefit analysis of individual actors; (ii) structural models that focus on external forces that determine corruption; and (iii) relational models that emphasize social interactions and networks among corrupt actors. Focusing on actors’ behavior and the social context, this article explains corruption concepts taken from sociology, economics, organization studies, political science, social anthropology, and social psychology."

a b s t r a c t . The visual brain in action. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press] proposed a functional division of labor between vision-for-perception and vision-for-action. Their proposal is supported by neuropsychological, brain-imaging, and psychophysical evidence. However, it has remained controversial in the prediction that actions are not affected by visual illusions. Following up on a related review on pointing (see . Visually guided pointing, the Müller-Lyer illusion, and the functional interpretation of the dorsal-ventral split: Conclusions from 33 independent studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32 , 423-437]), here we re-analyze 18 studies on grasping objects embedded in the Müller-Lyer (ML) illusion. We find that median percent effects across studies are indeed larger for perceptual than for grasping measures. However, almost all grasping effects are larger than zero and the two distributions show substantial overlap and variability. A fine-grained analysis reveals that critical roles in accounting for this variability are played by the informational basis for guiding the action, by the number of trials per condition of the experiment, and by the angle of the illusion fins. When all these factors are considered together, the data support a difference between grasping and perception only when online visual feedback is available during movement. Thus, unlike pointing, grasping studies of the Müller-Lyer (ML) illusion suggest that the perceptual and motor effects of the illusion differ only because of online, feedback-driven corrections, and do not appear to support independent spatial representations for vision-for-action and vision-for-perception.

Hunter-gatherers of the recent era vary in many aspects of culture, yet they display great uniformity in their tendency to divide labor along the lines of gender and age. We argue on the basis of zooarchaeological, technological, and demographic evidence that the complementary economic roles of men and women so typical of ethnographically documented hunter-gatherers did not appear in Eurasia until the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. The rich archaeological record of Middle Paleolithic cultures in Eurasia suggests, by contrast, that earlier hominins (Neandertals, among others) pursued narrowly focused economies, with women's activities more closely aligned to those of men with respect to schedules and territory use patterns. Hoofed animals were the principal source of meat for virtually all Middle and Upper Paleolithic foragers, but Upper Paleolithic people supplemented diets from large game with a broader spectrum of small animals, leading to considerable expansion in dietary breadth. Parallel

The successful life of insect societies has evolved from the division of labor among more or less specialized individuals, who carry out all necessary tasks for the maintenance and growth of the colony. The extreme division of labor has produced workers specialized in the removal of dead members of the colony, an evident and highly stereotyped behavior called undertaking which consists of the ability to recognize and dispose of the dead members of the colony using specific chemical cues. Although living in enclosed nests has contributed to the ecological success of social insects due to environmental control, it also poses disadvantages. Nests of social insects, containing dense groups of genetically close individuals with frequent physical contact, present ideal conditions for the incidence and dispersion of infectious diseases. To maintain strict microbiological control inside the nest, these insects have evolved hygienic behavioral strategies to avoid and control the proliferation of pathogens. Undertaking behavior is one of the fundamental strategies to exert microbiological control inside the nest by means of suitable management and removal of dead members of the colony, to prevent the emergence of epidemics that may lead the insect society to extinction. Therefore, undertaking behavior has been fundamental to the evolution of social insects. This stereotyped behavior constitutes an excellent model for the understanding of both social evolution and the neurobiological basis of social behavior. In this paper, we review the present knowledge on undertaking behavior, and outline some perspectives of the study of such farreaching behavior of social organization.

This paper explores conceptual and practical linkages between women and food, and argues that food security cannot be realized until women are centrally included in policy discussions about food. Women's special relationship with food is culturally constructed and not a natural division of labor. Women's identity and sense of self is often based on their ability to feed their families and others; food insecurity denies them this right. Thus the interpretation of food as a human right requires that food issues be analyzed from a gender perspective. For example, the paper asks how the rights to food intersect with the rights of women and other human rights; what the policy implications of these intersecting rights are; and how their integration will contribute to the effort to view all human rights as mutually reinforcing, universal, and indivisible. The second half of the paper speculates on the significance of distinctions between the right to be fed, the right to food, and the right to feed for understanding the relation between gender and food.

