Template:List of oxidation states of the elements

This table lists only the occurrences in compounds and complexes, not pure elements in their standard state or allotropes.

  Noble gas
+1 Bold values are main oxidation states
Element Negative states Positive states Group Notes
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Z
1 hydrogen H −1 +1 1
2 helium He 0 18 0[1]
3 lithium Li −1 +1 1 [2]
4 beryllium Be 0 +1 +2 2 [3] [4]
5 boron B −5 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [5] [6][7] [8][9] [8]
6 carbon C −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14
7 nitrogen N −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [8] [8][10] [8] [8] [8]
8 oxygen O −2 −1 0 +1 +2 16 [8] [8] [8]
9 fluorine F −1 17
10 neon Ne 0 18 0[11]
11 sodium Na −1 0 +1 1 [8][12]
12 magnesium Mg 0 +1 +2 2 [13] [14]
13 aluminium Al −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [15] [16][17] [8][18] [19]
14 silicon Si −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [8] [8] [8][20] [8][21] [8] [8]
15 phosphorus P −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [8] [8][22] [8][23] [8] [8]
16 sulfur S −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [8] [8] [8] [8]
17 chlorine Cl −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17 [8] [8] [8]
18 argon Ar 0 18 0[24]
19 potassium K −1 +1 1 [25]
20 calcium Ca +1 +2 2 [26]
21 scandium Sc 0 +1 +2 +3 3 [27] [28] [29]
22 titanium Ti −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [30] [8][31] [32] [8] [8]
23 vanadium V −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [33] [8][34] [8] [8] [8] [8]
24 chromium Cr −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [35] [8] [8][36] [8] [8] [8] [8]
25 manganese Mn −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7 [8] [37][8] [8][8] [8] [8] [8] [8]
26 iron Fe −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 8 [8] [8][8] [38] [8] [39] [8] [40] ?
27 cobalt Co −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 9 [41] [8][8] [8] [8] [42]
28 nickel Ni −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 10 [43] [8][44] [45] [8] [46]
29 copper Cu −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 11 [47][48] [8] [8] [8]
30 zinc Zn −2 0 +1 +2 12 [49] [50] ?
31 gallium Ga −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [51] [51] [52] [51] [8] [8] ?
32 germanium Ge −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [53] [8] [8] ?
33 arsenic As −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [54] [55] [8] [56] ?
34 selenium Se −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [57] [58] [59] ?
35 bromine Br −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +7 17 [60] [8] [8]
36 krypton Kr +1 +2 18 ?
37 rubidium Rb −1 +1 1 [61]
38 strontium Sr +1 +2 2 [62]
39 yttrium Y 0 +1 +2 +3 3 [63] [8] ?
40 zirconium Zr −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [64][65] [8] [66][67] [8]
41 niobium Nb −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [68] [8] [8] [8] [8] ?
42 molybdenum Mo −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [69] [8] [8][70] [8] [8] [8] [8]
43 technetium Tc −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8]
44 ruthenium Ru −2 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8]
45 rhodium Rh −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 9 [71] [8][72] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [73]
46 palladium Pd 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 10 [74] [75] [76]
47 silver Ag −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 11 [77] [78][79] [8] [8]
48 cadmium Cd −2 +1 +2 12 [80] [81]
49 indium In −5 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 13 [82] [83] [84] [8] [8] ?
50 tin Sn −4 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [85] [86] [87] ?
51 antimony Sb −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [88] ?
52 tellurium Te −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 16 [8] ?
53 iodine I −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 17 [89] ?
54 xenon Xe 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 18 [90] [91]
55 caesium Cs −1 +1 1 [92]
56 barium Ba +1 +2 2 [93]
57 lanthanum La 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [94] [8]
58 cerium Ce +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [8]
59 praseodymium Pr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [63] [95] [96] ?
60 neodymium Nd 0 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [63] [8]
61 promethium Pm +2 +3 f-block groups ?
