BEEE UNIT 4

MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
• Measurement:
It is the act or result of quantitative
comparison between a predefined standard and
an unknown quantity.
• Instrument:
It is a device or mechanism used to
determine the present value of a quantity under
observation.
Continued…
• Various instruments used in practice:
Following instruments used in day to day life
in order to measure different quantity.
Sr. Name of the instruments Quantity measured
No.
1. Voltmeter AC or DC voltage
2. Ammeter AC or DC current
3. Wattmeter AC power (Watt)
4. Energy meter Energy (Watt hour)
Operation of Indicating Instruments
• For satisfactory operation of any indicating
instrument, following three torques must act
together appropriately:
1. Deflecting torque
2. Controlling torque
3. Damping torque
Continued…
1. Deflecting Torque:
• It causes the moving system of the instrument to
move from its position of rest.
• Deflecting torque is produced by using any one
of the following effects of electric current:
i. Magnetic effect
ii.Electromagnetic induction effect
iii.Heating effect
iv.Electrostatic effect
Continued…
2. Controlling Torque:
• It limits the movement of moving systems. It
also ensures that magnitude of deflection is
always the same for the given value of input
quantity under measurement.
• Controlling torque acts in the opposite
direction to that of the deflecting torque.
• At steady state,
Deflecting torque = Controlling torque
Continued…
3. Damping Torque:
• Due to deflecting torque, pointer moves in one
direction while due to controlling torque pointer
moves in opposite direction.
• Due to these opposite torques, the pointer may
oscillate in the forward and backward direction if the
damping torque is not present.
• Damping torque brings the moving system to rest
quickly in its final position.
• Damping torque acts only when the moving system is
actually moving. If moving system is at rest, damping
torque is zero.
Continued…
• Types of instruments used for Voltmeter and
Ammeters:
 The practically used ammeters and voltmeters can
be of the following two types:
1. Permanent ,magnet moving coil (PMMC) type
2. Moving iron (MI) type
3. Hot wire type
4. Induction type
Moving Coil Instruments
• Moving coil instruments (ammeter and
voltmeter) are of two types:
1. Permanent magnet moving coil type (PMMC)
used only for D.C.
2. Dynamometer type can be used for AC as
well DC.
PMMC Instruments
1. PMMC Instruments:
 They are also known as d’Arsonval
instruments.
 These instruments works on the
electromagnetic effect of current.
 A permanent magnet used to produce
magnetic flux and coil that carries the current
to be measures moves in this field.
Fig.(1): construction of PMMC instrument
Continued…
• Construction of PMMC instrument:
 A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame
(spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped
permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys
like alnico.
 The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the
coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil
through spiral springs which are two in numbers.
 The coil which carries a current, which is to be
measured, moves in a strong magnetic field produced
by a permanent magnet and a pointer is attached to the
spindle which shows the measured value.
Continued…
• Moving Coil
• It is an essential component of the PMMC
instrument. The designing of this coil can be done
by wounding copper coils to a rectangular block
among the magnetic poles.
• It is made with Aluminum and the rectangular
block can be called Aluminum former rotated into
the jeweled bearing. So it permits the coil to turn
freely.
• Once the current is supplied throughout these
coils, then it gets a deflection within the field,
then it is used to find out the voltage or current
magnitude.
Continued…
• Magnet System
• The PMMC instrument includes two high-

intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’ shaped
magnet-based design. The designing of these
magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax
for higher superior field intensity & coercive
force.
• In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder
can be arranged among the magnetic poles to
create the field identical.
Continued…
• Control
• In the PMMC device, the torque can be
controlled due to the springs which are
fabricated with phosphorous bronze.
• These springs are arranged among the two
jewel bearings.
• The spring provides the lane to the lead current
to supply in & out of the moving coil. The
torque can be controlled mainly due to the
delay of the ribbon.
Continued…
• Damping Torque
• Damping torque can be generated within the
PMMC instrument using the aluminum core’s
movement within the magnetic field.
• So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early
deflection. Because of the movement of the coil
within the magnetic field, eddy current can be
generated within the aluminum former.
• This generates the damping force or torque to
resist the motion of the coil.
• Gradually the deflection of the pointer will be
reduced and lastly, it will stop at a permanent
position.
Continued…
• Pointer and Scale
• In this instrument, the connection of the pointer
can be done through the moving coil. It notices
the moving coil’s deflection.
• The magnitude of their derivation can be
displayed on the scale. The pointer within the
instrument can be designed with lightweight
material.
• Thus, it can be simply deflected through the coil’s
movement. Sometimes, the parallax error can
occur within the device which is simply decreased
by properly arranging the pointer’s blade.
Continued…
• Working principle:
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force. It is given by expression,
F = BIL
Where F = Force in Newton,
B = Flux density is tesla,
I = Current is ampere,
L = Length of conductor in meter.
 The current I which is to be measured is passed through the
moving coil and experiences a force which is directly
proportional to this current.
 Due to this force the coil moves and the pointer attached to
it will also move.
 The angle through which the pointer moves is proportional
to current I.
Fig.(1): construction of PMMC instrument
Continued…
• Deflecting Torque:
 It can be proved that the expression for the deflecting
torque is given by,
Td = G x I
where G = constant
I = Current through the moving coil
• Controlling Torque:
 The controlling torque is given by,
Tc = C. θ
where C = Control spring constant in N-m/rad
θ = Deflection of coil from zero position
Continued…
For steady state, the controlling torque is equal
to the deflection torque
Tc = Td
i.e. Cθ = GI
θ I
Thus deflection of the pointer is proportional
to current passed through the coil.
Continued…
• Advantages of PMMC Instruments:
1. The PMMC consumes less power and has great
accuracy.
2. It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of
270 degree.
3. The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
4. It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with
suitable resistance.
5. It has efficient damping characteristics and is not
affected by stray magnetic field.
6. It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
Continued…
• Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments:
1. The moving coil instrument can only be used on
D.C supply as the reversal of current produces
reversal of torque on the coil.
2. It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit
with a rectifier.
3. It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron
instruments.
4. It may show error due to loss of magnetism of
permanent magnet.
Moving Iron (MI) instruments
Where ruggedness is more important than high
degree of accuracy, moving iron instruments
are used.
• Types of moving iron instruments:
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
Fig.(1): attraction type moving instrument
Continued…
1. Attraction type moving iron instrument:
• Construction of the attraction type moving iron
instrument is as shown in the given figure (1).
• The moving iron, i.e. the disc of soft iron, is
eccentrically mounted. Coil is situated around the
disc. When the coil is excited it produces magnetic
field.
• Due to magnetic field the moving iron moves from
the weaker field outside the coil to the stronger field
inside the coil. Thus moving iron gets attracted
inwards and thus the name attraction type.
Continued…
• The controlling torque is provided by the
balance weights attached to the moving iron.
Spring also can be used to provide controlling
torque.
• Damping is provided by air friction in which
aluminum piston is attached to the moving
system and moves in a closed air damping
chamber.
Fig.(2):Repulsion type Moving Iron Instrument
Continued…
2. Repulsion type moving iron instrument:
• In these type of instruments there two vanes present
inside the coil in which one is fixed while other is
movable. These both vanes gets similarly magnetized
when coil is excited. Thus there is a force of repulsion
between both vanes causing movement in movable
vane. There are further two different designs of
repulsion type moving iron instruments.
• i. Radial vane type:

• In radial vane type radial strips of iron are used as
moving vanes. The fixed vane is attached to the coil
and moving is attached to the moving spindle.
Continued…
ii. Coaxial vane type:
• In coaxial vane type the fixed as well as moving
vanes are the sections of coaxial cylinders as
shown in above figure.
The controlling torque is provided by the springs or

balancing weights (in vertically mounted
instrument). The damping is provided by air friction
damping same as in attraction type moving iron
instruments.
Continued…
• Advantages of Moving iron Instruments:
1. Suitable of a.c. as well as d.c. measurements.
2. Good accuracy.
3. Cheaper in cost as compared to permanents
magnet moving coil instruments.
4. The instrument has high torque to weight ratio.
5. The instrument can be used for low frequency
measurement also.
Continued…
• Disadvantages of Moving iron instruments:
1. Power consumed by the instrument is high as
compared to that of the permanent magnet
moving coil instrument.
2. The scale is non-uniform.
3. Due to the presence of iron part in the
operating system, error due to the hysteresis
effect is introduced. To reduce this effect
nickel iron alloys are used.
Wheatstone Bridge
A very important device used in the
measurement of medium resistances is a
Wheatstone bridge.
A Wheatstone bridge has been in use, longer
than any electrical measuring instrument.
It is still an accurate and reliable instrument