Constructive technology assessment (CTA) is a member of the family of technology assessment approaches. developed in particular in the Netherlands and Denmark. CTA shifts the focus away from assessing impacts of new technologies to broadening design, development, and implementation processes. Explicit CTA has concentrated on dialogue among and early interaction with new actors. The idea has been taken up by actors other than governments (consumers, producers). CTA implies a modulation of ongoing technological developments, and an understanding of the dynamics of such modulation is used to identify and briefly discuss three generic strategies for CTA: technology forcing, strategic niche management, and loci for alignment. Modulation activities are to be located in the broader issue of how our societies handle new technology at all. The established division of labor between promotion and control should be mitigated by sociotechnical criticism. This underlines the need for reflection on role and value profile of CTA agents.

A partir d’une problématique suscitée par l’élaboration de l’Observatoire des Conditions de Travail de l’Agence Nationale pour l’Emploi (ANPE) auquel nous avons participé en Convention Industrielle de Formation par la Recherche (CIFRE), la thèse retrace les généalogies conceptuelles qui ont amené aux visions actuelles du concept de « conditions de travail », qui s’est institutionnalisé en France vers 1970 en restant sans définition. Marqué au niveau de sa structure par une conception factorielle issue de la division du travail, et par une conception séquentielle issue du taylorisme qui s’y est superposée, il se constitue progressivement au niveau de son sens dans les débats du XIXe siècle dans une dialectique entre droit-liberté et pouvoir-domination qui s’apparente à une conception politique des conditions pour le travail, subsumée à partir du mouvement de rationalisation du début du XXe siècle par une conception organisationnelle de conditions entièrement normées ou normables. Ces conditions tendent alors à être traitées dans des négociations institutionnelles, en désadhérence de la dialectique permanente et sans cesse renouvelée du normatif et du normé dans l’activité. Cette distance entre le concept et la vie est une usurpation épistémologique dont nous proposons le dépassement par une modélisation ergologique du concept mettant en visibilité les multiples entités de débats de normes, et donc de valeurs, du micro au macro dans l’espace social. Ce mode de traitement renouvelé du concept au profit de ceux qui travaillent, favoriserait l’émergence d’alternatives laissées en pénombre dans l’activité, sources potentielles de performance pour les entités productives.


The « working conditions » : modeling proposal for use.
Between epistemology and social philosophy, an ergological approach for processing the concept

Stemming from an issue concerning the creation of the observatory of the working conditions within the French National Employment Agency (ANPE) that we participated in as beneficiary of an industrial research grant (CIFRE), the thesis retraces the conceptual genealogies that led to the current views on the concept of « working conditions », which was institutionalized in France around 1970 but remain undefined. Initially structured according to a factorial understanding based on the division of labour, then extended using sequential design derived from taylorism, its meaning is progressively built during the nineteenth century through dialectics between rights-freedom and authority-domination which refers to a political understanding of the working conditions, subsumed from the early twentieth century’s rationalization movement by an organizational design of fully standardized or standardizable conditions. These conditions then tend to be exploited within institutional negotiations, being disconnected from continuously renewed dialectics between normative and normed in activity. This gap between the concept and real life is an epistemological usurpation which we propose to surpass using an ergological way of modeling the concept that brings visibility to multiple groups of debates regarding standards, and therefore values, from micro to macro in the social space. This renewed way of addressing the concept which benefits to those who work, could promote the emergence of alternatives left in the semi-darkness of the activity, potential sources of performance for productive groups.

The authors explore the division of labor between the basal ganglia-dopamine (BG-DA) system and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in decision making. They show that a primitive neural network model of the BG-DA system slowly learns to make decisions on the basis of the relative probability of rewards but is not as sensitive to (a) recency or (b) the value of specific rewards. An augmented model that explores BG-OFC interactions is more successful at estimating the true expected value of decisions and is faster at switching behavior when reinforcement contingencies change. In the augmented model, OFC areas exert top-down control on the BG and premotor areas by representing reinforcement magnitudes in working memory. The model successfully captures patterns of behavior resulting from OFC damage in decision making, reversal learning, and devaluation paradigms and makes additional predictions for the underlying source of these deficits.

