Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
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Static Loading
Repeated and reversed Loading
Fluctuating Loading
Shock or impact Loading
Random Loading
Material types are many and varied. Among the metallic materials, the chief
classification is between ductile and brittle materials. Other considerations include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The manner of forming the material (casting, forging, rolling, machining, so on),
The type of heat treatment,
The surface finish,
The physical size,
The environment in which it is to operate, and
The geometry of the part.
Different factors must be considered for plastics, composites, ceramics, wood, etc.
This chapter outlines methods of analyzing load-carrying machine parts to ensure that
they are safe. Several different cases are described in which knowledge of the
combinations of material types and loading patterns leads to the determination of the
appropriate method of analysis.
2.2
Types of loads
The primary factors to consider when specifying the type of loading to which a machine
part is subjected are the manner of variation of the load and the resulting variation of
stress with time. Stress variations are characterized by four key values:
1.
Maximum stress,
2. Minimum stress,
max
min
m
(Stress amplitude)
The maximum and minimum stresses are usually computed from known information by
stress analysis or finite-element methods, or they are measured using experimental
stress analysis techniques. Then the mean and alternating stresses are:
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( max + min )
=
2
( max min )
2
The behavior of a material under varying stresses is dependent on the manner of the
variation. One method used to characterize the variation is called stress ratio. Two types
of stress ratios are commonly used, defined as
Stress Ratio R
Minimum stress
Maximum stress
A mplitude Ratio A
min
= max
alternating stress
mean stress
a
= m
Static Stress
When a part is subjected to a load that is applied slowly, without shock, and is held at a
constant value, the resulting stress in the part is called static stress. An example is the
load on a structure due to the dead weight of the building materials. The figure below
shows a diagram of stress versus time for static loading. Because max= min, the stress
ratio for static stress is R= 1.0.
Static loading can also be assumed when a load is applied and is removed slowly and
then reapplied, if the number of load applications is small (a few thousand cycles).
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Endurance strengths are usually charted on a graph like that shown in Figure 5-6, called
an S-N diagram. Curves A. B, and D are representative of a material that does exhibit
an endurance limit, such as plain carbon steel. Curve C is typical of most nonferrous
metals, such as aluminum, which do not exhibit an endurance limit. For such materials,
the number of cycles to failure should be reported for the given endurance strength.
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Unfortunate experience has taught engineers that the value of the Endurance Limit
found in laboratory tests of polished, optimized samples does not really apply to realworld components.
Because the EL values are statistical in nature, and determined on optimized, laboratory
samples, good design practice requires that one tries to determine what the actual EL
will be for each specific application. This is a time consuming process and at preliminary
design levels may not be feasible or desirable. As more and more knowledge is gained
on the fatigue aspects, this is now overcome by applying a number of correction or
modification factors as discussed in the next topic.
Our real concern is how to design a component so that failure by fatigue could be
precluded. We have noted earlier that
Materials response to fatigue loading is characterized by its S-N behavior
obtained through a standard test
The most important factors that affect the fatigue performance (strength) are also
noted in the previous lecture
Standard test conditions do not account for all these factors.
Components in real use will be subjected to different or varied conditions.
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In order to design for satisfactory fatigue life (prior to testing actual components), good
practice requires that the "laboratory" Endurance Limit value be reduced by several
adjustment factors. These reductions are necessary to account for:
(a) The differences between the application and the testing environments, and
(b) The known statistical variations of the material.
This procedure is to insure that both the known and the unpredictable factors in the
application (including surface condition, actual load, actual temperature, tolerances,
impurities, alloy variations, heat-treatment variations, stress concentrations, etc.) will
reduce the life of a part below the required value.
An accepted contemporary practice to estimate the maximum fatigue loading which a
specific design can survive is the Marin method, in which the laboratory test-determined
EL of the particular material (tested on optimized samples) is adjusted to estimate the
maximum cyclic stress a particular part can survive.
This adjustment of the EL is the result of six fractional factors. Each of these six factors
is calculated from known data which describe the influence of a specific condition on
fatigue life.
1. Surface Condition (k ): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged,
a
corroded, etc. Surface is perhaps the most important influence on fatigue life;
2. Size (k ): This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of
b
the part or the cross-section differs from that of the test specimens;
3. Load (K ): This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsion)
c
between the actual part and the test specimens;
4. Temperature (k ): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur
d
when the operating temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the
testing temperature);
5. Reliability (k ): This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an
e
8% standard deviation in the test data requires a k e value of 0.868 for 95%
reliability, 0.81 for 99% reliability, and 0.753 for 99.9% reliability.
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6. Miscellaneous (K ): This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects,
f
including residual stresses, corrosion, plating, metal spraying, fretting, and
others.
These six fractional factors are applied to the laboratory value of the material endurance
limit to determine the allowable cyclic stress for an actual part:
Real-World Allowable Cyclic Stress =
k a k b K c k d k e k f EL
Thus designers are now able to tackle this situation by applying as many modification
factors as possible so that most important deviations of the real design condition from
the standard test conditions are accounted for. So the next part of the discussion will
deal with the endurance strength modification factors.