and is extensively used for measurement in
industry.
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Wheatstone Bridge
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Wheatstone Bridge
It has four resistance arms,
consisting of resistance P, Q, R
and S
together with a source emf E
(a battery source),
And a null detector, usually a
galvanometer G or other
sensitive current meter.
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Wheatstone Bridge
The current through the
galvanometer G, depends upon,
the potential difference between
the point b and d, respectively.
The bridge is said to be balanced,
when there is no current through
the galvanometer G
i.e., the
potential difference across the
galvanometer G is zero
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Wheatstone Bridge
This occurs when voltage from
point ‘b’ to point ‘a’, will be equal
to the voltage between the
points ‘d’ and ‘a’, respectively.
i.e., Vba = Vda
i.e., I1P = I2R
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Wheatstone Bridge
Or by referring to other battery
terminal when voltage from
point ‘b’ to point ‘c’, will be equal
to the voltage between the
points ‘d’ and ‘c’, respectively.
i.e., Vbc = Vdc
i.e., I3Q = I4S
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Wheatstone Bridge
When bridge is balanced, current
through the galvanometer G, is
zero,
Hence I1 = I3
Now P and Q are in series
Therefore, I1 = I3 = E/(P+Q)
Similarly, I2 = I4 = E/(R+S)
E = emf across the battery
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Wheatstone Bridge
When in balance condition, the
current through the
galvanometer G is zero.
Under this condition, P and Q are
in series
Vabc = E, Rabc = P+Q,
Iabc = I1 = I3 = E/ (P+Q),
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Wheatstone Bridge
When in balance condition, the
current through the
galvanometer G is zero.
Under this condition, R and S are
in series
Vadc = E, Radc = R+S,
Iadc = I2 = I4 = E/ (R+S),
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Wheatstone Bridge
Now, I1P = I2R
But, Iabc = I1 = I3 = E/ (P+Q),
and Iadc = I2 = I4 = E/ (R+S),
Therefore
EP/ (P+Q) = ER/ (R+S)
Or P/ (P+Q) = R/ (R+S)
Or PR + PS = PR + QR
Or PS = QR
Or R = S * (P/Q)
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Wheatstone Bridge
PS = QR
The above equation is well
known expression for balance of
Wheatstone bridge
If any three of the resistances are
known, fourth may be
determined from the below
expression
R = S * (P/Q)
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Wheatstone Bridge
R = S * (P/Q)
In the above expression,
R = Unknown Resistance
S = Standard arm
S = Standard arm
P, Q = Ratio arm
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Energy Sources
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Energy is the capacity or the ability to work
vigorously.
Energy plays a vital role in routine life and

hence is required in every sector or industry that
might range under household, communication,
transportation, defense, and others.
The energy sources are subdivided into

conventional energy sources and non-
conventional ones.
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Thus, conventional energy sources are provided
by nature but are present only in restricted
quantities.
Although, the non-conventional sources are

present in unlimited amounts and provided by
nature.
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CONVNETIONAL
Energy Sources
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Convection energy sources are naturally
present and have been in use for years.
The use of conventional sources is done for

heating, lighting, cooking, running machinery,
and provision of electricity.
The examples for which include firewood, fossil

fuels, and others.
In addition, firewood has been extensively used

for cooking purposes in remote regions of
India.
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The fossil fuels are plants, and animal remains,
which have been buried from millions of years
ago within the earth.
These remains are decomposed and formed

primary energy sources like coal, petroleum,
natural gas, etc.
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The reserves for such energy sources are in
limited quantities and soon will be depleted
with a growth rate of population.
Since they are naturally occurring and take a

considerable time, they cannot be renewed
manually or by applying scientific methods.
It is essential for judicious use of non-

renewable or conventional energy sources.
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Advantages for conventional energy sources
are
•Easily Available
•Efficient and good electricity conversion
•Low exploration costs
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Disadvantages for conventional sources of
energy are also listed below
•Time-consuming collection process

•Pollutes the atmosphere
•Destroys natural ecosystems
•Displaces local communities
•Initial set-up could be costly
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NON-CONVNETIONAL
Energy Sources
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Non- Conventional energy sources are the best
alternatives to conventional sources while also non-
polluting.
In 1973, the oil crisis encouraged a focus on non –

conventional sources, which has increased in recent
times due to high environmental pollution.
Non-conventional sources could be obtained from

sun, wind, hot springs, and others that support heat
and power generation.
They are non-polluting and present in abundance

within the earth’s atmosphere
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Solar Energy-
The light from the sun is used to generate

electricity by trapping the solar cells within the
panels.
Solar energy is present in abundance although it

can be only trapped during the daytime, during
the hours of intense rays.
It is being used for lighting, heating, and others.
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Wind-
Wind energy has been used for many years for grinding
grains in mills.
Although, in recent years, it has been used to generate

electricity by harnessing the energy of winds by turbines
attached to substantial capacity generators.
Usually, such wind farms are located near coastal areas or

mountains with the high wind flow.
In India, my desert regions, like the outskirts of Gujarat

and Rajasthan, have built substantial wind farms.
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Nuclear Power Plants-
Nuclear energy is acquired from nuclei atoms that occur

naturally in radioactive sources like uranium, thorium,
and others.
Nuclear fuels emit power when undergone in nuclear

reactors.
Globally, the USA and Europe are the largest nuclear

power producers, although in India, uranium is found in
Jharkhand, and thorium is found in Kerala.
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Geothermal Energy-
The heat acquired from the earth is geothermal energy.
In many areas, hot springs are witnessed as part of

geothermal energy.
The heat from within the earth has been used for
generating power.
New Zealand, Iceland, Central America, and the USA have

the largest geothermal power plants.
India also has geothermal power plants located in

Himachal
17-Sep-24 Pradesh and Ladakh. 59
Tidal Energy-
Tidal waves also generate energy harnessed by erecting

dams.
The narrow dams are built near the end of tides, where
the turbines help to capture the energy.
India has vast tidal mill farms at the Gulf of Kachchh,

while other countries include Russia and France.
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Benefits of the non- conventional source of energy
•They are non-polluting

•Available in abundant
•Freely available
•Low harnessing costs
•Low environmental damage
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Disadvantages of non- conventional sources of energy
•Their acquisition can be sourced only in restricted time

limits like in rainy seasons tidal waves will generate more
energy than others
•Not viable commercially
•Lower efficiency levels.
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Differences amongst conventional and
non conventional sources of energy
Conventional sources of
Non-conventional ones
energy
It requires mechanical devices
It is readily available by nature
for procuring
It has been used from It is a recent development as
centuries alternative fuels
It is highly polluting It is non-polluting
It is more commercially viable
It is majorly used domestically
and is widely used in industries
They are available in
They are scarce resources
abundance
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Hydroelectric Power
Plants
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Definition
A generating station which utilizes the
potential energy of water at a high
level for the generation of electrical
energy is known as a hydro-electric
power station.
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Schematics of Hydroelectric Power Plant
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Principle of Operation
PE KE ME EE
(Potential Energy Kinetic Energy Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy)
1. We know that, water is stored in dam by using rain
water.
2. This stored water contains Potential energy, is due to
height or head of dam.
3. When this water is flow towards turbine, at that time
the Kinetic Energy is Converted into Mechanical Energy.
4. The turbine or prime mover is mechanically coupled

with generator.
5. Whenever turbine starts to rotate with the help of high
pressure water, automatically generator starts to rotate
& it produced an electrical energy
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1. Generation of electricity
by hydropower (potential energy
in stored water) is one of the
cleanest methods of producing
electric power.
2. Hydroelectric power
plants contributes about 16% of
total electricity generation of the
world.
3. Hydroelectricity is the most

widely used form of renewable
energy.
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4. It is a flexible source of
electricity and also the cost of
electricity generation is relatively
low.
5. This section deals about the

layout, basic components
and working of a hydroelectric
power station
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Functions of
different parts of
Hydroelectric
Power Plant
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1. Dam and Reservoir
a) The dam is an artificial concrete barrier
constructed across the way of the river.
b) The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly

areas to ensure sufficient water storage at
height.
c) The catchment area behind the dam creates a

huge water reservoir.
d) The height of water level (called as water head)

in the reservoir determines how much of
potential energy is stored in it.
e) The pressure tunnel takes water from the dam

to the valve house.
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2. Spillways
a) There are times when the river flow
exceeds the storage capacity of the
reservoir.
b) Such a situation arises during heavy
rainfall in the catchment area.
c) In order to discharge the surplus water
from the storage reservoir into the
river on the down-stream side of the
dam, spillways are used.
d) Spillways are constructed of concrete
piers on the top of the dam.
e) Gates are provided between these
piers and surplus water is discharged
over the crest of the dam by opening
these gates.
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3. Control Valves
a) Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow
through the penstock to the turbine.
b) The amount of water which is to be released in

