Deep Structure

Analysis of Syntactic  structures in AAVE, the dangers of angauge reclamation, and the impact of conversation/shift of perspective the United  States today

-"all up in my grill" "ain't nobody got time for that" "nigga"

The present study, a slightly revised version of the author's 1968 Ph.D. thesis presented to the University of Chicago, investigates compound formation in Thai. Chapter 1 summarizes the transformational generative theory on which the study is based, discusses the concept that Thai is a "simple" language in comparison with English, and briefly outlines the structure of Thai noun phrases, Chapter 2 outlines the development of transformational grammar and presents the base component of a transformational grammar. Chapter 3 discusses the use of transformations and describes the transformational rules needed to generate the structures directly underlying the compounds themselves. Chapter 4, working from the assumption that most Thai noun compounds are derived from noun phrases in which sentences have been embedded as relative clauses, demonstrates how certain structures generated by the grammar proposed in the earlier chapters can be converted into Thai noun compounds. Compounds are analyzed by type. Chapter 5 is dedicated to the small subset of noun compounds considered to be learned compounds and offers solutions to the problems presented by such forms.

YUNUS EMRE DİVANI’NDA EKSİLTİLİ YAPILAR
Elliptic Structres In Yunus Emre Divan Literature
Aysun DEMİREZ
ABSTRACT
Indicators are the shape of the human thoughts in which they have been converted into concepts; whereas linguistic indicators consist of particle, word and sentences. If the deficient linguistic indicators in a survey made in terms of criterion of textuality have been mentally completed and if the meaning in the text has not been deteriorated, it means that; ellipsis which is one of the criterion of homogeneity exists therein. Ellipsis is related with the meaning and structure both in every sense. There are common points for the perception of surface structure and deep structure; the deep structure of language units should be settled as the same by the language users. Examination of  units which are not able to be transmitted to the surface structure  and which have been left in the deep structure and filling the spaces which are included in the surface structure are important in terms of  historical texts as well. Settlement of ellipsis in the deep structure of the historical texts shall reveal relevant information on the criterion of homogeneity in the text belonging to that period.
In this survey, elliptic structures in Yunus Emre’s Divan Literature, one of most important works of previous Oğuz Turkish language period is hereby examined.

A. J. Greimas' Semiotic Square first made its appearance in his book Sémantique Structurale, published in 1966. In it, he uses the square to identify and explore sets of oppositions within literary texts. In my essay, "A. J. Greimas in Jakarta", I use Greimas' model and apply it to stories, novellas and novels by writers as diverse as Alice Munro, Andre Dubus, Han Kang and Julian Barnes in order to explore the narrative structure of those texts. In particular, I use the square to pinpoint and highlight the four-way sets of relationships in operation in all those texts.

This paper discusses error analysis as one source of evidence for an overall theory of second language acquisition. Four related areas which form the context for error analysis are discussed in relation to second language learning and the goals and methodology of error analysis; (1) theories of the nature of language which determine theories of error analysis; (2) the study of language systems in contact, which seems to indicate that syntax is subordinate to semantics; (3) the learning of linguistic systems, divided into learning the code (sentence) and learning how to use the code; and (4) the use of linguistic systems in communication, concerned with the nature of the learner's "utterances," in contrast to "sentences." Although the present study is not considered definitive, it is believed that with further study error analysis will greatly influence attitudes toward language-teaching problems. (AM)

Azerbaijan is located in the Alpine Himalayan collisional zone and is characterized by its complex and variable geological structure. To study Azerbaijan's deep structure, twelve main regional interpreting profiles were selected for comprehensive 3D combined gravity-magnetic modeling. The development of the initial physical-geological models (PGMs) was based on known surface geology, drilling data, previous seismic, magnetotelluric and thermal data analysis, examination of the richest petrophysical data, as well as quantitative and qualitative gravity/magnetic data examination. The PGMs thus reflect the key structural-formational specifics of Azerbaijan's geological structure, beginning from the subsurface (hundreds of meters) up to the Moho discontinuity (40-60 km). The PGMs revealed common factors controlling ore-and hydrocarbon bearing formations, primarily the boundaries of tectonic blocks, masked faults, and buried uplifts of magmatic rocks. Many of these factors can be used to investigate long-term geodynamic activity at a depth. The article summarizes many years of investigation by exemplifying the most typical PGMs for the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, the Kura depression, and central and northern Azerbaijan.