62 samarium Sm 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [97] [8]
63 europium Eu 0 +2 +3 f-block groups 0[63]
64 gadolinium Gd 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [8] [8]
65 terbium Tb 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [63] [94] [96] [8]
66 dysprosium Dy 0 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [63] [8]
67 holmium Ho 0 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [96]
68 erbium Er 0 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [96]
69 thulium Tm 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [94] [8]
70 ytterbium Yb 0 +1 +2 +3 f-block groups [63] [94] [8]
71 lutetium Lu 0 +2 +3 3 [63] [96]
72 hafnium Hf −2 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 4 [98][99] [100] [8] [8]
73 tantalum Ta −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 5 [101] [8] [8] [8] [8] ?
74 tungsten W −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] ?
75 rhenium Re −3 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 7 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] ?
76 osmium Os −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 8 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] ?
77 iridium Ir −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 9 [8] [8] [8] [8] [8] [102] ?
78 platinum Pt −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 10 [8] [8] ?
79 gold Au −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +5 11 [8] [103] [8] [8] ?
80 mercury Hg −2 +1 +2 12 [104]
81 thallium Tl −5 −2 −1 +1 +2 +3 13 [105] ?
82 lead Pb −4 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 14 [8] [106] ?
83 bismuth Bi −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 15 [8] [107] [8] ?
84 polonium Po −2 +2 +4 +5 +6 16 [108] [8]
85 astatine At −1 +1 +3 +5 +7 17 [8] [8] [8]
86 radon Rn +2 +6 18 ?
87 francium Fr +1 1
88 radium Ra +2 2
89 actinium Ac +3 f-block groups
90 thorium Th −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [109] [8] [8] ?
91 protactinium Pa +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [8] [8] ?
92 uranium U −1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 f-block groups [109] [110] [8] [8] ?
93 neptunium Np +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 f-block groups [8] [111] [8] [8] ?
94 plutonium Pu +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 f-block groups [8], [8] [8] [8] ?
95 americium Am +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 f-block groups [8] [8] [8] [8]
96 curium Cm +3 +4 +5 +6 f-block groups [8] [112] [113]
97 berkelium Bk +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [8] [112] ?
98 californium Cf +2 +3 +4 +5 f-block groups [8] [8] [114][112]
99 einsteinium Es +2 +3 +4 f-block groups [8]
100 fermium Fm +2 +3 f-block groups [8]
101 mendelevium Md +2 +3 f-block groups [8]
102 nobelium No +2 +3 f-block groups [8]
103 lawrencium Lr +3 3
104 rutherfordium Rf +3 +4 4 [115]
105 dubnium Db +3 +4 +5 5 [115]
106 seaborgium Sg +3 +4 +5 +6 6 [115]
107 bohrium Bh +3 +4 +5 +7 7 [115]
108 hassium Hs +3 +4 +6 +8 8 [115]
109 meitnerium Mt +1 +3 +6 9 [115]
110 darmstadtium Ds +2 +4 +6 10 [115]
111 roentgenium Rg −1 +3 +5 11 [115]
112 copernicium Cn +2 +4 12 [115]
113 nihonium Nh 13
114 flerovium Fl 14
115 moscovium Mc 15
116 livermorium Lv −2 +4 16 [116]
117 tennessine Ts −1 +5 17
118 oganesson Og −1 +1 +2 +4 +6 18 [115] [117] [118] [118] [115]
  1. ^ Disodium helide, (Na+)2He(e-)2, has been synthesized at high pressure, see Dong, Xiao; Oganov, Artem R.; Goncharov, Alexander F.; Stavrou, Elissaios; Lobanov, Sergey; Saleh, Gabriele; Qian, Guang-Rui; Zhu, Qiang; Gatti, Carlo; Deringer, Volker L.; Dronskowski, Richard; Zhou, Xiang-Feng; Prakapenka, Vitali B.; Konôpková, Zuzana; Popov, Ivan A.; Boldyrev, Alexander I.; Wang, Hui-Tian (6 February 2017). "A stable compound of helium and sodium at high pressure". Nature Chemistry. 9 (5): 440–445. arXiv:1309.3827. Bibcode:2017NatCh...9..440D. doi:10.1038/nchem.2716. PMID 28430195. S2CID 20459726.