the penstock can be controlled by a control
gate.
c) When the control gate is fully opened,

maximum amount of water is released through
the penstock.
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3. Penstock
a) A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries

water from the reservoir to the turbine.
b) Potential energy of the water is converted into

kinetic energy as it flows down through the
penstock due to gravity.
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4. Hydro Turbines
a) Water turbines are used to convert the
energy of falling water into mechanical
energy.
b) Water from the penstock is taken into
the water turbine.
c) The turbine is mechanically coupled to
an electric generator.
d) Kinetic energy of the water drives the
turbine and consequently the
generator gets driven.
e) There are two main types of water
turbine;
(i) Impulse turbine and
(ii) Reaction turbine.
f) Impulse turbines are used for large
heads and reaction turbines are used
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for low and medium heads.
5. Generators
a) A generator is mounted in the power house and
it is mechanically coupled to the turbine shaft.
b) When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives

the generator and electricity is generated which
is then stepped up with the help of
a transformer for the transmission purpose
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6. Surge Tank
a) Surge tanks are usually provided in high or
medium head power plants when considerably
long penstock is required.
b) A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is

open at the top.
c) It is fitted between the reservoir and the power

house.
d) The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to

reduce the pressure swings in the penstock.
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Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant
1. Dam. Raises the water level of the river to
create falling water. Also controls the flow of
water. The reservoir that is formed is, in effect,
stored energy.
2. Turbine. The force of falling water pushing

against the turbine's blades causes the turbine
to spin. A water turbine is much like a windmill,
except the energy is provided by falling water
instead of wind. The turbine converts the
kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical
energy.
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Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant
3. Generator: Connected to the turbine by shafts
and possibly gears so when the turbine spins it
causes the generator to spin also. Converts the
mechanical energy from the turbine into electric
energy. Generators in hydropower plants work
just like the generators in other types of power
plants.
4. Transmission lines: Conduct electricity from the

hydropower plant to homes and business.
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Advantages of Hydroelectric Power Plant
1. There is no fuel cost as water is available in
nature.
2. There is no fuel transportation cost.
3. There is no necessity of fuel & ash handling
equipment.
4. There is no air pollution.
5. It is very neat & clean plant.
6. Operating & maintenance cost are very low.
7. H.P.P can be put into service immediately.
8. There are no standby losses.
9. Efficiency of plant is highest and does not
change with age.
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Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power
Plant
1. High capital cost due to construction of dam.
2. It depends on nature as it require huge amount of
water which is store during rainy season.
3. Firm power (Output) is totally depends on monsoon.
4. It takes long time for complete erecting of power plant.
5. It requires large area (catchment) area for storage of

water.
6. As sites are away from load centre, so cost of
transmission and losses in it are more.
7. As sites are away from load centre, so cost of
transmission and losses in it are more.
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Nuclear Power Plants
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Definition
A generating station in which
nuclear energy is converted into
electrical energy is known as a
Nuclear Power Station.
17-Sep-24 83
CE HE KE ME EE
(Chemical Energy Heat Energy Kinetic Energy Mechanical Energy Electrical Energy)
1. In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as

Uranium (U235) or Thorium (Th232) are subjected
to nuclear fission in a special apparatus known as
a reactor.
2. The heat energy thus released is utilised in raising
steam at high temperature and pressure.
3. The steam runs the steam turbine which converts
Kinetic energy into Mechanical energy.
4. The turbine drives the alternator which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
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Schematic
Arrangement of
Nuclear Power Plant
(NPP)
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Schematic Arrangement of NPP
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• The whole arrangement can be divided
into the following main stages :
1. Nuclear reactor
2. Heat exchanger
3. Steam turbine
4. Alternator.
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1. Nuclear reactor
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1. Nuclear reactor
a) It is an apparatus in which nuclear fuel
(U235) is subjected to nuclear fission.
b) Moderator controls the chain reaction that

starts once the fission is done.
c) If the chain reaction is not controlled,
the result will be an explosion due to
the fast increase in the energy
released.
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1. Nuclear reactor
d) A nuclear reactor is a
cylindrical stout pressure
vessel and houses fuel
rods of Uranium,
moderator and control
rods.
e) The fuel rods constitute
the fission material and
release huge amount of
energy when bombarded
with slow moving
neutrons.
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1. Nuclear reactor
f) The moderator consists
of graphite rods which
enclose the fuel rods.
g) The moderator slows
down the neutrons
before they bombard
the fuel rods.
h) The control rods are of
cadmium and are
inserted into the
reactor.
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1. Nuclear reactor
i) Cadmium is strong neutron
absorber and thus
regulates the supply of
neutrons for fission.
j) When the control rods are
pushed in deep enough,
they absorb most of fission
neutrons and hence few
are available for chain
reaction which, therefore,
stops.
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1. Nuclear reactor
k) However, as they are being
withdrawn, more and more
of these fission neutrons
cause fission
l) and hence the intensity of
chain reaction (or heat
produced) is increased.
m) Therefore, by pulling out
the control rods, power of
the nuclear reactor is
increased, whereas by
pushing them in, it is
17-Sep-24 93
reduced.
2. Heat exchanger
a) The coolant gives
up heat to the heat
exchanger which is
utilised in raising
the steam.
b) After giving up
heat, the coolant is
again fed back to
the reactor.
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3. Steam turbine
a) The steam produced in the heat
exchanger is fed to the steam turbine
through a valve.
b) After doing a useful work in the
turbine, the steam is exhausted to
condenser.
c) The condenser condenses the steam
which is fed to the heat exchanger
through feed water pump.
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4. Alternator.
a) The steam turbine drives the

alternator which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
a) The output from the alternator is
delivered to the bus-bars through
transformer, circuit breakers and
isolators.
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Advantages
(i) The amount of fuel required is quite small.
Therefore, there is a considerable saving in
the cost of fuel transportation.
(ii) A nuclear power plant requires less space as
compared to any other type of the same size.
(iii) It has low running charges as a small amount

of fuel is used for producing bulk electrical
energy.
(iv) This type of plant is very economical for
producing bulk electric power.
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Advantages
(v) It can be located near the load centres
because it does not require large quantities
of water and need not be near coal mines.
Therefore, the cost of primary distribution is
reduced.
(vi) There are large deposits of nuclear fuels
available all over the world. Therefore, such
plants can ensure continued supply of
electrical energy for thousands of years.
(vii) It ensures reliability of operation.
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Disadvantages
(i) The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to
recover.
(ii) The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very
high as compared to other types of plants.
(iii) The erection and commissioning of the plant
requires greater technical know-how.
(iv) The fission by-products are generally
radioactive and may cause a dangerous
amount of radioactive pollution.
17-Sep-24 99
Disadvantages
(v) Maintenance charges are high due to lack of
standardisation. Moreover, high salaries of
specially trained personnel employed to
handle the plant further raise the cost.
(vi) Nuclear power plants are not well suited for
varying loads as the reactor does not
respond tothe load fluctuations efficiently.
(vii) The disposal of the by-products, which are
radioactive, is a big problem. They have
either to be disposed off in a deep trench or
in a sea away from sea-shore.
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Solar Power Plants
17-Sep-24 101
What is a solar power plant?
The utility-scale solar panels converts sunlight to
electricity with some dependency on solar
technologies.
A solar power plant is mainly concerned with

diminishing electricity costs by imparting energy. In
the process of doing so, small and large solar systems
are involved.
The engaged components absorb and transmute

sunlight to electricity from DC to AC.
A solar energy conversion entails batteries and more
accessories.
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Solar Power Plants
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The working of a solar plant comprises six main
elements.
1. Solar Panels
Solar panels are the heart of a power plant.
They are built by a number of solar cells and are

solely responsible for the success of a plant.
The panels are positioned on the roof of a building

at a tilted angle to maximize sunlight.
17-Sep-24 104
2. Battery Controller
A battery charge controller ensures consistent
power to the batteries, which is functional on days
of less sunshine or at night.
This takes care of the battery and makes sure the

battery does not get discharged or overcharged.
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3. Solar Power disconnects
A solar power disconnect cuts off the DC power
output from the solar panel.
It also looks into problems with the solar system.
This component should be strong enough to

control the power on a bright sunny day.
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4. Solar cells
Solar cells are majorly responsible for the flow of
electricity.
The energy-generating unit is fabricated with p-

type and n-type silicon semiconductors.
The solar cells absorb the energy from the

sunlight and create electrical charges, which move
in response to an internal electric field.
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5. Deep cycle battery storage
The solar system requires deep cycle battery
storage in order to store the energy generated by
solar panels.
They are robust and are responsible for charging

