Section-D

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Definition of instruments An instrument is a device in which we can determine the
magnitude or value of the quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be
voltage, current, power and energy etc. Generally instruments are classified in to two
categories.

Absolute instrument : An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the

quantity to be measured in terms of the instrument parameter. This instrument is really
used, because each time the value of the measuring quantities varies. So we have to
calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically which is time
consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use. Example:
Tangent galvanometer.
Secondary instrument :This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be
measured directly. Generally these instruments are calibrated by comparing with
another standard secondary instrument. Examples of such instruments are voltmeter,
ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically secondary instruments are suitable for
measurement.
Indicating instrument This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value
of measuring quantity. The pointer indication gives the magnitude of measuring
quantity.
Recording instrument This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity
to be measured continuously over a specified period of time.
Integrating instrument This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity
to be measured over a specified period of time.
Electromechanical indicating instrument For satisfactory operation
electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are necessary. They are
(a) Deflecting force (b) Controlling force (c)Damping force
(a) Deflecting force When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be
at its zero position. To deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary
which is known as deflecting force. A system which produces the deflecting force is
known as a deflecting system. Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical
signal to a mechanical force.
Magnitude effect When a current passes through the coil (Fig.), it produces a
imaginary bar magnet. When a soft-iron piece is brought near this coil it is magnetized.
Depending upon the current direction the poles are produced in such a way that there
will be a force of attraction between the coil and the soft iron piece. This principle is
used in moving iron attraction type instrument.
If two soft iron pieces are place near a current carrying coil there will be a force of
repulsion between the two soft iron pieces. This principle is utilized in the moving iron
repulsion type instrument.
Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil When a current
carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic field produced by a permanent
magnet and a force is produced between them. This principle is utilized in the moving
coil type instrument.

Force between two current carrying coil When two current carrying coils are placed
closer to each other there will be a force of repulsion between them. If one coil is
movable and other is fixed, the movable coil will move away from the fixed one. This
principle is utilized in electrodynamometer type instrument.
(b) Controlling force To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite
(constant) a force is necessary which will be acting in the opposite direction to the
deflecting force. This force is known as controlling force. A system which produces this
force is known as a controlled system. When the external signal to be measured by the
instrument is removed, the pointer should return back to the zero position. This is
possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be indicating a steady value
when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
Td = Tc
(c) Spring control Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig.).The spindle
is placed in jeweled bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle
will be minimum. Two springs are provided in opposite direction to compensate the
temperature error. The spring is made of phosphorous bronze. When a current is supply,
the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle. While spindle is rotate, the spring
attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of the pointer. The torque
produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer deflection θ .
TC ∝θ
The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. When TC = Td , the pointer will
come to a steady position. Therefore
θ∝I
Since, θ and I are directly proportional to the scale of such instrument which uses spring
controlled is uniform.
(d) Damping force The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems
are electro mechanical. Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates
about it final steady position before coming to rest. The time required to take the
measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation is quickly, a damping force is
necessary. This force is produced by different systems.
(a) Air friction damping (b) Fluid friction damping (c) Eddy current damping
Air friction damping The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the
connecting rod (Fig.). The pointer is fixed to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial.
When the pointer oscillates in clockwise direction, the piston goes inside and the
cylinder gets compressed. The air pushes the piston upwards and the pointer tends to
move in anticlockwise direction.

If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and the
pressure of the air inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is more than that
of the internal pressure. Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to
move in clock wise direction.
Eddy current damping

