MEng3161

Lecture BY: Besufekad G.

Mechanical Engineering Department
Addis Ababa Science and Technology
University
November 2023
 2.1 Introduction
• While we design any machine component, we must consider
the relations between strength and the loading in order to
make the decisions concerning material and its treatment,
fabrication, and geometry for satisfying the requirements of
functionality, safety, reliability, competitiveness, usability,
manufacturability, and marketability

Failure can mean a part has separated into two or more pieces; has
become permanently distorted, thus ruining its geometry; has had its
reliability downgraded; or has had its function compromised,
whatever the reason.

A designer speaking of failure can mean any or all of

these above possibilities
 2.1 Introduction
• A mechanical component may fail, that is,
maybe unable to perform its function
satisfactorily, as a result of any one of the
following three modes of failure:

(i) failure by elastic deflection;

(ii) failure by general yielding; and
iii) failure by fracture.
2.1.1 Examples of failure

Failure of a truck drive-shaft Chain test fixture that failed

spline due to corrosion fatigue in one cycle

Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt

Impact failure of blade driver hub
 2.2 Design for static load
• A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member.
To be stationary, the force or couple must be unchanging in
magnitude, point or points of application, and direction.
• A static load can produce axial tension or compression, shear
load, bending load, tensional load, or any combination of these

Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should

have available the results of a great many strength tests of the
particular material chosen

The cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is

justified if failure of the part may endanger human life or if the
part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities
 Stress
• When an internal surface is isolated as in Figure below, the net
force and moment acting on the surface manifest themselves as
force distributions across the entire area.
• The force distribution acting at a point on the surface is unique
and will have components in the normal and tangential
directions called normal stress and tangential shear stress,
respectively.
• Normal and shear stresses are labeled by the Greek symbols σ
and τ
 STRESS
• When a mechanical component is subjected to an external static
force, a resisting force is set up within the component.
• The internal resisting force per unit area of the component is
called stress.
• A tension rod subjected an external force P is shown in Figure
below. The tensile stress is given by,

Figure : Tensile Stress

 STRESS–STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
• The strain is deformation per unit length. It given by

• According to Hooke’s law, the stress is directly

proportional to the strain within elastic limit.
• Therefore,

where E is the constant of proportionality known as

Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity
 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN
• When the external force acting on a component tends to slide
the adjacent planes with respect to each other, the resulting
stresses on these planes are called direct shear stresses.
• Two plates held together by means of a rivet are shown in Figure
(a). The average shear stress in the rivet is given by

Figure: a) Riveted Joint (b) Shear Deformation (c) Shear Stress

 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN
• A plane rectangular element, cut from the component and
subjected to shear force, is shown in Figure (a). Shear stresses
cause a distortion in the original right angles. The shear strain is
defined as the change in the right angle of a shear element.
Within the elastic limit, the stress–strain relationship is given by

where = shear strain (radians) and G is the constant of

proportionality known as shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (in
N/mm2 or MPa).

Figure: (a) Element Loaded in Pure Shear (b) Shear Strain

 STRESSES DUE TO BENDING MOMENT
• A straight beam subjected to a bending moment M is shown in
Figure below. The beam is subjected to a combination of tensile
stress on one side of the neutral axis and compressive stress on
the other.
• The bending stress at any fiber is given by,
 STRESSES DUE TO TORSIONAL MOMENT
• A transmission shaft, subjected to an external torque, is shown
in Figure below. The internal stresses, which are induced to
resist the action of twist, are called torsional shear stresses. The
torsional shear stress is given by
 ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADING
• In the previous loading cases, it was assumed that the
line of action of force passes through the centroid of
the cross-section.
• There are certain mechanical components subjected to
an external force, tensile or compressive, which does
not pass through the centroid of the cross-section.
• A typical example of such an eccentric loading is shown
in Fig.
• According to the principle of statics, the eccentric force
P can be replaced by a parallel force P passing through
the centroidal axis along with a couple (P X e) as shown
in Figures
ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADING
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
• In previous articles and examples, mechanical
components, which are subjected to only one
type of load, are considered. There are many
components, which are subjected to several
types of load simultaneously.
• A transmission shaft is subjected to bending as
well as torsional moment at the same time. In
design, it is necessary to determine the state of
stresses under these conditions.
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
• An element of a plate subjected to two-dimensional stresses
is shown is Figure below. In this analysis, the stresses are
classified into two groups normal stresses and shear stresses.
• The normal stress is perpendicular to the area under
consideration, while the shear stress acts over the area. There
is a particular system of notation for these.