and discharging cycles.
17-Sep-24 108
6. Solar power system metering
Having a solar power system meter is an optional
component but can help immensely maximize the
solar system’s efficiency.
17-Sep-24 109
How does solar energy conversion take place?
Here’s a step-by-step look at how solar panels
work.
1. The solar panels are built with silicon cells,
metal frames and special wiring. When these
panels are grouped and placed on the rooftop,
they absorb sunlight and get activated.
2. The solar cells are made up of a positively
charged and negatively charged layer. Once the
energy strikes a solar cell, it causes movement
of electrons and creates an electric current.
17-Sep-24 110
3. Solar panels work on converting sunlight
efficiently into electricity. However, the
generated electricity is in the DC form, which
gets converted into AC easily.
4. The converted electricity will then power all
the appliances. The energy will run through the
electric panels and distribute to the utilities.
5. A smart electric meter will work on measuring
usage and energy generation. The component
will quantify the surplus power and send it
back when required.
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Advantages of a Solar Power Plant
Here are some lesser-known benefits of solar energy.
1. Great for the environment. It is one of the cleanest
sources of energy. Renewable energy does not produce
any noise pollution or waste and therefore does not
impact the environment in any way.
2. The cost of energy production is practically negligible as it
does not need any outside supply. Besides the investment
to set up a solar power plant, there are no additional
costs involved.
3. There is no loss of energy in its distribution. This keeps
the performance at its peak.
4. The installation of a solar power plant is easy and
versatile. It can be set up almost anywhere. The flexibility
of a solar system makes it easy to generate electricity
even in remote areas.
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Advantages of a Solar Power Plant
5. The energy production from the sun makes it an
inexhaustible energy source. This makes it available in
abundance.
6. In the case of voltage dips and blackouts, the
efficiency of solar power comes into play.
7. The energy production is maximum during the day
resulting in reduced electricity prices.
8. With one time investment, expect free power for life.
9. Get a return on investment in only three years.
10. The most eco-friendly technique for power
production.
17-Sep-24 113
Applications of Solar Energy
Some major applications of solar energy include:
1. Solar water heating

2. Solar distillation
3. Solar heating of buildings
4. Solar pumping
5. Solar furnaces
6. Solar greenhouses
7. Solar cooking
8. Solar electric power generation
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Wind Power Plants
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Wind Power Plants
17-Sep-24 116
Components of Wind Turbine
a. Rotor Blades
 The rotor blades are the most visible
parts of a wind turbine. Their primary
role is to capture the kinetic energy of
the wind and convert it into rotational
energy.
 The most common materials used in the
construction of rotor blades are
fibreglass, carbon fibre and wood, which
offer the combination of strength,
stiffness and low weight
17-Sep-24 117
b. Blade Pitch Control System
 The blade pitch control system is responsible
for adjusting the angle of the rotor blades to
optimise their performance under varying
wind conditions.
 This system consists of hydraulic or electric
actuators that can rotate the blades around
their longitudinal axis.
17-Sep-24 118
c. Yaw System
 The yaw system adjusts and orientates
the wind turbine rotor blades into the
direction of the wind.
 This involves a motorised yaw drive
that can rotate the entire nacelle and
rotor assembly around a vertical axis.
17-Sep-24 119
d. Nacelle
 The nacelle is a large, box-shaped structure that
houses the turbine's generator, gearbox and other
key components.
 It is typically mounted on top of the wind turbine
tower and is designed to protect the sensitive
components from harsh outdoor elements.
 The nacelle also contains various sensors and
control systems that monitor the performance of
the turbine and adjust its operation accordingly.
17-Sep-24 120
e. Gearbox
 The gearbox increases the rotational
speed of the turbine's rotor to drive the
generator at the required speed.
 It usually consists of a set of gears and
bearings that transmit the torque from
the rotor to the generator.
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f. Generator
 The generator is the wind turbine
component responsible for converting the
rotational energy into electrical energy.
Most wind turbines use either a permanent
magnet generator or an induction generator.
 Permanent magnet generators tend to be
more efficient and require less maintenance
than induction generators, but they are also
more expensive.
17-Sep-24 122
g. Control Systems
 The control systems of a wind turbine monitor
and regulate the whole operation. These
systems typically consist of a combination of
hardware and software components that work
together to ensure that the turbine operates
safely and efficiently.
 They can also adjust the blade pitch, yaw and
other variables to optimise energy capture
under different wind conditions.
17-Sep-24 123
1. Wind turbines operate by capturing the kinetic
energy of the wind and converting it into
rotational energy that can be used to generate
electricity.
2. The rotor blades of the wind turbine are
designed to collect the energy of the wind and
convert it into a rotational motion.
3. As the blades rotate, they drive a shaft that is
connected to a gearbox, which increases the
rotational speed of the shaft.
17-Sep-24 124
4. The high-speed shaft is connected to a
generator, which converts the rotational
5. The control systems of the wind turbine

monitor and regulate the operation of the
machine, adjusting the blade pitch and
yaw to optimise energy capture under
different wind conditions.
17-Sep-24 125
Principle of Operation in Short
1. A wind turbine turns wind energy into
electricity using the aerodynamic force
from the rotor blades, which work like an
airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade.
2. When wind flows across the blade, the
air pressure on one side of the blade
decreases.
3. The difference in air pressure across the
two sides of the blade creates both lift
and drag.
17-Sep-24 126
Principle of Operation in Short
4. The force of the lift is stronger than the drag
and this causes the rotor to spin.
5. The rotor connects to the generator, either
directly (if it’s a direct drive turbine) or
through a shaft and a series of gears (a
gearbox) that speed up the rotation and allow
for a physically smaller generator.
6. This translation of aerodynamic force to
rotation of a generator creates electricity.
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Ratings of commonly used
household appliances
17-Sep-24 128
Domestic Portable Appliance Amps Used Watts Used Additional information
Laptop <0.5 Up to 100
Since the introduction of USB 3 these

Mobile phone charger <0.5 Up to 75 devices are now typically 20W but can be
as high as 75W for multiple fast charging
Wide range of devices ranging from 7W

Chargers for battery
<0.5 Up to 75 for simple usb powered chargers to 75W
operated devices for multiple charging devices
Typically, 50-350W the faster the charger

Battery chargers for tools 1.5 Up to 350 the higher the power
Typically, 90-300W. Double controller

Electric blanket Up to 1.3 Up to 300 types are generally higher powered
Fridge (under counter

0.75 100
type)
Applies to upright and domestic chest
Freezer 0.75 100 type freezers generally the larger the
freezer the higher the power
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Mini Fridge 0.5 100
Fridge Freezer (Standard) 1.5 150
American Style Fridge

2.5 250
Freezer
Up to
Kettle Up to 13 Typically, 2200 – 3000W
3000
Satellite TV box/
<0.5 30
Streaming devices
Printer <0.5 50
Radio <0.5 15
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Up to
Radiator or Fan Heater Up to 13 Typically, 2000 – 3000W
3000
Desk lamp (with 60 W

<0.5 60
lamp)
Desk lamp (with LED

<0.5 5
lamp)
DVD/Blu-Ray player <0.5 20
Hair dryer 10.0 2200
Hair straighteners <0.5 Up to 100 Typically, 60 – 100W
Landline cordless
<0.5 10
telephone charger
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Computer monitor <0.5 25

Generally, the higher the
specification the more power
Desktop computer 1.3 Up to 300
it needs, gaming computers
tend to be highest
Television 55” UHD <0.5 120
Games console 0.86 200
Washing machine 10 2200
Toaster (4 Slice) 9.0 2000
Toaster (2 Slice) 4.0 900

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Amps Watts
Domestic Portable Appliance Additional information
Used Used
Tumble dryer (condenser or
11.0 2500
vented)
New technology tumble dryers
Tumble dryer (Heat Pump) 3.5 800 that have much lower
consumption figures
Dishwasher 10.0 2200
Iron 13 3000
Standard microwave with no

Microwave 6.5 1500
grill or oven function
Vacuum cleaner 9.0 2000 Pre 2014
Vacuum cleaner 7.0 1600 Pre 2017

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Calculate the monthly energy consumed and
monthly electricity bill in the household as per
the data given on daily basis. Consider the rate
of tariff as Rs 2.5 per unit.
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Tariff
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Tariff
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is

known as tariff.
Objectives of tariff:
• Recovery of cost of producing electrical energy at the power

station.
• Recovery of cost on the capital investment in transmission

and distribution systems.
• Recovery of cost of operation and maintenance of supply of

electrical energy e.g., metering equipment, billing etc.
• A suitable profit on the capital investment.