An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle (Fig.). This disc is made to move in
the magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.
When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet. An emf
is induced in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents are established in the disc
since it has several closed paths. By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc produced a
force in a direction opposite to oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by
varying the projection of the magnet over the circular disc.
Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument
One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC
instrument. Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument.
Aluminum former is provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent
magnet (Fig. ). Coils are wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the
spindle. This spindle is supported with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on
either end of the spindle. The terminals of the moving coils are connected to the spring.
Therefore the current flows through spring 1, moving coil and spring 2.
Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.
Control: Spring control is used.
Principle of operation When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows
through it. When the current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a
force. This force produces a torque and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with
the spindle. When the former rotates, the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When
the polarity is reversed a torque is produced in the opposite direction. The mechanical
stopper does not allow the deflection in the opposite direction. Therefore the polarity
should be maintained with PMMC instrument. If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is
produced. This cannot produce a continuous deflection. Therefore this instrument
cannot be used in A.C.
Advantages
Torque/weight is high
Power consumption is less
Scale is uniform
Damping is very effective
Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
Use only for D.C.
Cost is high
Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
Friction and temperature error are present
Extension of range of PMMC instrument
Case-I: Shunt A low shunt resistance connected in parallel with the ammeter to extent
the range of current. Large current can be measured using low current rated ammeter by
using a shunt.
Shunt resistance is made of manganin. This has least thermoelectric emf. The change is
resistance, due to change in temperature is negligible.
Case (II):
Multiplier A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier
(Fig.). A large voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a
multiplier.
Moving Iron (MI) instruments
One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving
iron instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
1. Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction: The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed coil
(Fig.).The pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported
with jeweled bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow
through the fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving
iron gets magnetized. The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of
fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the
moving iron is attached with the spindle, the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over
the calibrated scale. But the force of attraction depends on the current flowing through
the coil.
Advantages 1. MI can be used in AC and DC
2. It is cheap
3. Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
4. Simple construction
5. Less friction error.
Disadvantages 1. It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
2. Scale is not uniform
3. It consumed more power
4. Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
Repulsion type moving iron instrument
Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it
(Fig.). The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the
spindle in supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is
produced by it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same
polarity, since they are kept in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and
moving iron get repelled. Thus the deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic
repulsion. Since moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So that
pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.
Dynamometer (or) Electromagnetic moving coil instrument (EMMC)
This instrument can be used for the measurement of voltage, current and power. The
difference between the PMMC and dynamometer type instrument is that the permanent
magnet is replaced by an electromagnet.
Construction:
A fixed coil is divided in to two equal half. The moving coil is placed between the two
half of the fixed coil. Both the fixed and moving coils are air cored. So that the
hysteresis effect will be zero. The pointer is attached with the spindle. In a non metallic
former the moving coil is wounded.
Control: Spring control is used.
Damping: Air friction damping is used.

Principle of operation:
When the current flows through the fixed coil, it produced a magnetic field, whose flux
density is proportional to the current through the fixed coil. The moving coil is kept in
between the fixed coil. When the current passes through the moving coil, a magnetic
field is produced by this coil.
The magnetic poles are produced in such a way that the torque produced on the moving
coil deflects the pointer over the calibrated scale. This instrument works on AC and DC.
When AC voltage is applied, alternating current flows through the fixed coil and
moving coil. When the current in the fixed coil reverses, the current in the moving coil
also reverses. Torque remains in the same direction. Since the current i1 and i2 reverse
simultaneously. This is because the fixed and moving coils are either connected in
series or parallel.
Torque developed by EMMC
Hence the deflection of pointer is proportional to the current passing through fixed coil
and moving coil.
Extension of EMMC instrument
Case-I Ammeter connection
Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in parallel for ammeter connection. The coils
are designed such that the resistance of each branch is same.
Therefore
To extend the range of current a shunt may be connected in parallel with the meter. The
value Rsh is designed such that equal current flows through moving coil and fixed coil.