  2. ^ Li(–1) has been observed in the gas phase; see R. H. Sloane; H. M. Love (1947). "Surface Formation of Lithium Negative Ions". Nature. 159: 302–303. doi:10.1038/159302a0.
  3. ^ Be(0) has been observed; see "Beryllium(0) Complex Found". Chemistry Europe. 13 June 2016.
  4. ^ "Beryllium: Beryllium(I) Hydride compound data" (PDF). bernath.uwaterloo.ca. Retrieved 2007-12-10.
  5. ^ B(−5) has been observed in Al3BC, see Schroeder, Melanie. "Eigenschaften von borreichen Boriden und Scandium-Aluminium-Oxid-Carbiden" (in German). p. 139.
  6. ^ B(−1) has been observed in magnesium diboride (MgB2), see Keeler, James; Wothers, Peter (2014). Chemical Structure and Reactivity: An Integrated Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199604135.
  7. ^ Braunschweig, H.; Dewhurst, R. D.; Hammond, K.; Mies, J.; Radacki, K.; Vargas, A. (2012). "Ambient-Temperature Isolation of a Compound with a Boron-Boron Triple Bond". Science. 336 (6087): 1420–2. Bibcode:2012Sci...336.1420B. doi:10.1126/science.1221138. PMID 22700924. S2CID 206540959.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el em en eo ep eq er es et eu ev ew ex ey ez fa fb fc fd fe ff fg fh fi fj fk fl fm fn fo fp fq fr fs ft fu fv fw fx fy fz ga gb gc gd ge gf gg gh Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  9. ^ Zhang, K.Q.; Guo, B.; Braun, V.; Dulick, M.; Bernath, P.F. (1995). "Infrared Emission Spectroscopy of BF and AIF" (PDF). J. Molecular Spectroscopy. 170 (1): 82. Bibcode:1995JMoSp.170...82Z. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1995.1058.
  10. ^ Tetrazoles contain a pair of double-bonded nitrogen atoms with oxidation state 0 in the ring. A Synthesis of the parent 1H-tetrazole, CH2N4 (two atoms N(0)) is given in Henry, Ronald A.; Finnegan, William G. (1954). "An Improved Procedure for the Deamination of 5-Aminotetrazole". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 76 (1): 290–291. doi:10.1021/ja01630a086. ISSN 0002-7863.
  11. ^ Ne(0) has been observed in Cr(CO)5Ne; see Perutz, Robin N.; Turner, James J. (August 1975). "Photochemistry of the Group 6 hexacarbonyls in low-temperature matrices. III. Interaction of the pentacarbonyls with noble gases and other matrices". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 97 (17): 4791–4800. doi:10.1021/ja00850a001.
  12. ^ The compound NaCl has been shown in experiments to exists in several unusual stoichiometries under high pressure, including Na3Cl in which contains a layer of sodium(0) atoms; see Zhang, W.; Oganov, A. R.; Goncharov, A. F.; Zhu, Q.; Boulfelfel, S. E.; Lyakhov, A. O.; Stavrou, E.; Somayazulu, M.; Prakapenka, V. B.; Konôpková, Z. (2013). "Unexpected Stable Stoichiometries of Sodium Chlorides". Science. 342 (6165): 1502–1505. arXiv:1310.7674. Bibcode:2013Sci...342.1502Z. doi:10.1126/science.1244989. PMID 24357316. S2CID 15298372.