Two-part tariff:
When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the

basis of maximum demand of the consumer and the
units consumed, it is called a two- part tariff.
In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the

consumer is split into two components viz., fixed
charges and running charges.
The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand
of the consumer while the running charges depend
upon the number of units consumed by the consumer.
Two-part tariff:
Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain
amount per kW of maximum demand plus a
certain amount per kWh of energy consumed
i.e.,
Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)
where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand

c = charge per kWh of energy consumed
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to
industrial consumers who have appreciable
maximum demand.
Electric shock
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Electric shock
• Human body has electrical conducting property. Without

sweating of human body the resistance is approximately
80000Ω and with sweating resistance of the human body is
approximately 1000 Ω.
• If we touch the current carrying conductor, the current is

conducted through our body to earth. So the electric circuit
is closed and we get electric shock, due to this nervous
structure, heart, lungs and brain are affected.
• If the current is large, death may occur. Therefore, we must

know even though the current is essential, if it is used
wrongly, it will cause heavy loss. i.e. death and economical
loss.
• To prevent this electrical shock, we should know the

protective methods for safety precautions.
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Preventive method to avoid electric shock:
• The operation of electrical equipment must be known.
(For this refer user manual provided by manufacturers)
• Damaged wire is not used for wiring works or electrical
connection.
• The electrical instruments used for connections (i.e., switch,

plug, bushings etc.) are not having any scratch or breakable
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• The hand tools are insulated essentially.
• Proper earthing should be provided.
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• If the supply is taken from the socket, only the plug top is
used. Avoid, the supply is taken by inserting the wire with
stick in the socket.
• Depending upon the load, rated ampere fuse wire is used.
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• The electrical equipment is repaired after the main switch is off.
• For any reason do not operate by overcoming the safety rules.
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First-aid for electric shock:
• If anyone suffers an electric shock, the electricity source
should be cut off immediately.
• Only conduct the first-aid when the victim is in a safe place.
• Check the victim’s breath and pulse. If the person is
unconscious but is breathing normally, he or she should be
placed in a recovery position.
• If the victim is not breathing and has no pulse,

cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be conducted.
Note: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) should be carried out
only by competent first-aid personnel.
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Cardiopulmonary resuscitation:
(i) Open the airway

• Lift the jaw and tilt the head back to open the airway. Clear
any obstacles.
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(ii) Check the breaths
• See : See if the chest rises and falls.
• Listen : Listen for breathing.
• Feel : Feel breathing on your cheek.
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(iii) Check the pulse (circulation)
• Use your fingers to feel the pulse.
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(iv) Recovery position
• If the casualty is unconscious but is breathing normally, place
them in the recovery position (as shown in figure below).
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151
(v) Mouth to mouth expired air resuscitation
• If the person is not breathing, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
should be used to help the resumption of breathing.
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(vi) External chest compression
• If the casualty has no pulse, cardiopulmonary resuscitation
should be carried out (combining the expired air resuscitation
and external chest compression).
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Earthing or Grounding
• The process of connecting metallic frame of electrical

equipment or some electrical part of the system to earth (i.e.
soil) is called grounding or earthing.
• The potential of the earth is to be considered zero for all
practical purposes.
• Earthing brings the potential of the body of the equipment to
zero i.e. to the earth’s potential, thus protecting the operating
personnel against electrical shock.
Necessity of Earthing
• Protect the operating personnel from the danger of shock.
• Protection of the equipments.
• Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from
overhead lines against lightning.
• To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load
condition.
• To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through
unwanted path.
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Methods of earthing:
i. Plate earthing
ii. Pipe earthing
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(i) Plate Earthing
9/17/2024
Figure (13): Plate earthing 156
(i) Plate Earthing
• In this type of earthing plate
either copper or GI is buried
into the ground at depth of not
less than 3m from the ground
level. The plate electrode
connects the electrical
conductors to the earth.
• The earth plate is embedded in
alternative layer of coke and
salts for minimum thickness of
about 15cm.
• The earth wire (Copper wire for
copper plate earthing and GI
wire for GI plate earthing) is
securely bolted to an earth plate
with the help of bolt nut and
washer.
9/17/2024 Figure (13): Plate earthing
157
(i) Plate Earthing
• A cement masonry chamber is
built with a cast iron cover for
easy regular maintenance.
• In this type of earthing the pipe
earthing along with additional
earth plate is provided at the
bottom of the earth rod. If earth
plate is made up of iron, size of
earth plate is 60cm×60cm
×6.3mm. If it is made of copper,
size of earth plate is 60cm
×60cm ×3.15mm.
• The plate is placed at the depth
of 3m and then alternative
layers of charcoal and salt is
put below and top of earth
plate.
9/17/2024 Figure (13): Plate earthing
158
(ii) Pipe Earthing
9/17/2024
Figure (14): Pipe earthing 159
(ii) Pipe Earthing
• Pipe earthing is best form
of earthing and cheap
• In this earthing system, a
GI pipe of 38mm diameter
and 2.5m length is
embedded vertically in
ground to work as earth
electrode, but depth
depends on soil conditions.
• Wire is embedded upto the
wet soil.
• The earth wire is fastened
to the top section of the
pipe with nut and bolts.
9/17/2024 Figure (14): Pipe earthing

160
(ii) Pipe Earthing
• The pit area around the
pipe is filled with salt and
coal mixture for improving
soil condition and efficiency
of earthing systems.
• It can take heavy leakage
current for same electrode
size in comparison to plate
earthing.
• The earth wire connection
with GI pipes being above
the ground level can be
checked for carrying out
continuity test as and
when desired where it is
difficult for plate earthing.
161
(ii) Pipe Earthing
• In summer season to have
effective earthing 3 or 4
buckets of water is put
through the funnel for better
continuity of earthing.
• GI pipe of 38mm diameter, 2m
length placed to depth of
4.75m. The depth depends on
conditions of moisture. The
size of pipe depends on the
current to be carried and type
of soil. The powdered charcoal
salt is put 15cm around the
pipe. A funnel is connected at
the top of pipe and water is
poured at regular period of for
maintaining resistance as low
as possible. 162
Indian Electricity Safety Rules
1. Don’t plug a bunch of stuff into one outlet or extension

cord.
It could damage the electrical system in your house or even
cause a fire.
2. Do ask grown-ups to put safety caps on all unused electric
outlets
Covering outlets will also help save energy by stopping cold
drafts
3. Don’t yank an electrical cord from the wall.
Pulling on a cord can damage the appliance, the plug or the
outlet.
4. Do make sure all electric cords are tucked away, neat and
tidy
Pets might chew on electrical cords, and people might trip and
fall.
5. Do ask a grown-up for help when you need to use something
that uses electricity.
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6. Do look up and look out for power lines before you climb a
tree
The electricity can go right through the tree branch and right
through you.
7. Don’t ever climb the fence around an electrical
substation.
If a ball or pet gets inside the fence, ask a grown-up to call the
electric company-they’ll come and get it for you.
8. Do remind your mom or dad to watch out for powerlines
when they are using a ladder,chainsaw or other outdoor
equipment.
9. Do keep electrical stuff far away from water.
Most electrical accidents around the house happen when
people use electricity near water.
10. Don’t fly a kite near power lines.
The kite and the string may conduct electricity – sending it
right through you to the ground.
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Fuse
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FUSE
17-Sep-24 166
FUSE
The primary use of an electric fuse is to
protect electrical equipment from excessive
current and to prevent short circuits or
mismatched loads.
o Electrical fuses play the role of
miniature circuit breakers.
o Apart from protecting equipment,
they are also used as safety measures
to prevent any safety hazards to
humans.
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FUSE
The fuse wire in an electrical fuse is selected in such a
way that it does not face any damage when the
normally stipulated amount of current flows through
the circuit.
 Under normal conditions, the fuse wire is a part
of the circuitry, contributing to a complete loop
for charges to flow through it.
 However, when an excessive amount of current
flows through the fuse wire, the heating effect
of the current causes the fuse wire to melt.
 This is because the fuse wire is chosen such that
it has a low melting point.
 This causes the loop to break thereby stopping
the flow of charges in the circuit.
17-Sep-24 168
FUSE
It is important to select a fuse that is properly specified
for the circuit in consideration.
 For example, if the fuse that is used is underrated,
then it will fail even under normal current
conditions, unnecessarily breaking the circuit loop.
 If it is overrated, then it will not break the circuit
when required and cause equipment damage and
failure and may even present itself as a safety
hazard.
17-Sep-24 169
FUSE
Advantages of Fuse
 When compared to circuit breakers, its
functioning is entirely automatic, it takes
significantly less time, and there is no
complication involved in any part of it.
 The large percentage of fuses have their own
built-in safety mechanisms, which include
the capability to blow out electrical arcs.
 When utilize fuses with elements of smaller
sizes, it can limit the amount of current that
flows through the circuit in the event of a
short
17-Sep-24
circuit. 170
FUSE
Advantages of Fuse
 The utilization of fuses is the most cost-
effective kind of protection.
 The element of the fuse can be changed
quite easily.
 The fuse does not require any sort of
maintenance.
 In a situation where there is a short
circuit, it has the effect of limiting the
current.
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FUSE
Disadvantages of Fuse
 A circuit breaker can be reset and utilised
several times, whereas replacing a fuse
following an operation requires a
considerable amount of time.
 In the event that a motor is started, it is
unable to withstand a surge current.
 The circuit was not protected against an
under-voltage by the fuse.
 Because the elements of the fuse that are
responsible for fusing are exposed to air,
the fuse will eventually become oxidised.
17-Sep-24 172
Miniature Circuit
Breaker
(MCB)
17-Sep-24 173
MCB
17-Sep-24 174
MCB
17-Sep-24 175
MCB
The components of the MCB are listed below:
1. Latch
2. Solenoid
3. Switch
4. Plunger
5. Incoming Terminal
6. Arc Chutes Holder
7. Arc Chutes
8. Dynamic Contact
9. Fixed Contact
10. Din Rail Holder
11. Outgoing Terminal
12. Bi-metallic Strip Carrier
13. Bi-metallic Strip
17-Sep-24 176
Working Principle of MCB
17-Sep-24 177
1. When the current overflow occurs through MCB – Miniature Circuit