Case-II Voltmeter connection

Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in series for voltmeter connection. A
multiplier may be connected in series to extent the range of voltmeter.
Case-III As wattmeter
When the two coils are connected to parallel, the instrument can be used as a wattmeter.
Fixed coil is connected in series with the load. Moving coil is connected in parallel with
the load. The moving coil is known as voltage coil or pressure coil and fixed coil is
known as current coil.
Assume that the supply voltage is sinusoidal. If the impedance of the coil is neglected in
comparison with the resistance ‘R’. The current,
Advantages
It can be used for voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
Hysteresis error is nil
Eddy current error is nil
Damping is effective
It can be measure correctively and accurately the rms value of the voltage
Disadvantages
Scale is not uniform
Power consumption is high(because of high resistance )
Cost is more
Error is produced due to frequency, temperature and stray field.
Torque/weight is low.(Because field strength is very low)
Errors in PMMC
The permanent magnet produced error due to ageing effect. By heat treatment, this error
can be eliminated.
The spring produces error due to ageing effect. By heat treating the spring the error can
be eliminated.
When the temperature changes, the resistance of the coil vary and the spring also
produces error in deflection. This error can be minimized by using a spring whose
temperature co-efficient is very low.
INDUCTION TYPE VOLTMETER AND AMMETER
Shaded Pole Type
A volt meter is an instrument used to measure the potential difference between the two
Voltmeter
points in an electric circuit. In analog voltmeters, the pointer moves over a calibrated
scale in proportion to potential difference across the points where as in case of digital
voltmeters, it displays numerical values with the help of analog to digital converter. The
induction type voltmeter operates on the either shaded pole method or on two pole
method
Working Principle of Induction Type Instruments
Consider an aluminum disc placed the between the pole of an electromagnet, as shown
in fig. Let the flux produced by flow of current of I Amperes through the coil be F and
this flux will lag behind I, by a small angle β as shown in vector diagram.
Since the aluminum disc act as a short circuited secondary of the transformer, therefore,
an e.m.f., (say e volts) lagging behind the flux Φ by π/2 radians will be induced in it. As
a result of this induced e.m.f., the eddy current (I’) starts flowing in the disc. Since the
disk is purely resistive therefore the eddy current will be in phase with induced e.m.f.
(e) will lag behind the main flux Φ by π/2 radians. As the component of eddy current (I’
�) along flux Φ is zero, therefore torque produced is zero. It can be proved as follows.
Let the instantaneous values of flux and eddy current be given by F = Fmax Sin θ and i =
Imax Sin (θ + α). Where α is the phase angle between the induced eddy current and flux
(Φ).
Instantaneous torque α Φ i
Where Φ and i are r.m.s. values.
Since in single phase induction type instruments the angle α between main flux Φ and
eddy current I’�is �and Cos �is zero, therefore torque produced is zero. Hence to
obtain the resultant torque it is necessary to produce an eddy current which is either
appreciable less than or appreciable more than �radians, out of phase with the flux
which it reacts.
Pole Shaded Method
As shown in Fig. , in this method, the working current is passed through the coil of an
electromagnet which has an air gap in one limb. Permanent magnet is used for
providing damping torque. The aluminum disc is mounted on pivots and jewel bearings.
Two spiral springs are employed to provide controlling torque, wounded in direction
opposite to each other if the instrument is used as Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter
etc. One half of the pole face is surrounded by a copper band in order to split the
working flux into two different paths. The copper shading band acts as a single turn
short circuited secondary winding of the transformer. The spiral springs, pointer and
scale etc. have been omitted for simplicity.
Theory
Let the total flux produced in the magnetic core be Φ Weber. Due to shading of pole,
this flux will split up into two fluxes i.e. flux through un-shaded portion and other
through the shaded portion. Suppose the flux Φ1 be the flux of the shaded portion of the
pole. This flux Φ1 will induce an e.m.f. in the copper ring, which will lag the flux Φ1 by
90�, as shown in Fig.. The induced e.m.f. will force a current say i to flow in the
copper ring which will be lagging behind the flux Φ1 by 900. The current flowing in the
copper ring will produce its own magnetic field say Φ2 in phase with current i. The flux
given by the shaded portion of the pole will be the vector sum of Φ1 and Φ2 which is
equal to Φ2 lagging behind flux Φ1 by an angle θ and its value should be 400 to 600 for
producing effective deflecting torque.
Let the flux Φ1 and Φ2 are the fluxes passing through the shaded and un-shaded portions
of the pole respectively induce e.m.fs. e1 and e2 in the disc, each of which is 900 in
phase behind the fluxes responsible for inducing it. These induced e.m.fs; will induce
eddy currents (say i1 and i2) in the disc lagging by a small angle (say α) behind its
voltage due to the inductance of the path in the disc.
From Fig., it is obvious that each of the current i1 and i2 has a component in phase with