  13. ^ Mg(0) has been synthesized in a compound containing a Na2Mg22+ cluster coordinated to a bulky organic ligand; see Rösch, B.; Gentner, T. X.; Eyselein, J.; Langer, J.; Elsen, H.; Li, W.; Harder, S. (2021). "Strongly reducing magnesium(0) complexes". Nature. 592 (7856): 717–721. Bibcode:2021Natur.592..717R. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03401-w. PMID 33911274. S2CID 233447380
  14. ^ Bernath, P. F.; Black, J. H. & Brault, J. W. (1985). "The spectrum of magnesium hydride" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. 298: 375. Bibcode:1985ApJ...298..375B. doi:10.1086/163620.. See also Low valent magnesium compounds.
  15. ^ Al(−2) has been observed in Sr14[Al4]2[Ge]3, see Wemdorff, Marco; Röhr, Caroline (2007). "Sr14[Al4]2[Ge]3: Eine Zintl-Phase mit isolierten [Ge]4–- und [Al4]8–-Anionen / Sr14[Al4]2[Ge]3: A Zintl Phase with Isolated [Ge]4–- and [Al4]8– Anions". Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B (in German). 62 (10): 1227. doi:10.1515/znb-2007-1001. S2CID 94972243.
  16. ^ Al(–1) has been reported in Na5Al5; see Haopeng Wang; Xinxing Zhang; Yeon Jae Ko; Andrej Grubisic; Xiang Li; Gerd Ganteför; Hansgeorg Schnöckel; Bryan W. Eichhorn; Mal-Soon Lee; P. Jena; Anil K. Kandalam; Boggavarapu Kiran; Kit H. Bowen (2014). "Aluminum Zintl anion moieties within sodium aluminum clusters". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 140 (5). doi:10.1063/1.4862989.
  17. ^ Unstable carbonyl of Al(0) has been detected in reaction of Al2(CH3)6 with carbon monoxide; see Sanchez, Ramiro; Arrington, Caleb; Arrington Jr., C. A. (December 1, 1989). "Reaction of trimethylaluminum with carbon monoxide in low-temperature matrixes". American Chemical Society. 111 (25): 9110-9111. doi:10.1021/ja00207a023. OSTI 6973516.
  18. ^ Dohmeier, C.; Loos, D.; Schnöckel, H. (1996). "Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 35 (2): 129–149. doi:10.1002/anie.199601291.
  19. ^ Tyte, D. C. (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature. 202 (4930): 383. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0. S2CID 4163250.
  20. ^ "New Type of Zero-Valent Tin Compound". Chemistry Europe. 27 August 2016.
  21. ^ Ram, R. S.; et al. (1998). "Fourier Transform Emission Spectroscopy of the A2D–X2P Transition of SiH and SiD" (PDF). J. Mol. Spectr. 190 (2): 341–352. doi:10.1006/jmsp.1998.7582. PMID 9668026.
  22. ^ Wang, Yuzhong; Xie, Yaoming; Wei, Pingrong; King, R. Bruce; Schaefer, Iii; Schleyer, Paul v. R.; Robinson, Gregory H. (2008). "Carbene-Stabilized Diphosphorus". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 130 (45): 14970–1. doi:10.1021/ja807828t. PMID 18937460.
  23. ^ Ellis, Bobby D.; MacDonald, Charles L. B. (2006). "Phosphorus(I) Iodide: A Versatile Metathesis Reagent for the Synthesis of Low Oxidation State Phosphorus Compounds". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (17): 6864–74. doi:10.1021/ic060186o. PMID 16903744.
  24. ^ Ar(0) has been observed in argon fluorohydride (HArF) and ArCF22+, see Lockyear, J.F.; Douglas, K.; Price, S.D.; Karwowska, M.; et al. (2010). "Generation of the ArCF22+ Dication". Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 1: 358. doi:10.1021/jz900274p.