The present level of understanding of the psycholinguistic processes and capacities underlying the child's acquisition of language is reviewed in this publication. In the first chapter, linguistic theories, biological characteristics of language learning, and the distinctions between language competence and language performance are discussed. The remaining two chapters are a detailed discussion of the empirical findings of psycholinguists and psychologists about language acquisition: chapter two focuses on the nature and acquisition of syntax while chapter three considers the nature of phonology in a grammar and the child's acquisition of phonology. A bibliography is included. (JM)

The analysis of construct phrases (or “genitive constructions”) in Biblical Hebrew (BH) forms an important part of understanding a text. Therefore, in almost all grammars a section on “the kind of genitives” can be found. However, the traditional explanation of genitives is quite problematic confusing the levels of morphology, syntax and semantics. The distinction between these linguistic levels probably offers the best approach to a solution. One possibility would be to use a morphological approach in which all the formal characteristics can be dealt with. With a syntactic approach the underlying relations in construct phrases can be analysed by means of syntactic back-transformations. This article offers a solution from another point of view, namely that of semantics. Analysing the semantic relations in construct phrases is probably a better method to understand these phrases than looking into the supposed underlying syntactic relations. The explanation of the variety of relations in construct phrases must rather be sought in the field of semantics or in what is known as the deep structure.

Language is a defining characteristic of higher order species-particularly of us, homo sapiens. For that reason, it is only appropriate to conclude that linguistic capability-the ability to understand and generate natural language-is essential in any tools that we build for cognitive assistance. Fast and superior automated solutions exist in most other competencies, including numeracy and vision, but parity in linguistic skills remains elusive [1] for many reasons. In this chapter, we seek to identify why we find ourselves here and propose an alternative approach to overcome identified deficiencies. We do not know yet if this approach is useful or effective, but we proceed to share our thoughts because the biggest risk is doing nothing. First, we review seminal work on linguistics and the structure of language. We then examine the most popular contemporary solutions, identify their drawbacks and propose alternatives to address them.

Subjects were presented with sets of sentences expressed in either the active or passive voice. There were one, two, four, or eight sentences in a set. After a few seconds, an active or passive question was asked about one of the sentences. When one sentence was presented, less errors occurred when sentence and question voice were the same than when they differed; but for four and eight sentences, less errors occurred when the question was active rather than passive. The results suggest that the surface form of a single sentence is retained for question answering, that both surface and deep structures are retained following two sentences, and that only the deep structures of sets of four and eight sentences are retained. Recent experiments have questioned the view, derived from Chomsky's (1965) theory of transformational grammar, that passive sentences are more difficult to process than active. For example, Slobin (1966) and Herriot (1969) found that passives were more difficult than actives only if they were pragmatically reversible, that is, if the nouns in the sentence could be interchanged to give a semantically plausible sentence. Further limitations on the supposed difficulty of passive sentences have been introduced. Wright (1969, 1972) found that answering questions about the nouns in reversible passive sentences was only difficult when the questions were active, not when the questions were passive. In other words when both sentence and question were passive, a "match" situation, the task was easier than when either the sentence was active and the question passive or the sentence passive and the question active, a "mismatch" situation.

Language is a defining characteristic of higher order species-particularly of us, homo sapiens. For that reason, it is only appropriate to conclude that linguistic capability-the ability to understand and generate natural language-is essential in any tools that we build for cognitive assistance. Fast and superior automated solutions exist in most other competencies, including numeracy and vision, but parity in linguistic skills remains elusive [1] for many reasons. In this chapter, we seek to identify why we find ourselves here and propose an alternative approach to overcome identified deficiencies. We do not know yet if this approach is useful or effective, but we proceed to share our thoughts because the biggest risk is doing nothing. First, we review seminal work on linguistics and the structure of language. We then examine the most popular contemporary solutions, identify their drawbacks and propose alternatives to address them.