To account for these conditions a variety of modifying factors, each of which is intended
to account for a single effect, is applied to the endurance limit value of test specimen
obtained under laboratory conditions. Consequently we may write
S e=S 'e k a k b k c k d k e
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Se
test specimen,
k a = surface factor
kb
= size factor
'
kc
= endurance limit of
= load factor
kd
k e = miscellaneous-effects factor.
temperature factor
Modification Factors
Surface Factor
ka
The surface of the rotating-beam specimen is highly polished, with final polishing in the
axial direction to smooth out any circumferential scratches. For other conditions the
modification factor depends upon the quality of the finish and upon the tensile strength.
Sufficient data is available in the literature relating the basic strength of the material and
its surface finish or surface condition to the modification factor which is nothing but the
percentage of standard endurance that could be realized under this condition. Typical
charts are given below. A more practical approach can be to use an empirical relation of
the type k a=aS b ut is available in literature to account for the various surface
condition values of constant a and b are shown in the table below.
Parameters for Marin Surface modification factor
Size Factor K
The size factor accounts for the variations in the size of the component when compared
to the test specimen. The size factor has been evaluated using sets of data points, from
available literature. The larger the size higher the probability of internal defects, hence
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lower the fatigue strength. An empirical relation for the case of bending and torsion can
be expressed as given below.
For large sizes, kb further reduces to 0.60 and lower Note that for axial loading there is
no size effect, therefore use kb = +1.0 in this case
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= 0.585. Both of
Note that this value happens to be the relation between torsional and tensile yield
strengths according to the distortion energy theory.
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Hence for the three basic types of loading normally encountered in most practical
applications, namely axial, bending and torsional stressing, the effect could be
accounted by the load factor as shown in the table.
Fig.2.7
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For this reason it is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength at
elevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature. It seems quite
logical, therefore, to employ the same relations to predict endurance limit at elevated
temperatures as are used at room temperature, at least, this practice will provide a
useful standard against which the performance of various materials can be compared.
Two types of problems arise when temperature is a consideration. If the rotating- beam
endurance limit is known at room temperature, then use
Ke
Similarly the other factors take into account the deviations of actual condition of use
from the standard testing. Though the factor k e is intended to account for the reduction
in endurance limit due to all other effects, it is really intended as a reminder that these
must be accounted for, because actual conditions of use vary from standard test
condition; values of ke are not always available.
2.5 Prediction of Failure
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Designers should understand the various ways that load-carrying components can fail in
order to complete a design that ensures that failure does not occur. Several different
methods of predicting failure are available, and it is the designer's responsibility to
select the one most appropriate to the conditions of the project. In this section we
describe the methods that have found a high level of use in the field and discuss the
situations in which each is applicable. The factors involved are the nature of the load
(static, repeated and reversed, or fluctuating), the type of material involved (ductile or
brittle), and the amount of design effort and analysis that can be justified by the nature
of the component or product being designed.
The design analysis methods described in the following section define the relationship
between the applied stresses on a component and the strength of the material from
which it is to be made that is most relevant to the conditions of service. The strength
basis for design can be yield strength, ultimate strength, endurance strength, or some
combination of these. The goal of the design process is to achieve a suitable design
factor, N. that ensures that the component is safe. That is, the strength of the material
must be greater than the applied stresses.
The following types of failure prediction are described in this section
Failure Prediction Method
Uses
2. Modified Mohr
3. Yield strength
5. Distortion energy
6. Goodman
7. Gerber
Fluctuating
stress
predictor]
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on
ductile
materials
[Good
K t < d=
Sut
N
K t < d=
Suc
N
Note that many brittle materials such as gray cast iron have a significantly higher
compressive strength than tensile strength.
Yield Strength Method (Uniaxial Static Normal Stresses on Ductile Materials)
This is a simple application of the principle of yielding in which a component is
carrying a direct tensile or compressive load in the manner similar to the
conditions of the .standard tensile or compressive test for the material. Failure is
predicted when the actual applied stress exceeds the yield strength. Stress
concentrations can normally be neglected for static stresses on ductile materials
because the higher stresses near the stress concentrations are highly localized.
When the local stress on a small part of the component reaches the yield
strength of the material, it does in fact yield. In the process, the stress is
redistributed to other areas and the component is still safe.
The following equations apply the yield strength principle to design
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< d=
S yt
N
< d=
S yc
N
S yt =S yc
S sy 0.5 S y
=
N
N
The maximum shear stress method of failure prediction has been shown by
experimentation to be somewhat conservative for ductile materials subjected to a
combination of normal and shear stresses. It is relatively easy to use and is often
chosen by designers. For more precise analysis, the distortion energy method is
preferred
Distortion Energy Method (Static Biaxial or Triaxial Stress on Ductile Materials)
The distortion energy method has been shown to be the best predictor of failure
for ductile materials under static loads or completely reversed normal, shear, or
combined stresses. It requires the definition of the new term, Von Mises stress,
indicated by the symbol, , that can be calculated for biaxial stresses, given the
maximum and minimum principal stresses, 1 and 2, from
' = 21+ 22 1 2
Failure is predicted when > Sy. The biaxial stress approach requires that the
applied stress in the third orthogonal direction, typically Z, is zero.