(a) General three-dimensional stress. Figure: a) Two-Dimensional State of

(b) Plane stress with cross-shears” equal. Stress (b) Stresses on Oblique Plane
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Considering equilibrium of forces, it can be proved that,

Differentiating the first Eq. with respect to θ and setting

the result to zero, we have
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
• The Equation defines two values of ( ), one giving the maximum
value of normal stress and other the minimum value. If and
are the maximum and minimum values of normal stress, then
substituting the above equations, we get

and are called principal stresses

 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Similarly, differentiating the shear stress equation i.e.

with respect to and the result is equated to zero. This gives the
following condition:

Substituting the tan in to the shear stress equation gives:

is called the principal shear stress.

 Mohr’s Circle Diagram
• One of the most effective
methods to determine the
principal stresses and the
principal shear stress is the
construction of Mohr’s circle
diagram as shown in Figure.
• It is a graphical method for the
representation of stresses. :
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
 The Mohr’s circle is constructed :
by the following method:
i. Plot the following points:

i. Join The point of intersection

of and is E.
ii. Construct Mohr’s circle with E as
center and as the diameter.
• It can be proved that points F and G represent the maximum
and minimum principal stresses respectively.
• The two principal shear stresses are denoted by points H and I
respectively.
 2.2.1 Failure theories
• Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking, and
rupturing are among the ways that a machine element fails

If the failure mechanism is simple, then simple tests can give

clues. Just what is simple?
And Just what is important: a critical stress, a critical strain, a
critical energy?
In the next several sections, we shall show failure theories that
have helped answer some of these questions

Unfortunately, there is no universal theory of failure for the

general case of material properties and stress state. Instead, over
the years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested,
leading to today’s accepted practices
 cont…
• Structural metal behaviour is typically classified as being ductile
or brittle,
• Ductile materials are normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 & have
an identifiable yield strength that is often the same in
compression as in tension.
• Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit an identifiable yield
strength, and are typically classified by ultimate tensile and
compressive strengths.
The generally accepted failure theories are:

Ductile materials (yield criteria) Brittle materials (brittle fracture)

• Maximum shear stress (MSS) • Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Distortion energy (DE) • Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM) • Modified Mohr (MM),
 Why need for Failure theories?
• Engineers engaged in the design and development of all kinds of
structural and machine components are repeatedly confronted with
• problems like the one depicted
The maximum-shear-stress in Figure
theory below.
predicts that yielding begins

Figure: Typical situation requiring

a failure theory

A proposed application has a combination of static loads that produce, at

a critical location, stresses of 𝟏 = 80 ksi, 𝟐 =-40 ksi, and 𝟑 .
The material being considered was found to fail on a standard tensile
test at a stress of 100 ksi. Will this material fail in the proposed
application?
2.2.2 Failure theories for ductile materials
1) Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory (Tresca or Guest theory)
• The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins
whenever the maximum shear stress in any element equals or
exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen of
the same material when that specimen begins to yield.
Recall that for simple tensile stress, σ = P/A, and the maximum shear
stress occurs on a surface 45° from the tensile surface with a
magnitude of    . So the maximum shear stress at yield
max
2

For a general state of stress, three principal stresses can be

determined and ordered such that .