K'iche' Maya divides the breaking and cutting domains into much more specific actions than either English or Spanish. K'iche' does not have a general word for breaking that can be substituted for the specialized breaking verbs in the way that English "break" can be used to describe more specific senses of picking, popping, smashing, or shattering. Twenty-seven definitions for English "break" are listed versus 42 meanings in K'iche'. Thus, K'iche' has gaps in its lexical and conceptual structure with no equivalent lexical or phrasal expressions for English "break" and "cut." K'iche' examples illustrate that "cut" verbs do not universally fail to undergo the causative alternation. Such facts pose severe difficulties for the notion of a universal conceptual structure underlying language. It is concluded that K'iche' breaking verbs are difficult to define because their meaning is not captured by the same set of semantic features that underlies English breaking verbs. It is concluded that the assumption of semantic indeterminacy expands the scope of field investigations and is preferable to the assumption of semantic determinacy. (Contains 16 references.) (Author/NAV)

On the basis of the grammatical theory developed by Noam Chomsky. it is reasonable to presume that the different parts of a sentence may not all be understood with equal facility and speed. One purpose of this study was to determine whether some of the grammatical relations whhin a sentence were understood more readily than others. Sentences of varying srammatical form were presented to 26 subjects who were asked to verify them one at a time by comparing the content of each sentence with the content of a picture that was shown contiguously following the sentence. Speed of verification was taken as an index of understanding. The four independent variables (true-false. affirmative-negative, active-passive. subject-verb-object) were combined in a 2 X2 X2 X3X 26 (subjects) factorial design. The results showed that the subject-verb and verb-object relationship was not significant at the .

An extreme view of language acquisition sees base structures as innate, and acquisition of the grammar of,a particular language, as a process of learning the transformation:rules needed to get from base structures to surface structures of adu t native speakers. Base structures are understood to most resem * *

Explicit and implicit claims of various approaches to contrastive linguistics are considered. Naive CL and general CL are differentiated. It is argued, on the basis of considerable research, that the strong claims of naive CL are generally false where they can be tested and useless where they cannot be made explicit enough to be tested. Four gradients of the contrastive linguistics hypothesis are considered, ranging from the naive assertion that the errors of second language learners are nearly perfectly prediciable on the basis of a comparison of the native and target language grammars, to the other extreme suggesting that none of the errors second language learners make can be predicted on the basis of a contrastive analysis. The research favors a moderate CLH which merely claims that interference from the native language is a significant though small factor in second language learning. It is argued that the emphasis of contrastive linguistics in particular and structuralism in general on the surface form of language was perhaps misplaced. Present studies of the deeper generative system (expectancy grammar, interlanguage, or conceptual dependency system) that is being internalized by the learner seem far more promising. It is little wonder, for this reason, that contrastive analysis has lost much of its former appeal. Nevertheless, it is claimed that we can profit greatly by seeing the seriousness of the errors committed in superficial analyses of language. The current trend of placing greater emphasis on the relationship of utterance to experience (that is, the renewal of interest in pragmatics) seems more promising theoretically and more vulnerable empirically. These two qualities augur well for future study. Contrastive linguistics is not the vogue that it once was. In recent volumes of the ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series edited by Jarvis (1976) and Phillips (1977), it is not even in the indexes.' What used to be, only a few years ago, very much of a staple in the diet of applied linguists and language teachers has faded to a matter of peripheral interest. Contrastive studies are rarely the topic of current dissertations in linguistics and related areas (only two were listed in Social Science Crtation Index for 1978). and many of the outstanding institutions providing instruction in linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and the like are no longer even offering, much less requiring a course in contrastive analysis. Many of us limbered up our own tongues as we entered the wonderful domain of phonemes, morphemes, and linguistic structures in a required course on

In order to have a balanced judgment on language process views, the research tries to explain the mental process connection in the language learning process. The deep structure and surface structure theory designation indicated that the learning process consists of two procedures: deep structure process, which is the essential part in absorbing and captivating activities and surface structure which concentrates on symbols and codes in expressing the mind's activities. These procedures have been emphasized by modern and traditional scholars in highlighting the concept of the language learning process.

