4.1.

The “Restoration” of the

“Solomonic’’ Dynasty
4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation,
Territorial Expansion and
Religious Processes
4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial
Expansion of the Christian
Kingdom
4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious UNIT FOUR
Movements, and Religious
Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic
Dynamics in
Muslim Sultanates

POLITICS, ECONOMY
4.4. Rivalry between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim AND
Sultanates
SOCIETY FROM THE LATE 13th TO
4.5. External Relations

THE BEGINNING OF THE 16th c

 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty
• The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty
• claimed that they were dependents of the last king of
Aksum and were legitimate to take over state power
from the “illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe dynasty.
• As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put
in quotation mark. The name “Solomonic” is placed in quotation
marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon of Israel is
legendary.
• The claim has been elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of Kings”)
that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-Christian tradition.
• The Kibre Negest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from
the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon
of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno Amlak to
Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and
Religious Processes
4.2.1. Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of
Amba Gishen
 After the end of Yikuno-Amlak’s reign in 1285, political instability followed
due to constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for
succession.
 A letter written by Yegba-Tsion (r.1285-94) to the Sultan of Egypt and the
Patriarch of Alexandria in 1290 reflected the existence of those struggles. The
power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who
reigned from 1294 to 1299.
 The succession problem have been partly resolved in 1300 during the
reign of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a
'royal prison' at Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo.
 According to the rule, all male members of the royal family were confined at
the Amba. Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison.
When the monarch died, court dignitaries would send an army to the royal
prison to escort the designated successor and put him on the throne.
 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad
Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.
 4.2.2. Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

• From 1270 - 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent capital.

Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval Amhara
(today’s South Wollo) around Lake Haiq. It gradually shifted southward
to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the regions of
Yerer, Entoto, Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
• After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his
authority throughout the empire. He quickly subdued Ifat, the Muslim
center adjacent to Shewa.
• Until the coming of Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), the center and the territorial
limit of the Christian Kingdom was mainly in present day Tigray, Lasta,
medieval Amhara and Shewa.
• Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a
wider and rapid territorial expansion. His main motives of expansion were
economic and political i.e. to control the trade routes and territorial seizures.
The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during the reign of
Emperor Amde-Tsion. The period also witnessed the expansion of trade
leading to the flow of commodities to the coast following the major routes.
• Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into
– Agaw (Awi) of Gojjam around 1323/4;
– Bizamo and Damot in 1316/7;
– Bete-Israel (located between Dambiya and Tekeze River) around 1332;
and the Red Sea Coast.
• To consolidate the control of the Christian state over the provinces of
the north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave
Enderta (in today’s northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.
• Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa,
which might have cooperated with the rebellious army at Enderta, led
by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s. However, Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-
Tsion, became the governor of Tigray.
• In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region and he
appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on
changed to Bahire-Negash.
• Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes and sources of
trade of the Ethiopian region in the early 1330s. The consolidation and
territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued during the
successors of Amde-Tsion.
 Map 3: The Christian Kingdom during the Reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion

Source: Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, p. 133.

 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious
Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion. Churches and their believers
had been in existence long before expansion of the Christian Kingdom in
various parts of the Horn of Africa.
 For instance, in Shewa there were early Christians who maintained contacts
with their distant relatives in Northern part of Ethiopia.
 Those early Christians played an important role in the spread of Christianity
in several areas.
 Iyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for Christians who lived in the
central part of Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly incorporated areas where
the influence of Christianity had either been non−existent or minimal. The territorial
expansion carried out by Amde−Tsion during the medieval period set an addition
momentum for the spread of Christianity.
 Abune Tekle-Haymanot played a key role in reviving Christianity in Shewa, which
was followed by the evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia including medieval
Damot. He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.
 The clergy, under the direction of the bishop in Ethiopia, Yaqob, spread Christianity
to different areas of Shewa such as Kil'at, Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret and
 II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the
mid 13thc. The period witnessed development of monasticism and religious
movements of which the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named
after the founder.
 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day
Eritrea). There, he was joined by many students and taught until about 1337.
Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath. When he was
opposed by an organized religious rival group of the clergy in Sera'e, he fled the
country to Egypt. He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian pilgrims.
After Ewostatewos left Ethiopia, the movement was weakened although his
followers led by Abba Absad tried their level best to maintain its momentum.
 The movement revived when some of his followers such as Bekimos,
Merkoryewos and Gebre–Iyasus returned home from Armenia. The followers of
Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different monasteries in
northern Ethiopia. The movement spread to areas like Enfranz, northern Tigray,
and Hamessen. The King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the anti-
Ewostatewos group led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se’at
Sereqe Birhan was supported by the Abun and the monarch.
 The monarch imprisoned some of the Ewostatians fearing that
dispute in the church could divide his kingdom. The clergy
expelled Ewostatians from their church services; some of the
Ewostatians were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas
and some of them sustained their movement in monasteries like
Debre- Bizen, Debre-San, etc.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
• These were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so
after their founder and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos. The
movement rose to prominence in the 15th and continued until the
16th c, when it was formally reconciled with the main body of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
• The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at
the end of the 14th c. He established a rigid monastic organization
which emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality
and independence from secular authorities.
• When summoned to the royal court, Estifanos was initially able to
convince the emperor (probably Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33) that
he posed no threat to royal power or the unity of the Church.
• Later, he collided with ZaraYaqob. Estifanos appears to have
disapproved of the Emperor’s religion initiatives, rejected royal
supremacy and authority in spiritual matters and refused to participate
in court judiciary procedures.
• Emperor Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the
Estifanosites allegedly for their opposition of the veneration of St.
Mary. Naod appears to have been more favorably inclined towards the
Estifanosites and to have been instrumental in their reintegration into
the EOC during the period of Metropolitan Abune Yeshaq.
• For their part, Estifanosites appear to have softened their position; the
excommunication was lifted by the Metropolitan. Despite the
importance of the Estifanosites movement for the history of Ethiopia,
as yet we have neither a comprehensive critical history of its
background and development, nor a clear idea of its real geographical
scale, historical significance and influence.
 III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
• Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures
to stabilize and consolidate the Orthodox Church.