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Credit is given to R. Von Mises for the development of the above equation in
1913. Because of additional contributions by H. Hencky in 1925, the method is
sometimes called the Von Mises Hencky Method. Be aware that the results
from many finite element analysis software packages include the Von Mises
stress. Another term used is the octahedral shear stress.
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Sy
=1
1
Combinations of principal stresses that lie within the distortion energy ellipse are
predicted to be safe, while those outside would predict failure.
For design, the design factor, N can be applied to the yield strength. Then use
' < d=
Sy
N
For comparison, the failure prediction lines for the maximum shear stress method
are shown also in Figure 2.8. With data showing that the distortion energy
method is the best predictor, it can be seen that the maximum shear stress
method is generally conservative and that it coincides with the distortion energy
ellipse at six points. In other regions, it is as much as 16% low. Note the 45
diagonal line through the second and fourth quadrants, called the shear
diagonal. It is the locus of points where 1 = 2 and its intersection with the failure
ellipse is at the point (-0.577, 0.577) in the second quadrant. This predicts failure
when the shear stress is 0.577S y. The maximum shear stress method predicts
failure at 0.50Sy, thus quantifying the conservatism of the maximum shear stress
method.
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Fig.2.8. distortion energy method compared with maximum shear stress and maximum
principle stress methods.
Also shown in the figure 2.8 are the failure prediction lines for the maximum
principal stress method. It is coincident with the maximum shear stress lines in
the first and third quadrants for which the two principal stresses have the same
sign, either tensile (+) or compressive (-). Therefore, it, too, is conservative in
these regions. But note that it is dangerously non conservative in the second and
fourth quadrants.
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Sut
N
Suc
N
Case A3: Biaxial Stress. Use Mohr's circle to determine the principal stresses, 1, and
2. If both principal stresses are of the same sign, either tensile or compressive, use
Case A1 or A2. If they are of different signs, use the modified Mohr method. Any stress
concentration factors should be applied to the computed nominal stresses.
Case B: Brittle Materials under Fatigue Loads
No specific recommendation will be given for brittle materials under fatigue loads
because it is usually not desirable to use a brittle material in such cases. When it is
necessary to do so, testing should be done to ensure safety under actual conditions.
Case C: Ductile Materials under Static Loads
Three failure methods are listed. The yield strength method is only for uniaxial normal
stresses. For shear or biaxial loads, the maximum shear stress method is simpler but
somewhat conservative. The distortion energy method is the best failure predictor.
Case C1: Yield Strength Method for Uniaxial Static Normal Stresses
For tensile stress
< d=
S yt
N
< d=
S yc
N
Case C2: Maximum Shear Stress Method: for shear stresses and combined stresses.
Determine the maximum shear stress from Mohr's circle. Then the design equation is.
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max < d =
S sy 0.5 S y
=
N
N
Case C3: Distortion Energy Method: Used for shear stresses and combined stresses.
Determine the maximum shear stress from Mohr's circle. Then compute the Von Mises
stress from
' = 21+ 22 1 2
For design use
' < d=
Sy
N
Stress concentrations are not needed for static loading if local yielding can be tolerated.
Case D: Reversed, Repeated Normal Stress
Figure 2.2 shows the general form of reversed, repeated normal stress. Note that the
mean stress, m, is zero and that the alternating stress, a, is equal to the maximum
stress. max. This case follows directly from the definition of the estimated actual
endurance strength because the rotating beam testing method is used to acquire the
strength data. Also, it is a special case of fluctuating stress, covered by the equation in
the preceding section. With a zero mean stress, the design equation becomes
'
S
K t max < d = n
N
Case E: Reversed, Repeated Shear Stress
Again the maximum shear stress theory or the distortion energy theory can be used.
First compute the maximum repeated shear stress,
max
concentration factor. The discussion for Case D applies for shear stress as well.
Case E1: Maximum Shear Stress Theory
S 'sn =0.5 S'n
K t max < d =
S sn 0.5 S n
=
N
N
'
'
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'
S sn=0.577 S n
K t max < d =
'
n
m 1
=
S su N
In the absence of shear strength data, use the estimates Ssn'= 0.577 sn', and su = 0.75su
Case I: Fluctuating Combined Stresses
The approach presented here is similar to the Goodman method described previously,
but the effect of the combined stresses is first determined by using Mohr's circle.
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Case I1: For the maximum shear stress theory, draw two Mohr's circles, one for the
mean stresses and one for the alternating stresses. From the first circle, determine
maximum mean shear stress,
maximum alternating shear stress,
( m )max .
( a )max .
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ssu
= 0.75Su.
Case I2: For the distortion energy theory, draw two Mohr's circles, one for the mean
stresses and one for the alternating stresses. From these circles, determine the
maximum and minimum principal stresses. Then compute the Von Mises stresses for
both the mean and the alternating components from
'm = 21 m + 22 m 1 m 2 m
'a = 21 a + 22 a 1 a 2 a
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