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CHEMISTRY 1
PN NORWAHIDAH BINTI WAHAB
 Continuous Assessment (CA) – 50%
 Final Examination (FE) /Final Assessment
(FA)– 50%
A+
Quiz 2x = 5%
Test 1x = 10%
Practical Test 1x

Practical Work 3x = 35%

CHAPTER 1

MATTER
Atom, molecules, ions
 ATOM 5

 An atom is the smallest

unit of a chemical
element/compound.
 In an atom, there are 3
subatomic particles:
Proton (p)
Neutron (n)
Electron (e)
 ATOM 6

• Protons
o Positive charge
o Found in the nucleus
o Same mass as
neutrons
 ATOM

• Electrons
o Negative charge
o Found in the electron
cloud, outside the
nucleus
o Number of electrons &
protons are equal in an
atom
 ATOM

• Neutrons
o no charge (neutral)
o Found in the nucleus
o Same mass as
protons
 ATOM

 All neutral atoms can be identified by the number of protons and

neutrons they contain
 Proton number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom
of an element (which is equal to the number of electrons).
 Protons number is also known as atomic number.
 Nucleon number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus of the atom of an element.
 Also known as mass number.
 ISOTOPE 13

 Atoms
of the same element that have different mass
numbers (nucleon number).
 Havethe same number of protons, but different
numbers of neutrons.
14
 ISOTOPE NOTATION ( ATOMIC SYMBOL ) 15

An atom can be represented by an isotope notation ( atomic

symbol )
 ATOM 16

 In a neutral atom:
number of protons equals number of electrons
 In a positive ion:
number of protons is more than number of electrons
 In a negative ion:
number of protons is less than number of electrons
 LEARNING CHECK 17

 Givethe number of protons, neutrons, electrons and

charge in each of the following species:
Symbol Number of : Charge
Proton Neutron Electron
200
80 Hg
63
29 Cu
17
8 O2
59
27 Co3
PROPERTIES OF
GAS, LIQUID AND
SOLID
 WHAT IS MATTER?

 Matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume

 Example of matter

atoms, molecules or ions.

 It exits in 3 physical states
Gas, Liquid, and Solid

Gas Liquid Solid

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 441

States of Matter

Solid heat Liquid heat Gas

Holds Shape Shape of Container Shape of Container
Fixed Volume Free Surface Volume of Container
Fixed Volume
Some Properties of Solids, Liquids, and
Gases
Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Has definite shape Takes the shape of Takes the shape
the container of its container

Volume Has a definite volume Has a definite volume Fills the volume of
the container

Arrangement of Fixed, very close Random, close Random, far apart

Particles

Interactions between Very strong Strong Essentially none

particles
Phase Diagram
Single Component System

Learning Outcome
 At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

a) Define phase and component

b) Define triple point and critical point

c) Sketch and explain the phase diagram of H2O and CO2.

d) Describe the changes in phase diagram with respect to

i. temperature (at constant pressure)
ii. pressure (at constant temperature)
Single Component System
Phase and Component
 A phase, P is a homogeneous part of a system which is
separated by a distinct boundary such as solid, liquid
and gas.
 Example:
System P Description
Mixture of gases 1 Gases are well mixed. We cannot see
the boundary between the gases.
Two liquids do not 2 We can see the boundary between
mix (oil-water) the two liquid
Two liquids well 1 We cannot see the boundary of the
mixed (alcohol- solution
water)
 A component is a chemically independent constituent of
a system.
 The number of components, C in a system is the
minimum number of independent species necessary to
define the composition of all the phase present in the
system.
 Example:
System C Description
We need only the
1 component species H2O to
Pure water system specify its
composition
We need the species
Mixture of ethanol 2 component H2O and C2H5OH to
and water system specify its
composition
 Phase Diagram for Single Component Systems

 Single component system is a system which consists of

one type of chemical substance.
 A phase diagram describes which phase is most stable
under particular conditions of temperature and pressure.

Important terms in Phase Diagram

 A triple point describes the conditions under which
three phases can coexists.
 A critical point is the point at which there is no
boundary between the liquid phase and the gas phase.
General form of phase diagram for a substance
 An area/region on a phase diagram represents one
phase.

 A line represents the conditions under which two

phases can exists in equilibrium.

 Phase diagram contain 3 important curves:

Curves Phase
ATB Solid
BTC Liquid
ATC Vapour
 Any point on the diagram that does not fall on a line
corresponds to conditions under which only one phase is
present.
 Solidphase is stable at low temperature and high pressure,
thus ATB curve denoted as solid.
 Gas phase is stable at low pressure and high temperatures,
thus ATC curve denoted as vapour/gas.
 Liquid
are stable in the region between the other two thus,
BTC curve denoted as liquid.
 Anypoint on the three curves (line) represents an equilibrium
between two phases.

