CHAPTER TWO

STRESS ANALYSIS AND THEORIES OF FAILURE

Prepared By Mr. Edosa Kefyalew

Academic BSc In Mechanical Engineering And From Jimma Institute of
Background MSc In Design of Mechanical Systems Technology
Designation Lecturer

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 1

 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER

2: STRESS ANALYSIS AND THEORIES OF FAILURE

2.1: LOAD, STRESS, AND STRAIN
2.2: TYPES OF STRESS
2.3: STRESS CONCENTRATION
2.4: THEORIES OF FAILURE

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 2

2.1: LOAD, STRESS AND STRAIN

 Load
It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following four types of the load are
important from the subject point of view:
1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not change in magnitude or
direction.
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock load, when it is
suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity.

Note: A machine part resists a dead load more easily than a live load and a live load more easily than a shock
load.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 3

2.1: LOAD, STRESS AND STRAIN CONT…
 Stress
• When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal forces
(equal and opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist the
external forces.
• This internal force per unit area at any section of the body is known as unit stress or
simply a stress.
• It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
• Mathematically,
Stress, σ = P/A
Where p= Load acting on the body
A= cross sectional area of the dody

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 4

2.1: LOAD, STRESS AND STRAIN

 Strain
• When a system of forces or loads acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation.
• This deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain.
• It is denoted by the Greek letter epsilon (ε).
• Mathematically

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 5

2.1: LOAD, STRESS AND STRAIN CONT…

• There are six major types of stress: tensile, compressive, shear, bending, torsion, and
fatigue.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 6

 2.2: TYPES OF STRESSES CONT…
 Direct Stress/Simple stress
• Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the
applied force divided by the resisting area.
• It is the expression of force per unit area to
structural members that are subjected to external
forces and/or induced forces.
σ = Force / Area
• Examples
o Punching a hole into a sheet of metal with a tool.
o Shear stress caused by a pair of scissors on the paper
when cutting it.
o Shear stress on a footing due to a load of columns.

 Indirect Stress
• If the internal resistive forces are all not directed in
the same direction then the corresponding stress is
called indirect stress.
• Examples
o Shear caused by a change of moment in a beam.
o Shear created at the column’s base due to the
column's overturning moment.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 7

2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
 Normal Stress
• If a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P (also called tensile load) as shown in Fig, then the
stress induced at any section of the body is known as tensile stress as shown in Fig.
• A little consideration will show that due to the tensile load, there will be a decrease in cross-sectional area and an
increase in the length of the body.
• The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.

• When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes P (alsocalled compressive load) as shown in Fig.,
then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as compressive stress as shown in fig.
• A little consideration will show that due to the compressive load, there will be an increase in cross-sectional area
and a decrease in length of the body.
• The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length is known as compressive strain.
Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 8

 2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
 Shear Stress and Strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting section, as a result of
which the body tends to shear off the section, then the stress-induced is called shear stress

The corresponding strain is known as shear strain and it is measured by the angular deformation accompanying the
shear stress. The shear stress and shear strain are denoted by the Greek letters tau (τ) and phi (φ) respectively.
Mathematically,

 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 9

 2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
 Stress-strain Diagram

1. Proportional limit
2. Elastic limit
3. Yield point
4. Ultimate stress.
5. Breaking stress

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 2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
 Working Stress
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the maximum or
ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is known as the working stress
or design stress. It is also known as safe or allowable stress.
Note : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said to fail when they
have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function satisfactory.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 11

 2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

 Linear And Lateral Strain

• Consider a circular bar of diameter d and length l, subjected to a tensile force P as shown in below

• A little consideration will show that due to tensile force, the length of the bar increases by an
amount δl and the diameter decreases by an amount δd, as shown in Fig. 4.19 (b).
• Similarly, if the bar is subjected to a compressive force, the length of bar will decrease which will be
followed by increase in diameter.
• It is thus obvious, that every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in its own direction which
is known as linear strain and an opposite kind of strain in every direction, at right angles to it, is
known as lateral strain.