Self-bows replaced spear throwers as primary terrestrial hunting weapons on nearly all continents at different time periods throughout human prehistory. Many scholars have debated whether this transition occurred because of a shift in resource exploitation toward smaller fauna or because of the bow's supposedly superior performance in warfare. Before causal hypotheses explaining this technological shift can be tested, performance characteristics of atlatls versus bows must be well understood. Studies of performance characteristics often address topics such as the range, accuracy, or maintainability of weapons systems, but this study quantitatively compares the learnability of each weapon. Learning curves for spear throwers and bows are established using contemporary data generated by archers from the Society for Creative Anachronism and atlatlists from the World Atlatl Association. The hypothesis that spear throwers are easier to learn and can be wielded effectively by a wider segment of human populations than bows is supported. Implications for the organization of labor are contextualized in light of socioecological changes generally characterizing the conditions under which shifts from atlatl to self-bow technology occurred in prehistory.

[American Anthropologist early view; no volume number yet]

We live in a culture controlled by experts.  However, the most important thing for any expert is to maintain his or her expert status.  Authorities must defend their position or they are no longer authorities.  They do this by keeping the public dependent, ignorant, and confused, and by opposing new information and paradigms which may threaten their power. 

If the search for truth and knowledge is to achieve more than a new patent or other financial goal, if it is to ever break free of its current blinders and ignorance and biases, we need to reject authoritarianism in science and medicine.

Conceitos centrais da vida contemporânea, tais como política, civilização e cidadania, derivam da forma e organização da cidade. A cidade expressa a divisão socioespacial do trabalho, e Henri Lefebvre propõe pensar sua transformação a partir de um continuum que se estende da cidade política ao urbano, onde se completa a dominação sobre o campo. A efetiva passagem da cidade ao urbano foi marcada pela tomada da cidade pela indústria, trazendo a produção -e o proletariado -para o espaço do poder. A cidade, lócus do excedente, do poder e da festa, cenário privilegiado da reprodução social, ficou, assim, subordinada à lógica da indústria. Sofreu, então, um duplo processo: sua centralidade implodiu sobre si mesma e sua periferia explodiu sobre o entorno sob a forma de tecido urbano, que acabou por carregar consigo o germe da pólis e da civitas. Assim, a práxis urbana, antes restrita à cidade, re-politizou todo o espaço social. No Brasil, o urbano teve sua origem na política ao mesmo tempo concentradora e integradora dos governos militares, que deram seqüência à centralização e expansionismo varguista e à interiorização desenvolvimentista juscelinista. Hoje, o urbano-industrial impõe-se virtualmente a todo o espaço social, na urbanização extensiva dos nossos dias.

"Now written as a chapter in Rational Freedom vol 2 Philosophical Origins by Dr Peter Critchley

This paper considers Rousseau’s importance as a prophet of popular sovereignty and of the democratic state. In examining these claims, this paper makes an important distinction between the negative and positive conceptions of freedom. The paper proceeds to show how, in Rousseau’s construction, government becomes an agent of individual freedom so that individuals are perfectly free in a democracy worthy of the name - that is, which embodies and expresses sovereign power actively and directly."

Marx envisions communism as a participatory democratically planned society that replaces both capitalism and the state.  In addition to being democratically structured and planned, a communist society, on Marx’s view, must also do away with the division of labour seen under capitalism. Why is this?

In this paper, I draw on Marx’s most developed writings on the division of labour, especially on Capital, to examine Marx’s reasons for objecting to the capitalist division of labour and advocating its supersession under communism. Here I argue that communism, as Marx conceives of it, requires an end to hierarchical divisions of labour in order to be a plausible vision of a free and non-hierarchical society democratically managed by and for the associated producers.