the other flux such i1′ and i2′. Hence two torques are acting in a directions having angle
θ are produced in the instrument. Resultant of these two torques, provides an operating
or deflecting torque.
Two Pole Method
This method is also known as split phase method. In this method, two laminated
magnets A and B are placed near to each other with aluminum (Al) disc in between and
a non inductive resistance R is connected in series with the magnetizing coil of magnet
A and an inductive coil L is connected in series with the magnetizing coil of magnet B,
as shown in Fig.
Hence there will be two fluxes having phase difference of less than 90� with each
other, acting on the disc which will produce a resultant torque in
the aluminum disc.
Let the flux produced by the magnet A and B is Φ1 and Φ2 respectively. Φ2 is
lagging Φ1 by an angle θ as shown in Fig. Hence an operating or deflecting torque will
be produced as explained above in case of shaded pole method.
A non inductive high resistance is also inserted in series with the shunt coil and is
connected across the supply, whose potential difference has to be measured. Since the
voltmeters are connected across the supply, so the current flowing through coil is very
small of the order of 5 to 10 mA. The spindle of aluminum disc is provided with a
pointer moving over a calibrated scale in terms of voltage. Spiral springs are provided
on both the ends of spindle for providing controlling torque. Permanent magnet (C-
magnet) is used to provide damping torque on the spindle. As the instrument is
provided with spiral springs, to provide controlling torque, the scale of the instrument is
uniform because in such instrument this torque is directly proportional to angle of
deflection of the pointer. Spiral springs, pointer and damping magnets are omitted for
clear understanding of the figure.
Split Phase Ammeter
An ammeter is always connected in series with load current directly or through CT
(Current Transformer). As shown in Fig., both the windings on the two laminated
electromagnets A and B are connected in series but winding is shunted by a resistance
R with the result of which, the current in this winding lags with respect to the total
current (I). Hence the necessary phase angle (α) required between two fluxes is
produced by the laminated electromagnets A and B.
The operating principle of the induction type instrument is based on the two pole method as
discussed above. Two fluxes produced by laminated magnet A and B are focused upon the
aluminum disc, having a phase angle between them required for producing a resultant torque in
the spindle of the moving system. Being a spring control based controlling torque, the scale is
uniform and the deflecting torque is directly proportional to square the load current. Eddy current
damping is used to provide necessary damping torque by a permanent magnet. Spiral springs,
pointer and damping magnets are omitted for clear understanding of the Fig.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Induction Type Instruments
Advantages
(a) Damping is very much effective and efficient.
(b) Full scale deflection more than 200� can be obtained.
Disadvantages
(a)Power consumption is large and hence not recommended where continuous monitoring of ac
quantities is required.
(b) Variation in temperature and frequency may cause serious errors if necessary compensations
are not provided.
(c)As these instruments are based on principle of induction, they can be used on AC supply only.
INDUCTION TYPE WATTMETER
These types of watt-meters operate on the same working principle on which the
induction type ammeter and voltmeter operates. These instruments can only be used on
ac supply while dynamo-meter type watt meters can be used on either ac or dc supply
system. Induction type watt-meters are useful only when the supply and frequency
remains constant. Since both the coils i.e. current coil and pressure coils are necessary
in such instrument, it is not essential to use shaded pole principle. Because for
producing a deflecting torque, two fluxes are essential with suitable phase angle and it
would be available from these two coils.
Construction
A watt-meter has two laminated electromagnet, one of which is excited by load current
or definite fraction of it, and is connected in series with the circuit, known as series
magnet and the other is excited by the current proportional to the applied voltage or
fraction of it and is always connected across the supply, known as shunt magnet. An
aluminum disc is so mounted so that it cuts the fluxes produced by both the magnets.
As a result of which, two e.m.fs are produced which induces two eddy currents in the
disc. C - Magnet is used to provide necessary damping torque to the pointer, to damp
out the oscillations. Deflecting torque is produced due to interaction of these eddy
currents and the inducing flux. Copper shading bands are provided either on central
limb or on the outer limb of the shunt magnet, and can be so adjusted as to make the
resultant flux in the shunt magnet lag behind the applied voltage by 90.�
Both the watt-meters are provided with spiral springs A and B, for producing
controlling torque to counter balance the deflecting torque. In Fig.2 the spiral spring
and damping magnet is omitted for simplicity. The scale of such type instruments is
quite uniform and extends over an angle of 300�. Currents up to 100 A can be handled
by these watt-meters directly where as beyond this current transformers are used. Two
types of induction type watt meters are available. Line diagrams of both of the types are
detailed in Fig. 1 & 2.