  25. ^ John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  26. ^ Krieck, Sven; Görls, Helmar; Westerhausen, Matthias (2010). "Mechanistic Elucidation of the Formation of the Inverse Ca(I) Sandwich Complex [(thf)3Ca(μ-C6H3-1,3,5-Ph3)Ca(thf)3] and Stability of Aryl-Substituted Phenylcalcium Complexes". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 132 (35): 12492–12501. doi:10.1021/ja105534w. PMID 20718434.
  27. ^ Cloke, F. Geoffrey N.; Khan, Karl & Perutz, Robin N. (1991). "η-Arene complexes of scandium(0) and scandium(II)". J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. (19): 1372–1373. doi:10.1039/C39910001372.
  28. ^ Smith, R. E. (1973). "Diatomic Hydride and Deuteride Spectra of the Second Row Transition Metals". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 332 (1588): 113–127. Bibcode:1973RSPSA.332..113S. doi:10.1098/rspa.1973.0015. S2CID 96908213.
  29. ^ McGuire, Joseph C.; Kempter, Charles P. (1960). "Preparation and Properties of Scandium Dihydride". Journal of Chemical Physics. 33 (5): 1584–1585. Bibcode:1960JChPh..33.1584M. doi:10.1063/1.1731452.
  30. ^ Ti(-2) is known in Ti(CO)2−6; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  31. ^ Jilek, Robert E.; Tripepi, Giovanna; Urnezius, Eugenijus; Brennessel, William W.; Young, Victor G. Jr.; Ellis, John E. (2007). "Zerovalent titanium–sulfur complexes. Novel dithiocarbamato derivatives of Ti(CO)6:[Ti(CO)4(S2CNR2)]". Chem. Commun. (25): 2639–2641. doi:10.1039/B700808B. PMID 17579764.
  32. ^ Andersson, N.; et al. (2003). "Emission spectra of TiH and TiD near 938 nm". J. Chem. Phys. 118 (8): 10543. Bibcode:2003JChPh.118.3543A. doi:10.1063/1.1539848.
  33. ^ V(–3) is known in V(CO)3−5; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  34. ^ V(0) is known in V(CO)6; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  35. ^ Cr(–4) is known in Na4Cr(CO)4; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  36. ^ Cr(0) is known in Cr(CO)6; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  37. ^ Mn(–2) is known in Mn(cod)2−2; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  38. ^ Ram, R. S.; Bernath, P. F. (2003). "Fourier transform emission spectroscopy of the g4Δ–a4Δ system of FeCl". Journal of Molecular Spectroscopy. 221 (2): 261. Bibcode:2003JMoSp.221..261R. doi:10.1016/S0022-2852(03)00225-X.
  39. ^ Demazeau, G.; Buffat, B.; Pouchard, M.; Hagenmuller, P. (1982). "Recent developments in the field of high oxidation states of transition elements in oxides stabilization of six-coordinated Iron(V)". Zeitschrift für anorganische und allgemeine Chemie. 491: 60–66. doi:10.1002/zaac.19824910109.
  40. ^ Lu, J.; Jian, J.; Huang, W.; Lin, H.; Li, J; Zhou, M. (2016). "Experimental and theoretical identification of the Fe(VII) oxidation state in FeO4". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 18 (45): 31125–31131. Bibcode:2016PCCP...1831125L. doi:10.1039/C6CP06753K. PMID 27812577.
  41. ^ Co(–3) is known in Na3Co(CO)3; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  42. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 1117–1119. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
  43. ^ Ni(–2) is known in Ni(COD)2−2; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  44. ^ Ni(0) is known in Ni(CO)4; see John E. Ellis (2006). "Adventures with Substances Containing Metals in Negative Oxidation States". Inorganic Chemistry. 45 (8). doi:10.1021/ic052110i.
  45. ^ Pfirrmann, Stefan; Limberg, Christian; Herwig, Christian; Stößer, Reinhard; Ziemer, Burkhard (2009). "A Dinuclear Nickel(I) Dinitrogen Complex and its Reduction in Single-Electron Steps". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 48 (18): 3357–61. doi:10.1002/anie.200805862. PMID 19322853.