The maximum shear stress is then max  (1 3) / 2

 Cont…
Thus, for a general state of stress (3D stress state) , the
maximum-shear-stress theory predicts yielding when

(2.1)

• The shear yield strength can be found by considering the case

of pure shear, i.e. 0.

but
Cont…
For design purposes, Equation (2.1) can be modified to
incorporate a factor of safety, n. Thus,

(2.2)

Plane stress problems are very common where one of the

principal stresses is zero, then there are three cases to
consider in using Eq. (2.1) for plane stress: (see next slide)
Cont…
For plane stress, let 1 2 3 and  3  0

Case 1: A B  0 . For this case,

 1  . A  2   B  3  0
Equation (2.1) reduces to a yield
condition of
A  Sy
Case 2:A 0 B , equation 2.1)
reduces to a yield condition of
A B  Sy
Case 3:0 A B , equation (2.1)
reduces to a yield condition of
The maximum-shear-stress (MSS)
B  Sy theory for plane stress, where σA and
σB are two nonzero principal stresses.
2) Distortion-Energy Theory (DE)
• The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the
distortion strain energy per unit volume reaches or exceeds the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension
or compression of the same material.
The DE theory is originated from the observation that ductile materials
stressed hydrostatically exhibited yield strengths greatly in excess of
the values given by the simple tension test ; yielding in tension test is
somehow related to the angular distortion of the stressed element
Cont…
In the above figure, (a) Element with tri-axial stresses; element
undergoes both volume change and angular distortion. (b) Element
under hydrostatic tension undergoes only volume change. (c) Element
has angular distortion without volume change
1   2   3
 av  (2.3)
3
1
The strain energy per unit volume for simple tension is u  .
2
For the element under tri-axial stress, the strain energy per unit
1
volume is u  ( 1 1   2 2   3 3 ) . Substituting for the principal
2
strains from generalized Hooke’s law for multi-axial loading, we get

1
[ 1   2   3  2 ( 1 2   2 3   3 1 )]
2 2 2
u (2.4)
2E
 Cont…
The strain energy for producing only volume change uv can be
obtained by substituting  av for  1 ,  3 and  3 in Eq. (2.4) and using
eq. (2.3) for the value of  av , we get

3 av
2
uv  (1  2 )
2E (2.5)
1  2
( 1   2   3  2 1 2  2 2 3  2 3 1 )
2 2 2

6E
The distortion energy is obtained by subtracting Eq. (2.5) from Eq. (2.4);

1    ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2 
u d  u  uv    (2.6)
3E  2 
 Cont…
For the simple tensile test, at yield,  1  S y and  2   3  0 , and from
Eq.(2.6) the distortion energy is

1  2
ud  Sy (2.7)
3E
Equating eq. (2.6) and eq. (2.7), the distortion energy failure theory for
the general state of stress given as;
1
 ( 1   2 )  ( 2   3 )  ( 3   1 ) 
2 2 2 2
 '    Sy (2.8)
 2 
Where  ' is called von Mises stress which represent a single, equivalent,
or effective stress for the entire general tri-axial state of stress
Sy
  ' Sy or  ' Distortion Energy failure criterion
n
Cont…
For plane stress, let1 and2 be the nonzero principal stresses
and  3  0 , then the von Mises stress becomes
2 12
 '  ( 1   1 2   2 )
2
(2.9)
Using xy components for plane
stress, the von Mises stress can
be written as

2 12
 '  ( x  x y  y  3 )
2 2
xy

MSS theory, can be seen to be

more restrictive, hence, more
conservative
 Cont…
• The shear yield strength can be found by
considering the case of pure shear, i.e. 0
.

• For yield thee above equation gives

(2.10)

The distortion-energy theory is also called:

• The von Mises or von Mises–Hencky theory
• The shear-energy theory
• The octahedral-shear-stress theory
 3) Ductile Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• This theory is primarily used to predict failure for materials whose
strengths in tension and compression are not equal
The idea of Mohr is based on three simple tests: tension, compression,
and shear, to yielding if the material can yield, or to rupture

Three Mohr circles, one for the

uniaxial compression test, one for the
test in pure shear, and one for the
uniaxial tension test, are used to
define failure by the Mohr hypothesis

Based on Mohr, failure occurs when

one of the circles (stresses) become
tangent to the failure envelope
depicted as ABCDE in the fig, above The difficulty in Mohr theory is;
the σ axis; The failure envelope need Was the failure envelope straight,
not be straight circular, or quadratic???
 Cont…
A variation of Mohr’s theory, called the Coulomb-Mohr theory or the
internal-friction theory, assumes that failure envelope is straight and
only the tensile and compressive strengths are necessary
Consider the conventional ordering of the
principal stresses such that 1 2 3 .
The largest circle connects 1 and  3