Next I consider Max Weber’s contention that bureaucratic power and control is a necessary component of modern technology and industry, and Robert Michels’ argument that all human organisation is subject to what he calls the ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’ for technical reasons to do with the necessity of a hierarchical division of labour in any and all human organisation. If this is the case, it risks seriously undermining Marx’s critique of capitalism, since it implies that we either have to give up collective control over all of society by the associated producers or give up on either modern industry and technology or social organisation tout court. The latter route renders any view of communism highly unappealing as a vision for a future society, whereas the latter route entails accepting an inevitable rule by a minority over the majority, giving up Marx’s vision of a society of the associated producers.

Finally, I argue that both Weber’s and Michels’ arguments are unconvincing.  Both Weber and Michels’ arguments fail because they lack sufficient empirical support, because experiments with re-organising divisions of labour in large organisations and in technologically advanced industries disprove it, and because, in Weber’s case in particular, they rely on tacit value-laden assumptions which Marxists should reject. Although Weber and Michels give convincing arguments for hierarchical divisions of labour resulting in de facto minority rule – which Marx agrees with – they fail to show that such a a division of labour is impossible to overcome. Marx’s critique of the hierarchical capitalist division of labour therefore stands, as does his case for replacing it with a vertical one.

Paper presented at the Marxism stream of the 2016 Manchester Workshops in Political Theory. Please don't quite without permission etc.

With the famous numerical example of chapter 7 of the Principles (1817) David Ricardo intended to illustrate first and foremost the new proposition that his labor theory of value does not regulate the price of international transactions when the factors of production are immobile between countries. Unfortunately, later scholars have often omitted this proposition when referring to Ricardo's numerical example. Instead, they have highlighted only the comparative-advantage proposition, although Ricardo considered it as a corollary of the omitted proposition and therefore inextricably linked to it. This inexplicable omission has led to an incomplete understanding of the logical construction of Ricardo's numerical example, as well as to the misinterpretation of the four numbers as unitary labor costs. With an accurate understanding of Ricardo's numerical example and the logical relationship between the two propositions it meant to prove, it is relatively easy to refute the main objections that have been raised against the very same numerical example in the past. Moreover, it reaffirms the sustained relevance of Ricardo's two propositions as important insights for understanding the current process of economic globalization.

... an index of occupational prestige based upon the method devised by Duncan (1961) but specifically adapted to the occupational categories of the 1970 census by Temme (1975 ... OCCUPA-OCCUPATIONAL TERRI-TIONAL PRESTIGE TORIAL INDEX SPECIAL-?CONCEN-OF ...

Economics is a typical resource for social epistemology and the division of labour is a common theme for economics. As such it should come as no surprise that the present paper turns to economics to formulate a view on the dynamics of scientific communities, with precursors such as Kitcher (1990), Goldman and Shaked (1991) and Hull (1988). But although the approach is similar to theirs, the view defended is different. Mäki (2005) points out that the lessons philosophers draw from economics can go either way depending on the model chosen. Thus, the aims of this paper are (1) to illustrate this flexibility by proposing an alternative model which assumes increasing returns to adoption in science rather than the decreasing returns present in the aforementioned contributions; and (2) to outline the implications of this view for scientific pluralism and institutional design.

The successful life of insect societies has evolved from the division of labor among more or less specialized individuals, who carry out all necessary tasks for the maintenance and growth of the colony. The extreme division of labor has produced workers specialized in the removal of dead members of the colony, an evident and highly stereotyped behavior called undertaking which consists of the ability to recognize and dispose of the dead members of the colony using specific chemical cues. Although living in enclosed nests has contributed to the ecological success of social insects due to environmental control, it also poses disadvantages. Nests of social insects, containing dense groups of genetically close individuals with frequent physical contact, present ideal conditions for the incidence and dispersion of infectious diseases. To maintain strict microbiological control inside the nest, these insects have evolved hygienic behavioral strategies to avoid and control the proliferation of pathogens. Undertaking behavior is one of the fundamental strategies to exert microbiological control inside the nest by means of suitable management and removal of dead members of the colony, to prevent the emergence of epidemics that may lead the insect society to extinction. Therefore, undertaking behavior has been fundamental to the evolution of social insects. This stereotyped behavior constitutes an excellent model for the understanding of both social evolution and the neurobiological basis of social behavior. In this paper, we review the present knowledge on undertaking behavior, and outline some perspectives of the study of such far-reaching behavior of social organization.