Breaker, the bimetallic strip gets heated and deflects by bending.
2. The deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a latch.
3. The latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping the current flow in
the circuit.
4. This process helps safeguard the appliances or devices from the hazards
of overload or overcurrent. To restart the current flow, MCB must be
17-Sep-24 178
turned ON manually
5. In the case of short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly in an

unpredictable way, leading to the electromechanical displacement of
the plunger associated with a solenoid.
6. The plunger hits the trip lever, which causes the automatic release of
the latch mechanism by opening the circuit breaker contacts.
17-Sep-24 179
Advantages of MCB
1. A miniature circuit breaker finds in a compact size that
can easily handle and move.
2. MCB works as a protective device (like a ‘breaker’)
that quickly takes action against overheating, short
circuits, and overload conditions.
3. This circuit breaker has two crucial functions such as
protection and disconnection in the power circuit.
4. MCB is used as the control switch that turns off
automatically.
5. The switching performance of MCB is good.
6. An MCB is a reusable type. So, less maintenance is
required.
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Advantages of MCB
7. The cost of maintenance and replacement is less over
fuse.
8. This device provides a better interface for normal and
abnormal situations.
9. MCB is very sensitive and reliable than the fuse.
10. It immediately indicates fault for preventing damages
to connected appliances.
11. Under the earth leakage, a miniature circuit breaker
provides better protection.
12. This device has a short tripping time.
13. Users can easily handle and identify when it is tripped
17-Sep-24 181
Disadvantages of MCB
1. The cost of the MCB is more as compared to
MCCB and fuse.
2. Also, the distribution board’s cost is high than
the rewireable fuse board.
3. Sometimes, it cannot properly work and protect
against earth’s faults.
4. It is only used for small current-carrying
applications. For example, in In-home wiring
protection, MCB is used.
5. Auxiliary contact does not occur in the MCB
circuit.
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1 st SEM Regular QP
17-Sep-24 183
Thank you
17-Sep-24 184
Thank you
17-Sep-24 185
17-Sep-24 186
Thank you
17-Sep-24 187
DC Machine
17-Sep-24 188
Overview of DC Machines
 DC machine is one of the most commonly used machine

for electro-mechanical energy conversion.
 DC machines are classified into two types such as (i) DC
generators, and (ii) DC motors.
(i) DC generator
 The machine which produces DC electrical power is known
as DC generator.
 An electric generator is a machine which converts
mechanical energy/power into electrical energy/power.
 It works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction, which states that “whenever a
conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. induced in it 18
17-Sep-24
9
 Applications: DC generators are suitable for many
applications – including general lighting, battery charging,
giving excitation to the alternators, series arc lighting etc.
(ii) DC Motor
 The machine which produces mechanical power is known
as DC motor.
 An electrical motor is a machine which converts electrical
energy/power into mechanical energy/power.
 It works on the principle of Lorentz Law, which states that
“the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic and
electric field experience a force”
17-Sep-24 19
0
 Applications: DC motors are suitable for many
applications – including conveyors, turntables, trolleys,
underground subway cars etc.
 Any DC machine can act either as a generator or a
motor
 A DC machine works as a DC generator when it is
driven by a prime mover.
 The same machine works as a DC motor when
electrical energy is supplied to it.
 Therefore, the constructional features of a DC
generator and DC motor are the same.
17-Sep-24
1
9
Construction of a DC Machine
Figure (7): Schematic diagram of a 4-pole DC Machine

9/17/2024
192
 DC machine consists the following main parts.
• Yoke or magnetic frame
• Armature core or stack
• Armature winding
• Pole consists of pole core and pole shoe
• Field winding
• Commutator
• Brushes and Brush holder
• Inter poles
• Shaft and Bearings
9/17/2024
193
(i) Magnetic Frame or Yoke
• Outermost protecting cover for the DC machine.
• Circular steel ring, provides protection to all parts of the
machine from moisture, dust etc.
• Provides mechanical support to the field poles and necessary
magnetic path between the poles.
• Made up of with cast iron, cast steel, silicon steel, rolled steel
etc.
9/17/2024 Figure (8): Magnetic Frame or Yoke

194
(ii) Armature core or Stack
• Rotating part (rotor) of the DC machine and is mounted on the
shaft.
• Cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding.
• Made up of silicon steel laminations in order to reduce the
eddy current losses.
• Provided with air ducts for cooling purposes.
• Made up of with cast steel or cast iron.
9/17/2024
Figure (9): Armature Core
195
(iii) Armature winding
• Formed by placing copper coil/conductor in armature slots.
• Armature conductors are insulated from each other and also
from the armature core.
• Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods;
lap winding or wave winding.
9/17/2024 Figure (10): Armature Winding

196
• It either generates or receives the voltage depending on
whether the unit is a generator or a motor.
• Made-up of with conducting materials like copper.
(iv) Poles and pole shoes
• Poles produce the magnetic flux when the field winding is
excited.
Figure (11): Field pole

9/17/2024
197
• Each pole is divided into two parts namely pole core and
pole shoe.
• Pole core is a part on which field winding is wound over.
• Pole shoe serves the following two functions:
(i) Distributes the magnetic flux uniformly in the air gap.
(ii) Supports the field winding.
• Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or
welding
• In modern design the pole is made-up of with thin
laminations of cast steel or cast iron.
(v) Field winding

• Field coils or field windings are located on the pole core
of the machine.
9/17/2024
198
• When the field winding excited, i.e. when the current is
passed through the field winding in a specific direction, it
sets up magnetic field (i.e. magnetize the poles) in the
machine.
• The field coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel
with the armature winding) or series windings (in series
with the armature winding) or a combination of both.
• Made up of with conducting materials like aluminum,
copper etc.
Figure (12): Field winding

9/17/2024
199
(vi) Commutator
• Commutator is a mechanical rectifier, which converts AC
voltage of the rotating conductors to DC voltage.
• Collects the current from the armature conductors and passes
it to the external load via brush.
• Cylindrical in structure and is made-up of copper or bronze.
Figure (13): Fully Assembled Commutator

9/17/2024
200
(vii) Brushes and brush holder
• Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the
external circuit.
• Made-up of with material like carbon, graphite etc.
• A brush holder is usually a metal box that is rectangular in
shape.
• The brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in contact
with the commutator.
(viii) Inter poles