FIG -1
In the form of the instrument shown in Fig.1, two pressure coils are connected in series
in such a way that both of them send flux through the central limb. The series magnet
also carries two small current coils connected in series and wound so that they
magnetized their respective cores in the same direction. Correct phase displacement
between the fluxes produced by series and shunt magnet is obtained by the adjustment
of copper shading band on the central limb.

In Fig.2, there is only one pressure and one current coil. Two projecting poles of shunt magnet
are surrounded by a copper shading band whose position can be adjusted for correcting the phase
of the flux of this magnet with the applied voltage. The pressure coil circuit of induction type
instrument is made as inductive as possible so that the flux of the shunt magnet may lag nearly by
90� behind the applied voltage.
Advantages
The advantages of induction watt meters are the same as those of induction ammeters �
long scale, freedom from effects of stray field, and have effective damping torque.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantage of the induction type instruments:
a)Change in temperature causes variation in the resistance of the moving element,
affects the eddy currents therein, and so the operating torque. The error due to this is in
part offset by a balancing effect due to change in temperature of the windings.
b)Change in frequency from that of the calibration value causes variations in both the
reactance of the voltage coil circuit, which is highly inductive, and also in the amount
of compensation from the phase � compensating circuit. Within the limits of frequency
variation met within practice on the mains, this last error in not important.
INDUCTION TYPE SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER:
Induction type instruments are used for a. c. measurements. the induction principle find
its widest application as an energy meter. Induction type energy meter used invariably
to measure the energy consumed in any a.c. circuits in a prescribed period where supply
voltage and frequency are constant. Energy meter is an integrating instrument which
measures the total quantity of electrical energy supplied to the circuit in given period.
Principle:
The basic principle of induction type energy meter is electromagnetic induction.
When alternating current flow though two suitably located coils produces rotating
magnetic field which is cut by the metallic disc suspended near to the coils thus emf
induce in the disc which is circulates eddy current in it. by interaction of rotating
magnetic field and eddy currents, torque is developed and cause the disc rotate.
Construction:
An induction type single phase energy meter, as show in fig has following main parts of
the operating mechanism.
1. Driving system.
2. Moving system.
3. Breaking system.
4. Recording mechanism.
1.Driving system.
It consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series” magnet,
Series magnet: it consists of a number of U-shaped laminations of silicon steel together
to form a core. A coil of thick wire having a few turns is wounded in both legs
of U-shaped magnet. the coil is known is current coil which is connected series with
load produce the magnetic field proportional and in phase with line current I.
Shunt magnet: it consists of number of M-shaped laminations of silicon steel
assembled together to form a core. A coil of thin wire having large number of turn in
wound on central limb of the magnet. this coil is connected across the load. thus it is
excited by current proportional to the supply voltage and known is potential coil.
2.Moving system.
The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminum disk mounted on a
vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports the aluminum disk is connected by a
gear arrangement to the clock mechanism on the front of the meter to provide
information that consumed energy by the load.
The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series magnet induce eddy
currents in the aluminum disc.
The interaction between these two magnetic fields and eddy currents set up a driving
torque in the disc.
The number of rotations of the disk is therefore proportional to the energy consumed by
the load in a certain time interval and is commonly measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
3.Breaking system.
Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet, located diametrically
opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes between the magnet gaps. The movement
of rotating disc through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy currents in
the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and exerts a braking torque.
By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting some of the flux there form,
the speed of the rotating disc can be controlled.
4.Recording mechanism.
The function of recording or registering mechanism is to record continuously a number
on the dial which is proportional to the revolutions made by the moving system. the no
of revolution on the disc is a measured the electrical energy passing though the meter.
Working of Single phase energy meter:
When the energy meter is connected in circuit, the current coil carries the load current
and pressure coil carries the current proportional to the supply voltage. the magnetic
field produced by series magnetic in phase with the line current and magnetic field
produced by shunt magnet is in quadrature with the applied voltage.thus, a phase
difference exists between the fluxes produce by the two coils. this setup rotating
magnetic field which interacts with disc and produce a driving torque and thus, disc
starts rotating.the number of revolutions made by the disc depend upon energy passing
though the meter. the spindle geared to the recording mechanism so that energy
consumed in the circuit is directly registered in kWh.
the speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of braking magnet. example,
if the energy meter registers less energy than the energy actual consumed in the circuit.
then the speed of disc has to be increased which is obtained by sifting the braking
magnet nearer to the centre of the disc vice -versa.
Meter Constant, K = No. of revolutions
Energy supplied in kWh