Studies of cultural artifacts and faunal remains from European Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites indicate a shift in hunter gatherer subsistence strategies, involving an intensification and diversification of resource exploitation relative to earlier foragers during the Tardiglacial and Postglacial periods. This trend has been recognized as well through the analysis of non-pathological skeletal adaptations of the upper limbs of European Upper Paleolithic human fossils. These paleoanthropological studies of adaptive bone modeling also raise the question of female use of throwing-based weapon technology in the Upper Paleolithic. Here, we studied another type of osteological marker of activity, enthesopathies, of the upper limb remains of 37 European Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic human fossils, with the goal of testing two hypotheses: 1) that activity levels were heightened at the end of Upper Paleolithic and into the Mesolithic relative to earlier foragers of the Gravettian, and 2) that there was an absence of a marked sexual division of labor in European hunter-gatherers during this time span. Our results are consistent with the first hypothesis; upper limb enthesopathies are significantly less frequent in the Gravettian group, but raise doubts about the second hypothesis. Four males exhibit lesions that can be confidently associated with throwing activities, while no females exhibit such lesions.

Available reports indicate a shift in conventional gender roles in agricultural labor among the Igbo of Nigeria. This study shows that the participation of Igbo men in nonfarm activities and waged employment has resulted in an increased workload for women in food crop production as well as a breakdown of the gender division of labor in agriculture. Igbo women now undertake some of the conventional male agricultural tasks in addition to those in the female domain. In spite of this, women experience greater constraints in access to production resources. These issues should be addressed by appropriate policy measures.

Archaeological models of hunter-gatherer subsistence often imply that the influence of menÕs or womenÕs foraging effort on settlement patterns varied over time, but fail to consider how central place foraging may reflect conflicting subsistence interests between men and women. For example, earlier studies of Carson Desert prehistory suggest a semisedentary, gathering strategy replaced a mobile, hunting-oriented strategy in response to diminishing densities of large game. This implies that the influence of menÕs and womenÕs work effort on residential location and mobility changed, but assumes both genders foraged for the common good rather than striving for different goals. A new central place foraging model based on a human behavioral ecology perspective of sexual division of labor considers how men and women might reconcile conflicting foraging interests given likely resource abundance, return rates, and transport costs. MenÕs hunting returns must be high enough to reliably provision children for a hunting-oriented settlement pattern to occur. Otherwise, men should logistically hunt out of bases positioned to facilitate womenÕs foraging. Therefore, a hunting-oriented strategy seems unlikely in the Late Holocene Carson Desert.

Kuhn wanted to install a new research agenda in philosophy of science. I argue that the tools are now available to better articulate his paradigm and let it guide philosophical research instead of itself remaining the object of philosophical debate.

In this paper I formulate the thesis of the Division of Epistemic Labor as a thesis of epistemic dependence, illustrate several ways in which individual subjects are epistemically dependent on one or more of the members of their community in the process of knowledge acquisition, and draw conclusions about the cognitively distributed nature of some knowledge acquisition.

Time-use surveys show how individuals spend their time during the day or week, which provides evidence of the gendered division of labor within households and the interdependence of women's and men's paid and unpaid work. Time-use experts in the South face similar challenges to those working in other countries, but they also have to come to terms with the restrictions faced in less developed contextsnotably higher illiteracy rates and limited statistical budgets. These Explorations bring together contributions from three experts on time-use survey design and administration working in three diverse Southern regions to highlight the ongoing processes of learning-by-doing and of building local expertise in these regions. Their discussion of methodological and logistical issues holds particular relevance for developing countries moving toward the implementation of time-use surveys. It also bears on more general feminist concerns regarding the classification and measurement of unpaid care.

waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we investigate how the earnings bonus for fatherhood varies by characteristics associated with hegemonic masculinity in the American workplace: heterosexual marital status, professional/managerial status, educational attainment, skill demands of jobs, and race/ethnicity. We find the earnings bonus for fatherhood persists after controlling for an array of differences, including human capital, labor supply, family structure, and wives' employment status. Moreover, consistent with predictions from the theory of hegemonic masculinity within bureaucratic organizations, the fatherhood bonus is significantly larger for men with other markers of workplace hegemonic masculinity. Men who are white, married, in households with a traditional gender division of labor, college graduates, professional/managerial workers and whose jobs emphasize cognitive skills and deemphasize physical strength receive the largest fatherhood earnings bonuses.

Fair Trade coffee production is a relatively new, but growing market for small-scale Brazilian coffee farmers. The majority of scholarship on Brazilian coffee production has focused on Brazil's large-scale coffee plantations, and coffee planters' ongoing subjugation of their laborers, starting with slaves, continuing with immigrants colonos, to contemporary salaried farmworkers. This paper offers a different perspective by looking at one mechanism, Fair Trade, used by small-scale Brazilian coffee farmers to stay on the land and support their families. Towards the end of the twentieth century, when world coffee prices were bottoming out, new market-based movements for social justice, such as Fair Trade, were promoted as a sustainable alternative for small farmers. The growing body of literature exploring the impacts of Fair Trade has been characterized by a notable lack of attention to the gendered dimensions of Fair Trade coffee certification and production. However, scholars studying other alternative trade paradigms, such as organic certification, have documented an inequitable gendered division of labor in coffee production and processing. Moreover, a growing number of sources on Fair Trade and organic production cite increased labor demands due to these paradigms' environmental standards. These facts are taken into consideration with feminist scholarship, which has demonstrated that rural women often have less access to resources and control over their labor than men. This paper explores the existing scholarship on gender and ethical trade, and will provide preliminary data from the author's research on the gendered social, economic, and environmental impacts of Fair Trade coffee production at two cooperatives in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Abstract. A persistent empirical finding in the research on travel patterns is that women tend to engage in shorter work commutes than men. Research evaluating the degree to which this gender differential in commuting may be explained by the division of labor in the household has ...

Adam Smith is commonly referred to as one of the first who thought of foreign trade in terms of an international division of labour, whereby each country specialises in the production of certain goods. It is argued that he made a strong case for foreign trade on this basis. In this article, I will, in contrast, show that Smith does not understand foreign trade as an international division of labour. Economic progress rather than international trade determines domestic production structures. Apart from domestic development, international trade patterns are affected by transport costs and geographical factors, as well as producer and consumer preferences. In Smith’s theory, countries will not specialise, but rather produce similar goods. The division of labour plays a role in Smith’s theory of foreign trade, but in a mechanical, not territorial, sense.

Bu çalışma, uluslararası göç sürecinde yer alan göçmen işçilerin, göç edilen toplumdaki işgücü piyasasında etnisite ve toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı olarak nasıl bir işbölümü içerisinde yer aldıklarını anlamayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, söz konusu işbölümünü, hem göçmen işçilerin hem de işverenlerin deneyimleri üzerinden anlamak mümkündür. Bu çalışmada, Gürcistan'dan Hopa'ya yapılan göç hareketinde, işgücü piyasasının düzensiz, kaçak ve enformel bir şekilde örgütlenmesine ve göçmen işgücünün etnisite ve toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliklerine dayalı yapısına odaklanılmaktadır. Bu kapsamda, Hopa'daki işgücü piyasasının farklı iş kollarında çalışan 20 Gürcü işçi ve bu işçileri çalıştıran 8 işveren olmak üzere toplamda 28 kişi ile nitel araştırma yöntemi aracılığıyla derinlemesine mülakatlar yapılmıştır. Yapılan araştırmada, Türk ve Gürcü işçiler arasındaki etnisite ve toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı işbölümünün, çalışma biçimi, işe yüklenen anlam, zaman ve işin niteliğiyle ilgili sosyolojik dinamikler açısından farklılaştıkları sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.