 Line T-C:
 Represents the equilibrium between liquid and gas phase.
 Represents the variation of boiling temperature with pressure.
 The point on this curves where the vapour pressure is 1 atm is
the normal boiling point of the substances.
 The T-C curves ends at the critical point (C) at critical (highest)
temperature and pressure of substance.
 Beyond the critical point the liquid and gas phases
become indistinguishable.
 Line T-A:
 Represents the equilibrium between solid and gas
phase.
 Represents the variation of sublimation of temperature
with pressure.
 Line T-B:
 Represents the equilibrium between solid and liquid
phase.
 Represents the change in melting point of a solid with
increasing pressure.
 This line usually slopes slightly to the right as pressure
increases.
*because the solid for most substances is denser than
liquid.
 The melting point of a substances is identical to its freezing
point
 The melting point at 1 atm is the normal melting point.

 Point T:
 Triple point
 All three phases are in equilibrium at this temperature and
pressure.
Phase Diagram for Water (H2O)
 3 region of single phase:
ATB: Solid phase (ice)
BTC: Liquid phase (liquid water)
ATC: Gas phase (water vapour)
 Water is a liquid under normal conditions of temperature and
pressure (25oC, 1 atm).
 At low temperature under atmospheric pressure, the stable phase is
the solid (ice).
 Point T is the triple point corresponds to the temperature and
pressure at which the three phases of H 2O exists in equilibrium.
H2O (s) ↔ H2O (l) ↔ H2O (g)
The triple point for H2O is 0.01 oC (273.16 K) and 0.00603 atm (6.11
kPa).
 Line T-A: Sublimation temperature curve for ice.
 Corresponds to the temperature and pressure at which the ice and
water vapour exists in equilibrium.
H2O (s) ↔ H2O (g)
A= 0 K (-273.15 oC)

 Line T-B: Melting temperature or freezing curve.

 Corresponds to the temperature and pressures at which the ice and
liquid water exists in equilibrium.
volume decrease

H2O (s) ↔ H2O (l)

volume increase
Anomalous/Deviating Behavior of Water

 The phase diagram for water is not typical.

 Line T-B slopes to left (negative slope).
 i.e : the melting point of ice or freezing point of liquid decrease
with pressure.

 This is connected with the fact that ice is less dense than water,
while most solids are denser than their liquids.

 At high pressure, the position of equilibrium shift to the right.

 i.e: to a liquid phase – increasing in pressure will cause the
volume to decrease thus the ice easily melt high pressure.

 So, solid melts at lower temperatures and high pressures.

 At 1 atm, the temperature at which ice and water are at

equilibrium is called the normal melting point ( oC, 273.15 K).
 Line TC – boiling point curve.
 Corresponds to the temperatures and pressures at which the liquid
water and water vapour exists in equilibrium.
 At 100 oC (373.15 K) and 1 atm: normal boiling point.
 The boiling point varies as the pressure varies.

 Point C
 Critical point
 For H2O, critical point is at 374 oC (647.15 K) and 218 atm.
 Line TD
 Shows the vapour pressure of water below its freezing
point (supercooling).

 Supercooling
 Is the cooling of a liquid below its freezing point without a
change taking place from the liquid to the solid state.
 This is a metastable condition, because water usually
does not exists as a liquid below its freezing point.
Phase Diagram for Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Phase diagram of carbon dioxide is basically same as the phase diagram for H2O.

There are 2 important differences:

1. Triple point, T is above the atmospheric pressure
 At a presssure of 5.2 atm (516 kPa) and -57oC (216.4 K)
 This means that solid CO2 (dry ice) will change directly to become gaseous CO2
(that is sublimes) without passing through the liquid state, if it is exposed to the air
or heated below 5.2 atm.
* liquid CO2 only exists at pressure above 5.2 atm
 CO2 is gas at normal conditions of temperature and pressure (25oC, 1 atm)
2. Line T-B: represents the effect of pressure on the melting temperature
of CO2.
 slopes to the right (typical behaviour of most substance)
 the melting point of carbon dioxide increases with pressure
 solid CO2 is denser than liquid CO2.
volume increases

2 (s) ↔
COvolume CO
decreases2 (l)

 at high pressure, the position of equilibrium shift to the left (to solid
phase) so, more heat (at high temperature) needed to shift the
equilibrium to the right (to melt the solid).

 Point C – critical point for CO2 is at 304 K and 72.9 atm

Basic techniques in handling
apparatus and chemical In
laboratory
Safe Laboratory Practices &
Procedures
HOW TO WRITE CHEMICAL
EQUATION
 Write the chemical formula of reactants and products
A+B→C+D
 Balance the equation. The number of atoms must be the same left
and right
 Start with metal, non-metal, hydrogen and oxygen atom
 Example:
 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O
 HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
 2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
BASIC MOLECULE FORMULA

 Water = H2O
 Carbon dioxide = CO2
 Oxygen Gas = O2
 Nitrogen Gas = N2
 Chlorine Gas = Cl2
 Bromine Gas/ liquid = Br2
 Iodine solid = I2
 Ammonia Gas = NH3
 Nitrogen dioxide gas = NO2