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 2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Factor Of Safety (Fos)
• It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
• Mathematically,

• In the case of ductile materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the factor of
safety is based on yield point stress. In such cases,

• In the case of brittle materials e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined as for ductile materials. Therefore, the
factor of safety for brittle materials is based on ultimate stress.

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 2.3: BASIC TERMS FROM STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
• The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component
depends upon a number of considerations, such as the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress,
general service conditions, and shape of the parts.
• Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design engineer should consider the following points:
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and the change of these properties during
service ;
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine parts ;
3. The reliability of applied load ;
4. The certainty as to the exact mode of failure ;
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions ;
6. The extent of localized stresses ;
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture ;
8. The extent of loss of life if a failure occurs; and
9. The extent of loss of property if a failure occurs.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 14

Reading Assignment: Principal Stresses and Principal Planes

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 15

 2.3: STRESSES CONCENTRATION

• Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighborhood of the discontinuity is different.
• This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress concentration.
• It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines, surface
roughness or scratches etc.
• Stress concentration is a highly localized effect.
• In some instances it may be due to a surface scratch.
• If the material is ductile and the load static,
the load may cause yielding in the critical location in the notch.
• This yielding can involve strain strengthening of the material and
an increase in yield strength at the small critical notch location.
• Since the loads are static and the material is ductile, that part can
carry the loads satisfactorily with no general yielding.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 16

2.3: STRESSES CONCENTRATION CONT…
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor
• The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress in a member (at a notch or a fillet) to the
nominal stress at the same section based on net area.
• Mathematically, theoretical or from stress concentration factor is

• The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
Notes:
1. In static loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so serious as in brittle materials,
because in ductile materials local deformation or yielding takes place which reduces the concentration. In brittle
materials, cracks may appear at these local concentrations of stress which will increase the stress over the rest of
the section. It is, therefore, necessary that in designing parts of brittle materials such as castings, care should be
taken. In order to avoid failure due to stress concentration, at the changes in the section fillets must be provided.

2. In cyclic loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious because the ductility of the
material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stress caused by cracks, flaws, surface roughness, or
any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the member. If the stress at any point in a member is above the
endurance limit of the material, a crack may develop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to
failure of the member.

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 17

 2.3: STRESSES CONCENTRATION CONT…

Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 18

1.5: THEORIES OF FAILURE

• Since these properties are usually determined from simple tension or compression tests,
therefore, predicting failure in members subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and
straightforward.

• But the problem of predicting the failure stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or
tri-axial stresses is much more complicated. In fact, the problem is so complicated that a
large number of different theories have been formulated.

• The principal theories of failure for a member subjected to bi-axial stress are as follows:

1. Maximum principal/normal stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).

2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principal/normal strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 19
1.5: THEORIES OF FAILURE CONT…
1. Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a
simple tension test.
• Since the maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in tension or compression
and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile materials.
• However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or compression,
this theory is generally used.
• Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle materials
(which do not have well defined yield point) the limiting strength is ultimate stress, therefore according
to the above theory, taking factor of safety (FOS) into consideration, the maximum principal or normal
stress (σt1) in a bi-axial stress system is given by

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 20

1.5: THEORIES OF FAILURE CONT…

2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield point in a
simple tension test. Mathematically,

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1.5: THEORIES OF FAILURE CONT…

3. Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant’s Theory)

• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal/normal strain in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (i.e. strain at
yield point) as determined from a simple tensile test.
• The maximum principal/normal strain in a bi-axial stress system is given by

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 22

1.5: THEORIES OF FAILURE CONT…

Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 23

1.5: THEORIES OF FAILURE CONT…

4. Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)

• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain
energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain energy
at the yield, point ) per unit volume as determined from a simple tension test.

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Chapter Two: Stress Analysis and Theories of Failure 25
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