• Inter poles are similar to the main poles.
• These are connected between the yoke and main field poles.
• They have windings in series with the armature winding.
• Inter poles have the function of reducing the armature
reaction effect in the commutating zone.
9/17/2024
201
Figure (14): Cut View of DC Machine
9/17/2024
202
(ix) Shaft and Bearings
• Shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking
strength.
• Shaft is used to transfer mechanical power from or to the
machine.
• These are normally lubricated by grease or oil.
• The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported
between the two bearings.
• The bearings are either ball or roller type and are fitted in the
end housings.
• The function of the bearings is to reduce friction between the
rotating and stationary parts of the machine.
• Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of
bearings.
9/17/2024
203
Transformer
17-Sep-24 204
Transformer
An electrical transformer is a static
electrical machine which transforms
electrical power from one circuit to
another circuit, without changing the
frequency.
Transformer can increase or decrease

the voltage with corresponding
decrease or increase in current.
17-Sep-24 205
Construction of Transformer
17-Sep-24 206
• Basically a transformer
consists of two
inductive windings and
a laminated steel core.
• The coils are insulated

from each other as well
as from the steel core.
17-Sep-24 207
• A transformer may also
consist of a container for
winding and core assembly
(called as tank), suitable
bushings to take our the
terminals, oil conservator
to provide oil in the
transformer tank for
cooling purposes etc.
17-Sep-24 208
• The figure illustrates
the basic construction
of a transformer.
• In all types of
transformers, core is
constructed by
assembling (stacking)
laminated sheets of
steel, with minimum
air-gap between them
(to achieve continuous
magnetic path).
17-Sep-24 209
• The steel used is

having high silicon
content and sometimes
heat treated, to
provide high
permeability and low
hysteresis loss.
17-Sep-24 210
• Laminated sheets of
steel are used to
reduce eddy current
loss. The sheets are
cut in the shape as E,I
and L.
17-Sep-24 211
Working principle of Transformer
17-Sep-24 212
• The basic principle
behind working of a
transformer is the
phenomenon of
mutual induction
between two
windings linked by
common magnetic
flux.
17-Sep-24 213
• The figure at right
shows the simplest
form of a transformer.
• Basically a
transformer consists
of two inductive coils;
primary winding and
secondary winding.
17-Sep-24 214
• The coils are
electrically separated
but magnetically
linked to each other.
• When primary
winding is connected
to a source of
alternating voltage,
alternating magnetic
flux is produced
around the winding.
17-Sep-24 215
• The core provides
magnetic path for the
flux, to get linked with
the secondary
winding.
• Most of the flux gets
linked with the
secondary winding
which is called as
'useful flux' or main
'flux'
17-Sep-24 216
• The flux which does
not get linked with
secondary winding is
called as 'leakage
flux'.
17-Sep-24 217
• As the flux produced
is alternating (the
direction of it is
continuously
changing), EMF gets
induced in the
secondary winding
according to Faraday's
law of
electromagnetic
induction.
17-Sep-24 218
• This emf is called
'mutually induced
emf', and the
frequency of mutually
induced emf is same
as that of supplied
emf.
17-Sep-24 219
• If the secondary
winding is closed
circuit, then mutually
induced current flows
through it, and hence
the electrical energy is
transferred from one
circuit (primary) to
another circuit
(secondary).
17-Sep-24 220
• RMS value of induced
emf in whole primary
winding (E1) = RMS
value of emf per turn
X Number of turns in
primary winding
• E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm
......................... eq 1
17-Sep-24 221
• Similarly, RMS
induced emf in
secondary winding
(E2) can be given as
• E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm.
......................... eq 2
17-Sep-24 222
• Similarly, RMS rom the
above equations 1 and 2,
• This is called the emf

equation of transformer,
which shows, emf /
number of turns is same
for both primary and
secondary winding.
17-Sep-24 223
Advantages of Transformer
1. Provide efficient electricity transmission.
2. Minimize energy losses during
transmission.
3. Step up or step down voltage levels as
required.
4. Provides consistent electricity supply.
5. Supports various industrial and residential
applications.
6. Regulate voltage levels and enhance the
safety of equipment and life
17-Sep-24 224
Disadvantages of Transformer
1. Despite the high gain, it fluctuates
greatly with frequency. As a result,
the frequency response is low.
2. The frequency distortion is more
pronounced.
3. Humming is a common
characteristic of transformers.
4. Transformers are large and
expensive.
17-Sep-24 225
Applications of Transformer
1. Power generation: Transformers are
used in power plants to increase the
voltage of the electricity generated by
the plant before it is sent to the grid.
2. Transmission and distribution:
Transformers are used in the
transmission and distribution of
electricity to increase or decrease the
voltage of electricity as it is sent from
power plants to homes and
businesses.
17-Sep-24 226
Applications of Transformer
3. Lighting: Transformers are used in lighting
systems to decrease the voltage of
electricity before it is sent to light bulbs.
4. Audio systems: Transformers are used in
audio systems to increase or decrease the
voltage of electricity before it is sent to
speakers.
5. Electronic equipment: Transformers are
used in a variety of electronic devices,
including computers, TVs, radios, and cell
phones.
17-Sep-24 227
Construction of a DC Machine
Figure (7): Schematic diagram of a 4-pole DC Machine

9/17/2024
228
Working principle of a DC generator
• An electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical

• All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced
e.m.f. i.e. Faraday’s law of electromagnetism induction.
• It states that, whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux,
an e.m.f. induced; which will cause a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.
• The direction of induced e.m.f and hence current is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
• The essential components of a generator are: (i) a magnetic
field, (ii) conductor or a group of conductors, and (iii) motion
of the conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
• Figure (11) shows a single loop rectangular copper coil (ABCD)
rotating about its own axis in a magnetic field provided by
either permanent magnets or electromagnets.
9/17/2024
229
Fleming's Right Hand Rule:
If the right hand is held with the thumb, fore finger and middle
finger mutually at right angles, as shown in the figure (18), then
• The Thumb represents the direction of motion of the
conductor (F).
• The Fore finger represents the direction of Magnetic field (B).
• The Middle finger represents the direction of induced or
generated e.m.f/current (V or I).
Figure (18): Fleming’s right hand rule

9/17/2024
230
• The two ends of the coil are joined to two slip-rings which are
insulated from each other and from the central shaft.
• Two collecting brushes (carbon or copper) press against the
slip-rings; their function is to collect the current induced in
the coil to external load resistance.
• The rotating coil may be called armature and the magnets as
field system.
Figure (11)
9/17/2024
231
• Figure (11) shows a single
loop coil forming two
sides AB and CD able to
rotate between north pole
‘N’ and south pole ‘S’ of a
permanent magnet.
Assume this as the
starting point and fixing
the direction of rotation
as clock-wise.
• In this position the
conductor coil sides ‘AB’
and ‘CD’ are parallel to
the magnetic flux and
Figure (11): Conductor moving
therefore does not cut the
parallel to the direction of flux (00 magnetic flux and the
position) induced voltage at this
instant is zero
9/17/2024
232
• As the coil rotates from
the 00 position to 900 in
clockwise, the coil sides
begin to cut the magnetic
flux at a gradually
increasing rate and
conductor comes to the
position as shown in
figure (12).
• Hence the magnitude of

induced e.m.f. also
gradually increases and
becomes maximum when
Figure (12): Conductor moving the coil rotates by an
perpendicular to the direction of angle 900.
flux (900 position)
9/17/2024
233
• As the coil rotates from
the 900 position to 1800,
again the coil sides AB
and CD are parallel to the
flux lines as shown in
figure (13).
• Under this condition the

flux linkage is gradually
decreases and hence the
induced e.m.f. also
gradually decrease and
becomes zero at 1800.
• At this point, the coil has

Figure (13): Conductor moving gone through a half-
parallel to the direction of flux revolution.
(1800 position)
9/17/2024
234
• Again, as the coil rotates
from position 1800 to 2700
as shown in figure (14),
the induced e.m.f. starts
increasing from zero to
maximum and attains
maximum value at 2700,
but in opposite direction.
Figure (14): Conductor moving

perpendicular to the direction of
flux (2700 position)
9/17/2024
235
• As the coil again moves
from 2700 to 3600 as shown
in figure (15), the induced
e.m.f. starts decreasing
from its maximum value
and reaches to zero again.
• So it completes the second

half revolution.
• Thus, during the second

half-revolution, coil sides
cut flux in directions
opposite to that which they
did in the first half
Figure (15): Conductor moving revolution, hence, the
parallel to the direction of flux polarity of the induced
(3600 position) voltage reverses.
9/17/2024
236
• So from the above
discussion, it can be
concluded that the e.m.f.
induced in the armature
conductor of a DC generator
is alternating in nature as
shown in figure (16).
Figure (16): Sinusoidal wave

form of induced e.m.f. • It is seen that, the e.m.f.
induced in the conductors is
always sinusoidal and split
ring commutator converts
this sinusoidal e.m.f. into
unidirectional e.m.f. as
shown in fig.(17)
Figure (17): Wave form of
unidirectional current at the load
9/17/2024
237
Working Principle of a DC Motor
 Its operation is based on the principle that whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. The direction of the force is
given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and hence the conductor
moves in the direction of force.
 The magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the
conductor is given by, F=BIL
Where B= flux density, Tesla; I = current in conductor, A; L=
exposed length of conductor, m
 In general, if the conductor lies at an angle θ with a magnetic
field of flux density B weber/m2, the mechanical force
experienced on a conductor is given by, F=BILsinθ
Where θ = angle between magnetic field and conductor
 Fleming's left-hand rule: This rule states that if the thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of the left hand are stretched in
such a way that they are at right angle to each other mutually
and forefinger points towards the direction of magnetic field, the
9/17/2024
238
middle finger towards the direction of flow of current then the
thumb will point the direction of force acting on the conductor.
Figure (19): Fleming’s left hand rule
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Lying in the

