Basic Electrical (EE-101)

By
Dr. Upasana Sarma
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
NIT Hamirpur
 Measuring Instruments

A measuring instrument is a device to measure a

physical/electrical quantity.
Two Types :
• Absolute instruments :-
These give the magnitude of the quantity in terms of the constants of the instruments.
Example :- a tangent galvanometer (used for measuring electric current).
• Secondary instruments :-
These have to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument.
1. Indicating instruments (e.g., voltmeters, ammeters, etc)
2. Recording instruments (e.g., ECG).
3. Integrating instruments (e.g., energy-meter, odometer).
 Measuring Instruments

Classification of measuring instruments based on principle of

operation:
Moving coil – Permanent magnet, Dynamometer
Moving iron – Attraction, Replusion
Hot wire
Electrostatic
Induction
 Measuring Instruments
The essential torques for the working of measuring instruments are:
• Deflecting torque: This torque is needed to move the pointer over a calibrated
scale.
• Controlling torque: It is used to control the deflection of the pointer to a
definite value which is proportional to the value of the measured quantity. It is
of the following types: (i) Spring control, (2) Gravity control.
• Damping torque: The controlling torque acts opposite to deflecting torque.
So, before coming to rest, the pointer always oscillates due to inertia.
Damping torque is needed to reduce the oscillations. It is of the following
types: (i) Air friction, (ii) Fluid friction, (iii) Eddy current.
 Controlling Torque
(i) Spring control:
• Most commonly used.
• One or two hairsprings made of phosphor
bronze are used.
• The outer end of this spring is fixed and the
inner end is attached with the spindle.
• When the pointer is at zero of the scale, the
spring is normal.
• As the pointer moves, the spring winds and
produces an opposing torque.
• The balance-weight balances the moving
system so that its center of gravity coincides
with the axis of rotation, thereby reducing
the friction between the pivot and bearings.
 Controlling Torque
(i) Spring control:
 Controlling Torque
(ii) Gravity control:
• A small control weight is attached to the
moving system.
• In addition, an adjustable balance weight
is also attached to make the centre of
gravity pass through the spindle.
• In zero position of the pointer, this control
weight is vertical.
 Controlling Torque
(ii) Gravity control:
•When deflected by an angle θ, the weight exerts a force.
• The restraining or controlling torque thus developed is
given as
 Controlling Torque
(ii) Gravity control:
Damping Torque
•Due to inertia of the system, the pointer keeps
oscillating about its final steady-state position
with decreasing amplitude.

• It settles at its final steady-state position

when all its energy is dissipated in friction.
• The remedy lies in providing a suitable
damping torque.
•If over-damped, the time-delay in taking the
reading becomes unnecessarily long.
•If under damped, the oscillations of the
pointer would not be killed completely.
•Thus, the damping torque should be just
sufficient to kill the oscillation without
increasing the delay-time. This condition is said
to be critically damped or ‘dead beat’..
 Damping Torque
Air Friction Damping:
(a) Piston in an air
chamber.
(b) Vane in an air
chamber.
 Damping Torque
Fluid Friction Damping:

•The vane is dipped in a pot containing damping oil.

•The drag on the vane opposes its motion.
•This arrangement can only be used in the instruments which are held in vertical
position.
 Damping Torque
Eddy-Current Damping:

•This is the most commonly

employed method.
•Eddy currents in a metal vane.
•Eddy currents in a metal disc.
 Introduction to galvanometer

• A galvanometer is an electromechanical measuring instrument for electric

current.
• The major difference between an ammeter and a galvanometer is that an
ammeter shows only the magnitude of the current, while a galvanometer
shows both the direction and magnitude of the current.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving coil)

• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

Galvanometer Principle: A current-carrying
coil, when placed in an external magnetic field,
experiences magnetic torque. The angle through
which the coil is deflected due to the effect of
the magnetic torque is proportional to the
magnitude of current in the coil.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(PMMC)
Let a current I flow through the rectangular coil of n
number of turns and a cross-sectional area A.
The sides AD and BC being perpendicular to the
direction of the field, experience an effective force F
given by F = Bil.
Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, we can determine that
the forces on AD and BC are in opposite directions to
each other. When equal and opposite forces F called
couple acts on the coil, it produces a torque which causes
the coil to deflect.
Torque τ = Force x Perpendicular distance between the
forces
τ = F × b = BIl × b.
Where lx b is the area A of the coil,
Hence, the torque acting on n turns of the coil is given by
 Introduction to galvanometer
(PMMC)
The magnetic torque thus produced causes the coil to rotate,
and the phosphor bronze strip twists. In turn, the spring S
attached to the coil produces a counter torque or restoring
torque kθ, which results in a steady angular deflection.
Under an equilibrium condition,
kθ = nIAB
Here, k is called the torsional constant of the spring (restoring
a couple per unit twist). The deflection or twist θ is measured
as the value indicated on a scale by a pointer which is
connected to the suspension wire.
θ= ( nAB / k)I
Therefore, θ ∝ I
The quantity nAB / k is a constant for a given galvanometer.
Hence, the deflection that occurs in the galvanometer is
directly proportional to the current that flows through it.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(PMMC)
Advantages :
(i) High sensitivity.
(ii) Uniform scale.
(iii) Well shielded from any stray magnetic field.
(iv) High torque/weight ratio.
(v) Effective and reliable eddy-current damping.