Triangles OB i C i are similar, therefore

B2C2  B1C1 B3C3  B1C1
 (2.11)
OC2  OC1 OC3  OC1

1   3 St Sc St
 
2 2  2 2
Where St and S c are tensile St  1   3 S c St (2.12)
 
and compressive strengths 2 2 2 2

Note: The material considered on this graph exhibits relatively high

compression strength than tensile strength.
 Cont…
Cross-multiplying and simplifying equation (2.12) reduces to;
1  3
 1 (2.13)
St Sc

For plane stress, when the two nonzero

principal stresses are

Case 1: . Failure condition is

Case 2: , failure condition is

Incorporating the factor of safety

Case 3: 0 1 2 , failure condition n in eq. (2.13) for design purpose
1  3 1
  (2.14)
St Sc n
 Cont…
Since for the Coulomb-Mohr theory we do not need the torsional
shear strength circle, we can deduce it from Eq.

For pure shear . The Torsional yield strength

occurs when .
Substituting in to the above Eq. and simplifying
gives
 Summary of Failure of Ductile Materials
The selection of
one or the other of
these theories is
something that you,
the engineer, must
decide 2) To learn why a part
failed, then the DE
theory may be the
best to use

3) For ductile materials

1) For design the
with unequal yield
MSS theory is
strengths in tension &in
easy, quick to
compression, the
use, and
Coulomb-Mohr theory is
conservative
the best available
Figure: Experimental data superposed
on failure theories.
2.2.4 Failure theories for brittle materials
1) Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory (MNS)
The MNS theory states that failure occurs whenever one of the
three principal stresses equals or exceeds the ultimate strength.
Let the principal stresses for a general stress state are ordered in the
form 1 2 3, .
Failure occurs whenever,
1  Sut or 3  Suc (2.15)

For plane stress, let and  3  0

(2.16)

The failure criteria equations can be

converted to design equations as;
Figure: Graph of maximum normal
𝑆 −𝑆 stress (MNS) theory of failure for Plane
𝜎 ≥
𝑛
or 𝜎 ≤
𝑛 (2.17) stress states.
 2) Brittle-Coulomb-Mohr Theory (BCM)
The Coulomb-Mohr theory was discussed earlier with and the Eq. is

Written as design equations for a brittle material, they are:

Considering plane stress condition, the design type equation incorporating
the factor of safety,

(a)

(b)

(c)
(a) Mohr circle plot (b) plot
 3) Modified-Mohr Theory (MM)
A modification of the Mohr theory, illustrated in Figure, is recommended
for predicting the fracture of brittle materials. It correlates better with most
experimental data than do the Mohr or maximum-normal-stress theories.

(a)

(b)

(c)

N.B.: After studying the experimental result, the

Brittle Mohr Theory theory is modified to best fit
the experimental data.

Graphical representation of the modified

Mohr theory for biaxial stresses (
 Failure of Brittle Materials Summary
A plot of experimental data
points obtained from tests on
cast iron. Shown also are the
graphs of three failure
theories of possible
usefulness for brittle
materials

In the first quadrant the data

appear on both sides and
along the failure curves of
maximum-normal-stress,
Coulomb-Mohr, and modified
Mohr. All failure curves are
the same, and data fit well

In the third quadrant the points A,

B, C, and D are too few to make any
In the fourth quadrant the modified suggestion concerning a fracture
Mohr theory represents the data best. locus.
 Cont…
Selection of Failure Criteria
For ductile behaviour the preferred criterion is the distortion-
energy theory, although some designers also apply the
maximum-shear-stress theory because of its simplicity and
conservative nature

For brittle behaviour, the original Mohr hypothesis, constructed

with tensile, compression, and torsion tests, with a curved failure
locus is the best hypothesis we have. However, the difficulty of
applying it without a computer leads engineers to choose
modifications, namely, Coulomb Mohr, or modified Mohr
Failure theory selection flowchart