Magnetic Field:
To understand the force on a current carrying conductor
lying in the magnetic field, let us see the following figure:
9/17/2024
239
Figure (20): Fleming’s left hand rule
9/17/2024
240
 Fig.20 (a) shows the uniform magnetic field between the
two opposite poles.
 In fig.20(b) the cross section of a conductor carrying
current in inward direction placed between two magnets,
the field being temporarily removed, is shown. By applying
the left-hand thumb rule, the direction of the field around
the conductor is found to be clockwise.
 If the current carrying conductor shown in fig. 20 (b) is
placed in the magnetic field shown in fig. 20(a), the
resultant magnetic field would be similar to that shown in
fig. 20(c).
 The lines of force above the conductor are strengthened,
since they are in the same direction, but the lines of force
below the conductor are weakened because the two fields
below the conductor are opposite in directions and hence
tends to destroy each other.
9/17/2024
241
 Magnetic lines have a tendency to strengthen out and,
therefore, a force is experienced on the conductor in the
downward direction, as shown in the fig.20(c).
 Since all the conductors are placed in the slots provided at

the periphery of the armature, a twisting force/torque is
developed in the armature and hence its start rotating.
9/17/2024
242
Synchronous Generator
Or
Alternator
17-Sep-24 243
Alternator
1. A synchronous generator is a synchronous machine
which converts mechanical power into AC electric
power through the process of electromagnetic
induction.
2. Synchronous generators are also referred to as
alternators or AC generators.
3. The term "alternator" is used since it produces AC
power.
4. It is called synchronous generator because it must
be driven at synchronous speed to produce AC
power of the desired frequency.
5. A synchronous generator can be either single-phase
or poly-phase (generally 3phase).
17-Sep-24 244
Construction of Alternator
As alternator consists of two main parts viz.
Stator – The stator is the stationary part of the

alternator. It carries the armature winding in
which the voltage is generated. The output of the
alternator is taken form the stator.
Rotor – The rotor is the rotating part of the

alternator. The rotor produces the main field flux.
17-Sep-24 245
STATOR of Alternator
17-Sep-24 246
The stator of the alternator includes several parts,
viz. the frame, stator core, stator or armature
windings, and cooling arrangement.
1. The stator frame may be made up of cast iron

for small-size machines and of welded steel for
large-size machines.
2. The stator core is assembled with high-grade
silicon content steel laminations. These silicon
steel laminations reduce the hysteresis and eddy-
current losses in the stator core.
17-Sep-24 247
The stator of the alternator includes several parts,
viz. the frame, stator core, stator or armature
windings, and cooling arrangement.
3. The slots are cut on the inner periphery of the
stator core. A 3-phase armature winding is put in
these slots.
4. The armature winding of the alternator is star
connected. The winding of each phase is
distributed over several slots. When current
flows through the distributed armature winding,
it produces an essential sinusoidal space
distribution of EMF.
17-Sep-24 248
ROTOR of Alternator
1. The rotor of the alternator carries the field
winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate DC
source (also called exciter). The exciter is
generally a small DC shunt generator
mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
2. For the alternator, there are two types of rotor

constructions are used viz. the salient-pole
type and the cylindrical rotor type.
17-Sep-24 249
ROTOR of Alternator
1. The rotor of the alternator carries the field
winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate DC
source (also called exciter). The exciter is
generally a small DC shunt generator
mounted on the shaft of the alternator.
2. For the alternator, there are two types of rotor

constructions are used viz. the salient-pole
type and the cylindrical rotor type.
17-Sep-24 250
ROTOR of Alternator
Salient Pole Rotor
1. The term salient means
projecting. Hence, a salient pole
rotor consists of poles projecting
out from the surface of the rotor
core.
2. This whole arrangement is fixed
to the shaft of the alternator as
shown in the figure.
3. The individual field pole windings
are connected in series such that
when the field winding is
energised by the DC exciter, the
adjacent poles have opposite
polarities.
17-Sep-24 251
ROTOR
Cylindrical Rotor Rotor
of Alternator
1. The construction of the cylindrical rotor
is such that there are no-physical poles
to be seen as in the salient pole rotor.
2. In about two-third of the outer periphery
of the cylindrical rotor, slots are cut at
regular intervals and parallel to the rotor
shaft.
3. The field windings are placed in these
slots and is excited by DC supply. The
field winding is of distributed type.
4. The unslotted portion of the rotor forms
the pole faces.
5. It is clear from the figure of the
cylindrical rotor that the poles formed
are non-salient, i.e., they do not project
out from the rotor surface.
17-Sep-24 252
Working Principle of
Synchronous Generator
Or
Alternator
17-Sep-24 253
Alternator
1. An alternator or synchronous generator
works on the principle of electromagnetic
induction, i.e., when the flux linking a
conductor changes, an EMF is induced in
the conductor.
2. When the armature winding of alternator

subjected to the rotating magnetic field, the
voltage will be generated in the armature
17-Sep-24 254
winding.
Alternator
3. When the rotor field winding of the alternator
is energised from the DC exciter, the
alternate N and S poles are developed on the
rotor. When the rotor is rotated in the
anticlockwise direction by a prime mover, the
armature conductors placed on the stator are
cut by the magnetic field of the rotor poles.
4. As a result, the EMF is induced in the
armature conductors due to electromagnetic
induction.
17-Sep-24 255
Alternator
5. This induced EMF is alternating one because the
N and S poles of the rotor pass the armature
conductors alternatively.
6. The direction of the generated EMF can be
determined by the Fleming’s right rule and the
frequency of it is given by,
Where,
•Ns is the synchronous speed in RP
•P is the number of rotor poles.
17-Sep-24 256
Alternator
7. The magnitude of the generated voltage
depends upon the speed of rotation of the rotor
and the DC field excitation current.
8. For the balanced condition, the generated
voltage in each phase of the winding is the
same but differ in phase by 120° electrical.
17-Sep-24 257
Applications of Alternator
1. Electric generators.
2. Automotive alternators.
3. Diesel-electric locomotive alternators.
4. Marine alternators.
5. Aviation.
6. Radio alternators.
17-Sep-24 258

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MEASURING

• The PMMC instrument includes two high-

• i. Radial vane type:

The controlling torque is provided by the springs or

It is still an accurate and reliable instrument

i.e., Vba = Vda

i.e., I1P = I2R

Energy plays a vital role in routine life and

The energy sources are subdivided into

Although, the non-conventional sources are

The use of conventional sources is done for

The examples for which include firewood, fossil

In addition, firewood has been extensively used

These remains are decomposed and formed

Since they are naturally occurring and take a

It is essential for judicious use of non-

•Time-consuming collection process

In 1973, the oil crisis encouraged a focus on non –

Non-conventional sources could be obtained from

They are non-polluting and present in abundance

The light from the sun is used to generate

Solar energy is present in abundance although it

It is being used for lighting, heating, and others.

Although, in recent years, it has been used to generate

Usually, such wind farms are located near coastal areas or

In India, my desert regions, like the outskirts of Gujarat

Nuclear energy is acquired from nuclei atoms that occur

Nuclear fuels emit power when undergone in nuclear

Globally, the USA and Europe are the largest nuclear

The heat acquired from the earth is geothermal energy.

In many areas, hot springs are witnessed as part of

New Zealand, Iceland, Central America, and the USA have

India also has geothermal power plants located in

Tidal waves also generate energy harnessed by erecting

India has vast tidal mill farms at the Gulf of Kachchh,

•They are non-polluting

•Their acquisition can be sourced only in restricted time

4. The turbine or prime mover is mechanically coupled

3. Hydroelectricity is the most

5. This section deals about the

b) The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly

c) The catchment area behind the dam creates a

d) The height of water level (called as water head)

e) The pressure tunnel takes water from the dam

b) The amount of water which is to be released in

c) When the control gate is fully opened,

a) A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries

b) Potential energy of the water is converted into

b) When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives

b) A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is

c) It is fitted between the reservoir and the power

d) The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to

2. Turbine. The force of falling water pushing

4. Transmission lines: Conduct electricity from the

5. It requires large area (catchment) area for storage of

1. In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as

b) Moderator controls the chain reaction that

a) The steam turbine drives the

(iii) It has low running charges as a small amount

A solar power plant is mainly concerned with