Disadvantages :
(i) Cannot be used for ac measurement.
(ii) More expensive compared to moving-iron type.
(iii) Ageing of control springs and of the permanent magnets might cause errors.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Dynanometer Type)
Assignment:

1. Principle of operation.
2. Advantages
3. Disadvantages
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving coil)
Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting
it in parallel with a low resistance called shunt resistance. In
the given circuit,
RG – Resistance of the galvanometer
G – Galvanometer coil
I – Total current passing through the circuit
IG – Total current passing through the galvanometer, which
corresponds to full-scale reading
Rs – Value of shunt resistance
When current IG passes through the galvanometer, the
current through the shunt resistance is given by I S = I – IG.
The voltages across the galvanometer and shunt resistance
are equal due to the parallel nature of their connection.
Therefore, RG .IG= (I- IG).Rs
The value of Rs can be obtained using the above equation.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving coil)
Conversion of Galvanometer to Voltmeter
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting it
in series with high resistance. In the given circuit,
RG = Resistance of the galvanometer
R = Value of high resistance
G = Galvanometer coil
I = Total current passing through the circuit
IG = Total current passing through the galvanometer, which
corresponds to a full-scale deflection
V = Voltage drop across the series connection of
galvanometer and high resistance
When current IG passes through the series combination of the
galvanometer and the high resistance R, the voltage drop
across the branch ab is given by
V= RG.IG + R.IG
The value of R can be obtained using the above equation.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving coil)
Q1. A moving coil of a galvanometer has 60 turns and a width of 2 cm and a depth of
3 cm. It hangs in a uniform radial field of 50 mWb/m 2 . Determine the torque on the
coil when it carries a current of 1 mA.
Q2. The following data refer to a MC voltmeter. Resistance10 k, dimension of coil 3
cm 3 cm, N=100,B= 80 mWb/m2. , spring constant k = 30 dyne-cm/degree. Find
the deflection produced by 200 V.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving Iron)
The device where the moving iron is utilized for calculating either the current or
voltage flow is termed as the moving iron instrument.
This device operates on the principle that iron is placed in close to the magnet
and it attracts this. This attractional force is based on the magnetic field
strength. And this magnetic field is stimulated by the electromagnet where its
ability is based on the current’s magnitude that flows across it.
These moving iron meters act in response to both the AC and DC currents.
There are mainly two types of moving iron instruments where those are:
•Attraction type
•Repulsion Type
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving Iron: Attraction Type)
• The operation of the attraction type depends on the attraction of a
single piece of soft iron into a magnetic field produced by
stationary coil, which is excited by current /voltage under
measurement.
• When the current flows in the stationary coil, the iron vane is
attracted into the field of stationary coil.
• This attractive force so produced rotates the moving system.
• The damping is provided by the vane attached to the iron disc
through a spindle that moves inside an air damping chamber.
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving Iron: Repulsion Type)
• This type of instrument has a stationary coil and two soft
iron vanes, one of which is stationary coil frame; while the
movable vane is attached to the shaft of instrument
• When current flows through the stationary coil, the two
vanes get similarly magnetized, thereby resulting in a force
of repulsion between them.
• This repulsive force rotate the moving system
 Introduction to galvanometer
(Moving Iron)
The advantages of moving iron instruments are:
•These devices are neutral to the current flow path and so employed for both the
alternating and direct current applications.
•Errors caused by friction are very minimal because the proportion of torque and
weight is more.
•As the MI devices require minimal turns than that of permanent magnet moving coil
devices, these are less costly.
•Also, the devices have more robustness due to their simple design.
The disadvantages of moving iron instruments are:
•The moving iron instrument scale is not uniform and so the results are not precise.
•As because of stray, hysteresis, and frequency losses, there might be a scope of
happening critical errors in the device.
•In the device, there will be waveform errors because the deflection of the torque has
no direct relation to twice the current value.
 Introduction to Wattmeter
• A wattmeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric power given
to or developed by an electrical circuit.
• Generally, a wattmeter consists of a current coil (series with load) and a
potential coil (across the load).
• Real Power, P = V I cos φ
• Types of Wattmeter
Electrodynamometer wattmeter – for both DC and AC power measurement
Induction wattmeter – for AC power measurement only
Electrostatic - for both AC and DC measurement.
 Working Principle of
Electrodynamometer Wattmeter
• The electrodynamometer wattmeter works on the
dynamometer principle i.e. a mechanical force acts
between two current carrying conductors or coils.
• It consists of a fixed coil (current coil) which is connected
in series with the load while the moving coil (potential coil)
is connected across the load through a series multiplier
resistance. When the wattmeter is connected in a circuit,
the current coil carries the load current and potential coil
carries a current proportional to the load voltage. Due to
the currents in the coils, a mechanical force acts between
them. The result of this mechanical force deflects the
moving coil and the pointer over the scale. The pointer
comes to the rest when the deflecting torque and
controlling torque become equal. As the reversal of the
circuit current reverses the currents in both the current
coil and potential coil so that the direction of deflecting
torque remains unchanged. Therefore,
 Working Principle of Induction
Type Wattmeter
• The working of induction type wattmeter is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction.
• The induction wattmeter consists of two laminated
electromagnets viz. Shunt Magnet and Series Magnet. The
shunt magnet is connected across the supply and carries a
current proportional to the supply voltage. The coil of shunt
magnet is made highly inductive so that the current in it lags
the supply voltage by 90°. The series magnet is connected in
series with the supply and carries the load current. The coil of
series magnet is made highly noninductive. When the
wattmeter is connected in an AC circuit, a current flows
through the coils of the shunt and series magnet. The fluxes
produced by the two magnets induce eddy currents in the
aluminium disc (placed between the two magnets) by the action
of electromagnetic induction. Due to the interaction between
the fluxes and eddy currents, a deflecting torque is produced on
the disc, causing the disc to move and hence, the pointer
 Working Principle of
Electrostatic Type Wattmeter
• This instrument uses Electrostatic principle for producing deflection.
• It consist of two plates one is fixed and the other one is movable. Voltage is applied between fixed and movable
plate. Due to the accumulation of changes on the two plates, a force is generated, this force may be attractive or
repulsive in nature. This cause the movable plate to be in motion. Motion may be linear or rotary based on the
structure of the plate.
 Introduction to Ammeter
• Connected in series with the circuits.
• Low impedance (resistance) so as not to affect the circuit.
• Constructed by adding a low resistance (or shunt or bypass resistor) in
parallel with the meter.
• The ratio Ifsd/Im = N is called the range-multiplier.
• Since the voltage across the parallel elements must be the same,
Introduction to Ammeter