The purpose of this article is to describe and partially present a theory of grammar (syntax and semantics) that combines the most essential features of Richard Montague's theory of syntax and semantics and the transformational approach to syntax. In the formal organization of the grammar, the resulting theory is closer to Montague than to any of the current versions of transformational grammar; nevertheless, close analogues of most of the actual rules (both phrase structure and transformational) that have been formulated by ...

The Andaman arc is associated with a major Free-air anomaly pair of mean amplitude 180 mgal. Two-dimensional gravity interpretation suggests significant mass anomalies below the arc that presumably have resulted due to subduction of the Indian plate below the Burma plate. It is inferred that the Andaman trench is of asymmetric V-shape containing about 7 km sediments. An outer bathymetric rise seaward of the trench possibly corresponds to a lithospheric flexure by 500 m. The Cretaceous-Tertiary sediments constituting the Andaman sedimentary arc attain their maximum thickness of about 13 km under the Nicobar Deep at the subduction zone. At this location a mafic mass is emplaced within the sedimentary section. The underlying oceanic crust apparently experiences phase transition at about 27 km depth in a Benioff zone environment. The Andaman volcanic arc underlies a low density zone that is at least 60 km wide. Along the east margin of the Andaman Sea, crustal transition presumably occurs below the Mergui Terrace at the Malayan coast.

There are two positions on the relationship of the speech of Blacks and whites, and they are guile opposed tc one another. One position cbserves virtually no differences in the speech of Southern whites and Blacks and therefore assumes that the historical development can be traced to a British dialect. The other sees many significant differences and therefore assumes that Flack dialect is derived from a crecle-based system more like the Caribbean creoles than it is like a British dialect. In order tc resolve scene of the issues at the heart of this controversy, Wolfram, Shuy, and Fasold have begun extracting data from 50 lower socie-economic class children (Black and white) between the ages of six and eight. This specific age range was chosen to represent a period when the children would be past the developmental stage but at an age when the awareness of the sccial consequences of speech would be minimal. The age is also crucial because both Stewart and Dillard maintain that only among children do certain creole-like features exist. Analysis of the third person singular, possessives, copula absence, invariant "be," and word-final consonant clusters lead the author tc conclude that there are definite Black/white speech differences that can not be dismissed as "statistical skewing": some are qualitative. However, the extent of these differences is not nearly as great as is sometimes claimed; they differ in surface rather than deep structure. (DO) reN reN

On the basis of the grammatical theory developed by Noam Chomsky. it is reasonable to presume that the different parts of a sentence may not all be understood with equal facility and speed. One purpose of this study was to determine whether some of the grammatical relations whhin a sentence were understood more readily than others. Sentences of varying srammatical form were presented to 26 subjects who were asked to verify them one at a time by comparing the content of each sentence with the content of a picture that was shown contiguously following the sentence. Speed of verification was taken as an index of understanding. The four independent variables (true-false. affirmative-negative, active-passive. subject-verb-object) were combined in a 2 X2 X2 X3X 26 (subjects) factorial design. The results showed that the subject-verb and verb-object relationship was not significant at the .

On the basis of the grammatical theory developed by Noam Chomsky. it is reasonable to presume that the different parts of a sentence may not all be understood with equal facility and speed. One purpose of this study was to determine whether some of the grammatical relations whhin a sentence were understood more readily than others. Sentences of varying srammatical form were presented to 26 subjects who were asked to verify them one at a time by comparing the content of each sentence with the content of a picture that was shown contiguously following the sentence. Speed of verification was taken as an index of understanding. The four independent variables (true-false. affirmative-negative, active-passive. subject-verb-object) were combined in a 2 X2 X2 X3X 26 (subjects) factorial design. The results showed that the subject-verb and verb-object relationship was not significant at the .