  46. ^ Carnes, Matthew; Buccella, Daniela; Chen, Judy Y.-C.; Ramirez, Arthur P.; Turro, Nicholas J.; Nuckolls, Colin; Steigerwald, Michael (2009). "A Stable Tetraalkyl Complex of Nickel(IV)". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 48 (2): 290–4. doi:10.1002/anie.200804435. PMID 19021174.
  47. ^ Cu(−2) have been observed as dimeric anions [Cu4]2– in La2Cu2In; see Changhoon Lee; Myung-Hwan Whangbo (2008). "Late transition metal anions acting as p-metal elements". Solid State Sciences. 10 (4): 444–449. Bibcode:2008SSSci..10..444K. doi:10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2007.12.001.
  48. ^ Moret, Marc-Etienne; Zhang, Limei; Peters, Jonas C. (2013). "A Polar Copper–Boron One-Electron σ-Bond". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (10): 3792–3795. doi:10.1021/ja4006578. PMID 23418750.
  49. ^ Zn(−2) have been observed (as dimeric and monomeric anions; dimeric ions were initially reported to be [T–T]2−, but later shown to be [T–T]4− for all these elements) in Ca5Zn3 (structure (AE2+)5(T–T)4−T2−⋅4e); see Changhoon Lee; Myung-Hwan Whangbo (2008). "Late transition metal anions acting as p-metal elements". Solid State Sciences. 10 (4): 444–449. Bibcode:2008SSSci..10..444K. doi:10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2007.12.001. and Changhoon Lee; Myung-Hwan Whangbo; Jürgen Köhler (2010). "Analysis of Electronic Structures and Chemical Bonding of Metal-rich Compounds. 2. Presence of Dimer (T–T)4– and Isolated T2– Anions in the Polar Intermetallic Cr5B3-Type Compounds AE5T3 (AE = Ca, Sr; T = Au, Ag, Hg, Cd, Zn)". Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie. 636 (1): 36–40. doi:10.1002/zaac.200900421.
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  56. ^ As(IV) has been observed in arsenic(IV) hydroxide (As(OH)4) and HAsO; see Kläning, Ulrik K.; Bielski, Benon H. J.; Sehested, K. (1989). "Arsenic(IV). A pulse-radiolysis study". Inorganic Chemistry. 28 (14): 2717–24. doi:10.1021/ic00313a007.
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  69. ^ Mo(–4) occurs in Na4Mo(CO)4; see John E. Ellis (2003). "Metal Carbonyl Anions:  from [Fe(CO)4]2- to [Hf(CO)6]2- and Beyond†". Organometallics. 22 (17): 3322–3338. doi:10.1021/om030105l.
  70. ^ Mo(0) occurs in molybdenum hexacarbonyl; see John E. Ellis (2003). "Metal Carbonyl Anions:  from [Fe(CO)4]2- to [Hf(CO)6]2- and Beyond†". Organometallics. 22 (17): 3322–3338. doi:10.1021/om030105l.
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  73. ^ Rh(VII) is known in the RhO3+ cation, see Da Silva Santos, Mayara; Stüker, Tony; Flach, Max; Ablyasova, Olesya S.; Timm, Martin; von Issendorff, Bernd; Hirsch, Konstantin; Zamudio‐Bayer, Vicente; Riedel, Sebastian; Lau, J. Tobias (2022). "The Highest Oxidation State of Rhodium: Rhodium(VII) in [RhO3]+". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61 (38): e202207688. doi:10.1002/anie.202207688. PMC 9544489. PMID 35818987.
  74. ^ Pd(I) is known in [Pd2]2+ compounds; see Christoph Fricke; Theresa Sperger; Marvin Mendel; Franziska Schoenebeck (2020). "Catalysis with Palladium(I) Dimers". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 60 (7). doi:10.1002/anie.202011825.
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