Multi-range ammeter
 Introduction to Ammeter
Ammeter Sensitivity
•Measured in ohms/amp; should be as low Ω/A (small V drop) as possible.
• Sensitive ammeters need large indicator changes for small current.
• Example : (1) A 0.01 Ω/A meter with 5 A fsd,
Rm = Ω/A x A = 0.01 x 5 = 0.05 Ω
Vmax across the Meter will be 5 A x 0.05 Ω = 0.25 V for fs.
(2) A 0.1 Ω/A meter with 5 A fsd, will drop 2.5 V (i.e., it is 10 times less sensitive), which
may bias the results.
 Introduction to Voltmeter
•Connections to circuits and components in parallel.
•High impedance (resistance) so as not to affect circuit.
•Constructed by adding a high resistance (R) in series with an
electrically sensitive meter (M).
•The series resistor Rs is also called a range-multiplier, as it
multiplies the voltage range.
•Now, suppose that the range of a basic meter is to be extended to
Vfsd volts. Then, we should have

•Voltage Scaling or Multiplying Factor: It is defined as the

number of times the voltage range is increased. Thus,
Introduction to Voltmeter

Multi-range voltmeter
 Introduction to Voltmeter
Voltmeter Sensitivity (Ohms-per-Volt Rating)
•Measured in Ω/V.
•Higher the sensitivity, more accurate is the measurement.
•If current sensitivity (CS) of a meter is known, its Ω/V rating can easily be determined.
•Consider a basic meter with CS of 100 μA. If used as a voltmeter of range 1 V, RT = 1 V /
100 μA = 10 kΩ. Thus, the meter sensitivity is simply 10 kΩ/V.
 Introduction to Energy-meter
•Energy meters are integrating instruments.
•The speed of rotation is proportional to the power
(in case of watt-hour meter) and to the current (in
case of ampere-hour meter).
•Thus the total number of rotations made by the
moving system is proportional to the energy
supplied to the load in a given time interval.
•Every energy meter is marked for its meter
constant.
•It gives the number of rotations per kilowatt hour
(kW h) of energy.