CC 4

UNIT FOUR
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM

THE LATE 13th TO THE BEGINNING OF THE
16th CENTURIES
Introduction
 The period from the late 13th to the beginning of the 16th
centuries experienced dynamic political, economic, and
socio-cultural developments.
 Developments from the late 13th to the beginning of the 16th

centuries lay the foundation for the formation of modern
Ethiopia in the 19th and 20th centuries.
1
 During the period under discussion, issues such as
among others:
The "restoration" of the "Solomonic" Dynasty,
succession problems,
territorial expansion,
evangelization,
flourishing and development of trade as well as
expansion of extensive socio−cultural interactions
among different peoples who lived in different
agro−ecological zones were some of the events that
shaped the course of history in the region.
2
4.1. The “Restoration” of the
“Solomonic’’ Dynasty
 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they
were descendants of the last king of Aksum(Dilnaod)
and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power
from the “illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe dynasty(1150-
1270).
 As the claim has no historical evidence, the name

“Restoration” is put in quotation mark.
 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation

marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon
of Israel is legendary. 3
The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ …
 The claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel has been
elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”) that
associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class

descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of
Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.
 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to

Emperor Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
4
4.2.1.Succession Problem and the Establishment
of a ‘Royal Prison’ of Amba Gishen
 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak (1270-1285) in
1285, a political instability caused by constant power struggles
among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred.
 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s

five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
 The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in

1300 during the reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following
the establishment of a 'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen located in
present day southern Wollo where all male members of the
royal family were confined until one among them was
installed in power. 5
Succession Problem…
 Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal
prison-Amba-Gishen.
 Court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison

to escort the designated successor and put him on the
throne when the monarch died.
 The practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed

by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
6
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of
the Christian Kingdom
 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the
medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.
 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in

medieval Amhara (today’s South Wollo) around Lake
Haiq.
 The center of the “restored” dynasty gradually shifted

southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and
finally to the regions dominated by the great height of
the Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and
Zequalla mountains. 7
Consolidation and Territorial Expansion…
 After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on
consolidating his authority throughout the empire. In
this regard, he quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim center
adjacent to Shewa.
 Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-1344), the center

and the territorial limit of the Christian Kingdom was
mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara
and Shewa.
 Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who

embarked on a policy of a wider and rapid territorial
expansion. 8
 Amde-Tsion’s main motives of expansion were economic and
political i.e. to control the trade routes and seize territories.
 The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during

the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion.
 In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued

rebellions in an attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, which
threatened the unity of the Christian Kingdom.
 In the process, Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi)

of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7; Bete-
Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332;
and the Red Sea Coast. 9
 To consolidate the control of the Christian state over the
provinces of the north extending to the coastal areas of
Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in today’s
northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.
 Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat

and Shewa.
 In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean
region. After controlling the whole region, he appointed a
governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on
changed to Bahire-Negash.
10
 In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to the
Christian Kingdom.
 In the south, Gurage speaking areas and a few of the
Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta and Gamo were brought
under the influence of the Christian state.
 Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and

sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s.
 The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian

Kingdom continued during the successors of Amde-Tsion.
11
4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and
Religious Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization:
 Christianity had a long history of expansion.
 Churches and their believers had been in existence long

before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in various parts
of the Horn of Africa. For instance, in Shewa there were
early Christians who maintained contacts with their distant
relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia.
 Those early Christians played an important role in the
spread of Christianity in several areas.
12
I. Evangelization…
 In the 13th century, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for
Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later evangelized
the newly incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity had
either been non−existent or minimal.
 The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during the medieval

period set an addition momentum for the spread of Christianity.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13thc) played a key role in reviving Christianity

in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization of areas in southern
Ethiopia including medieval Damot.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot baptized and converted Motalami to

Christianity. The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia,
Yaqob, spread Christianity to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at,
13
II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement:
 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian
Orthodox Church in the mid-thirteenth century. The period
witnessed development of monasticism and religious
movements of which the major one was the Ewostatewos
movement, named after the founder (i.e., Ewostatewos).
 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in

Sara'e (in present day Eritrea). There, he was joined by
many students and taught until about 1337.
 Among Ewostatewos’s teachings was the strict observance

14
The Ewostatewos…
 When Ewostatewos was opposed by an organized religious
rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the country to
Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian
pilgrims.
 After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was

weakened although his followers led by Abba Absad tried
their best to maintain its momentum.
 The King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the
anti Ewostatewos group led by the Abbot of the Hayq
Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at Sereqe-Birhan was
supported by the Abun and the monarch.
15

B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites:
 The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian
monasticism, called so after their founder and spiritual
leader Abba Estifanos.
 The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame

at the end of the 14th century.
 Abba Estifanos established a rigid monastic organization, which

emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality and
autonomy from secular authorities.
 The movement rose to prominence in the 15th century and

continued until the 16th century, when it was formally reconciled
16
Deqiqe Estifano…
 Estifanos, when summoned to the royal court, was initially
able to convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla
Maryam, r. 1430-33) that he posed no threat to royal power
or the unity of the Church. Later, however, he collided with
Zara-Yaqob.
 Estifanos appears to have disapproved of the Emperor’s

religion initiatives, rejected royal supremacy and authority
in spiritual matters and refused to participate in court
judiciary procedures.
 Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the

Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of the
17
veneration of St. Mary.
Deqiqe Estifano…
 Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined
towards the Estifanosites and to have been instrumental in
their reintegration into the EOC during the period of
Metropolitan Abune Yeshaq.
 Estifanosites, for their part, appear to have softened their

position; the excommunication was lifted by the
Metropolitan.
 Despite the importance of the Estifanosites movement for

the history of Ethiopia, as yet we have neither a
comprehensive critical history of its background and
development, nor a clear idea of its real geographical scale,
18
historical significance and influence.
III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
 Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to
stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church.
 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order

to create an amicable(peace) church-state relationship.
 In this regard, he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by
reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed
toreceive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates.
 Second, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote

areas.
 Third, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays

19
and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
The Religious Reforms…
 Zara-Yaqob also encouraged the establishment of a library
in every church. This was followed by revival of religious
literature.
 Zara-Yaqob himself wrote some books like Metsafe-

Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-
te'aqebo Mister,etc.
 In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amre-

Maryam were translated from Arabic to Geez.
20
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in
Muslim Sultanates
 A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the 14 th
century. Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in
the rise and development of those states.
 Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also

acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of
Muslim Sultanates and remained a major source of conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.
 One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade

routes and became a center of resistance against the Christian
Kingdom until the second half of the 16 th century was the
Sultanate of Adal. 21
4.3.1. The Rise of Adal
 After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of
campaigns against its neighboring sultanates thereby
extending its hegemony over these areas.
 Ifat also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.
 One branch of the Walasma family, which realized that

Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian Kingdom
due to its location, moved further to the southeastern
lowlands and established new and vigorous (strong&
active) Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland
districts around Harar in 1367. 22
The Rise of Adal…
 The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a
place called Dakar, a place located to the southeast of Harar.
 1367(Dakar, Southeast of Harar), 1520(City of Harar) and
1576/7(Awsa, Afar region)
 The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new

center, and began another phase of military campaigns
against the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.
 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar

and after the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a
new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change its
capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region. 23
4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
 Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the
Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants and preachers.
 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the

Muslim Sultanates while at the same time it formed the base of
the economy of those states.
 The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat
(1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
 The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of
Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as ports for their
hinterland. 24
Trade and the Expansion of Islam…
 For the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.
 With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers

emerged along the route from Zeila to the interior.
 Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these

towns and ruins of mosques and residences mark the
existence of market centers, which followed and served the
trade coasts.
25
 The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the
highlands of Harar and Charchar attest to the market
towns that served the Zeila route. These include: Weez-
Gebeya-in western Shewa/famous market on the Fatagar-
Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro- in old Damot, Suq-
Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo on
the Ifat-Awsa route.
 Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian

merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents.
26
 Other big market towns include the ones that linked medieval
Amhara with Awsa, called Wasel near what is today Ware-
Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north of Waldiya) and Mandalay in
southern Tigray.
 The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord

of the Sea”), and Asmara were the two important entrepots
(centers) of caravans in the hinterland of Massawa.
 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes

that passed through Zeila due to their geographical
proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom
especially after its revival and consolidation. 27
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and
the Muslim Sultanates
 Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval
period. The ambition to control this trade route and
commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry
between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
 The first recorded conflict between the Christian

Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim
Sultanates organized their armies to take military action
against the Christian Kingdom.
28
Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom…
 The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the
Christian King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and
imprisoning the king's agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo.
 Haqaddin’s actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against

him; defeated and took him prisoner and eventually replaced
Haqaddin by his brother Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar came
under Sabradin.
 Amde-Tsion required from them(Muslim sultanates) annual
tributes and freedom of movements for all caravans through Zeila.
 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha,

Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
29
 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of

Emperor Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the
lowlands.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay

tribute and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-1380),
the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in 1386.
 Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’dad-Din II (c.

1386-1402) gained initial success until king Dawit I (r.
1380-1412) in 1402/3 extended his expansion and defeated
him. 30
 Sa’dad-Din II became refuge in Zeila until King Yishaq
(r.1413-1430) killed him in 1415.
 Following the death of Sa’dad-Din II and loss of Zeila to

Christian Kings, the Muslim sultanates declined in power.
 Sa’dad-Din’s son who took refuge in Yemen came back to

succeed their father.
 Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were

successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq.
This led to intense struggle for predominance. 31
 During the mid-15th century, Emperor Zara Yaqob(1434-1468)
gained some access to the Red Sea.
 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the

battle of Yeguba. As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed
Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-1471) sent a message of
submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-1478) to remain vassal of
the Christian Kings.
 On the death of Mohammed Ahmed, however, Adal was still

strong and continued its struggle.
 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings

32
 Among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir
Mahfuz carried out some effective military campaigns
into the highlands.
 In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor
Lebne-Dengel's (r.1508-1540) force and his son-in-law,
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as
Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the
leadership.
 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-

economic and cultural interactions between the
Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities.
33
 Trade had long been the source of friendship, interaction,
interdependence, and conflict among the states of the
region.
 The long distance trade and local markets served as core

areas of social ties. Relatively, the difference in ecology of
the Muslim sultanates and the Christian Kingdom created
economic interdependence, which in due course
strengthened socio-economic bondage.
 These interactions and interdependence in economic, social,

cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for
modern Ethiopia. 34
Relations with Egypt
 From the late 13th century onwards, the Christian Kingdom
continued to maintain relations with Egypt, which was
mainly religious in character.
 In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary (king’s agent) to

Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun from the
Coptic Church.
 Furthermore, both Egypt and Ethiopia continued to act as

protectors of religious minorities in their respective domain.
 Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the

Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia. 35
Relations with Egypt…
 In the early 14th century, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the
Copts and destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-
Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and warned that
failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters.
 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 1363) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad

(r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian
Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against
Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a
delegation to the King.
 Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan,

established harmonious relations between King Dawit and Egypt.
36
Relations with Egypt…
 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan
Barsbay requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt.
 Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-

Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous church of
Mitmaq (Debre-Mitmaq).
 ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-1453)

with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this message,
Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary
gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the
church.
37
Relations with Christian Europe
 As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom
maintained relations with Christian Europe.
 During the medieval period, contacts between the two

regions were strongly influenced by the legend of
“Prester John. For example:
 It is stated that Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of
Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in 1395.
 In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance.
 In another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch,
Amde-Tsion was presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.
38
Relations with Christian Europe…
 The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European
monarch is the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400
A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”, the purported king of the
Christian Kingdom.
 During the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome,

Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the
king in which they asked for support.
 King Dawit received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly

of Florentines.
 In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a

39
Florentine man called Antonio Bartoli.
 Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from
Yishaq in the city of Valentia, in 1427. Yishaq’s delegation to
Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts.
 The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen,

Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and a Frenchman reached
Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
 In 1450 a Sicilian Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia

since the last years of Dawit's reign and who had previously
carried out a successful trade mission to India on behalf of the
King, was now sent to Europe as Zara-Yaqob’s ambassador. An
Ethiopian priest, FikreMariam and two other individuals
accompanied him. 40
 The mission by Pietro Rombulo was to Alphonso of Aragon
(also ruled as king of Naples and Sicily).
 King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get

political, military, and technical assistance.
 Alphonso wrote a letter to ZaraYaqob and informed him

that he has sent him artisans and masons he requested.
 The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe

links are the maps of Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra
Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly depicted many
41
 Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in
1482. Pedros da Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at the
court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in 1493.
 The beginning and continued rivalry between the

Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates in the 15 th
century strengthened the relation between the Christian
Kingdom and Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to

King Zara Yaeqob) played an important role in the
strengthening of these relations. She had foreseen the threat
that came from the Ottoman Turkish who showed a clear 42
 Queen Elleni also had foreseen the possibility of consolidating
relations with and getting support from Portugal that was against the
Turks.
 In 1508, Portugal sent an envoy to act as an ambassador to Christian

Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-
Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal.
 The Portuguese court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly.
 The Portuguese Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba

and Francisco Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six
years. The objective was to establish a naval port against the
expanding Turkish power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not
successful. 43

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UNIT FOUR

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM

 Developments from the late 13th to the beginning of the 16th

 As the claim has no historical evidence, the name

 Similarly, the name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation

 The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class

 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to

 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s

 The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in

 Court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison

 The practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed

 Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in

 The center of the “restored” dynasty gradually shifted

 Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-1344), the center

 Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who

 The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during

 In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued

 In the process, Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi)

 Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat

 Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and

 The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian

 Churches and their believers had been in existence long

 The territorial expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during the medieval

 Abune Tekle-Haymanot (13thc) played a key role in reviving Christianity

 Abune Tekle-Haymanot baptized and converted Motalami to

 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in

 Among Ewostatewos’s teachings was the strict observance

 After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was

 The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame

 Abba Estifanos established a rigid monastic organization, which

 The movement rose to prominence in the 15th century and

 Estifanos appears to have disapproved of the Emperor’s

 Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the

 Estifanosites, for their part, appear to have softened their

 Despite the importance of the Estifanosites movement for

 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order

 Second, he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote

 Third, he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays

 Zara-Yaqob himself wrote some books like Metsafe-

 In addition, during his reign, some parts of Te’amre-

 Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also

 One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade

 Ifat also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.

 One branch of the Walasma family, which realized that

 The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new

 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar

 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the

 With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centers

 Travelers' accounts and chronicles referred to these

 Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian

 The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord

 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes

 The first recorded conflict between the Christian

 Haqaddin’s actions forced Amde-Tsion to wage a campaign against

 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha,

 To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of

 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay

 Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’dad-Din II (c.

 Following the death of Sa’dad-Din II and loss of Zeila to

 Sa’dad-Din’s son who took refuge in Yemen came back to