1. he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy

towards the creation of a suitable church-state union.
2. he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by
reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the
Ewostatian agreed to receive Holy orders from the
Ethiopian prelates.
3. he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote
areas.
4. he ordered the people to observe fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
 • Lack of sufficient religious books was another
problem.
• the king encouraged
he settled the establishment
the conflict among of atowards
the Ethiopian clergy library in
the creation
every church.of a suitable church-state union.
he made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving
• This was followed by revival of religious literature.
Sabbath in the Ethiopian church and the Ewostatian agreed
• Emperor
He himself
to receive Zara-Yaqob
wrote
Holy
he urged some
orders
the from to
clergy (r.1434-68)
books
the Ethiopian
preach took several
likeChristianity
prelates. in
measures to stabilize
• Metsafe-Birhan, and consolidate
remote areas. the Orthodox
• Metsafe-Me’lad, Church.
he ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays
• MetsafeSillasie,
and Fridays and get Father Confessors.
• Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc.
Lack of sufficient religious books was another
•theInking
addition, during
encouraged his reign, some
theproblem.
establishment of a parts
library of
in Te’amre
every
church. This was followed by revival of religious literature. He
Maryam was translated from Arabic to Geez.
himself wrote some books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad,
MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc. In addition, during
his reign, some parts of Te’amre Maryam was translated from
Arabic to Geez.
Zara Yaqob's
coronation
4.3. Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics
in Muslim Sultanates

Trade One of the strong

• one of the major factors that Muslim sultanates that
A number of
resulted in the rise and
development of those sates
emerged along trade
• served as a major source of routes and became a
strong sultanates livelihood.
center of resistance
• acted as a major agent for the
emerged since the formation of Muslim sultans against the Christian
14th c. • remained a major source of conflict
between the Christian Kingdom Kingdom until the 2nd
and Muslim sultanates. half of the 16th c was
the Sultanate of Adal.
 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal
• After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns
against its neighboring sultanates thereby extending its hegemony
over these areas. It also resisted the expansion of the Christian
Kingdom. However, one branch of the Walasma family, which
realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian
Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the southeastern
lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of
Adal in the highland districts around Harar in 1367.
• The first center of the Walasma Dynasty was at a place called
Dakar, a place located on the southeast of Harar.
• The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after
the defeat of Imam Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the
Oromo forced the sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in
1576/7, to the present Afar region.
 4.3.2. Trade and the Expansion of Islam
• Islam spread into the central and southwestern parts of the
Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants and
preachers.
• Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the
Muslim Sultanates while at the same time it formed the
base of the economy of those states.
• The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period
were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).
• The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-
states of Mogadishu, Brava, and Merca were used as
ports for their hinterland.
• For the trade in the northeast, Massawa served as an
outlet. With the revival of trade, different towns and trade
centers emerged along the route from Zeila to the interior.
• The ruins that mark the landscape around Jigjiga and the highlands
of Harar and Charchar attest to the market towns that served the
Zeila route. These include Weez-Gebeya in western Shewa/famous
market on the Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old
Damot, Suq-Amaja and the very famous market center Gandabalo
on the Ifat-Awsa route.
• Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim and Christian
merchants serving the kings and sultans as agents. Other big market
towns include the ones that linked medieval Amhara with Awsa,
called Wasel near what is today Ware-Illu, Qorqora/Qoreta (north
of Waldiya) and Mandalay in southern Tigray.
• The towns of Dabarwa, the seat of the Bahre-Negash (“Lord of the
Sea”), and Asmara were the two important entrepots of caravans in
the hinterland of Massawa.
• Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed
through Zeila due to their geographical proximity, although
contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom especially after its revival and
consolidation.
 Trade Routes and Muslim Sultanates in Medieval Ethiopia

Source: Bahru Zewde (Compiled),A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn, p. 39.
 4.4. Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates

• Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition
to control this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to
rivalry between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat.
• The first recorded conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place
in 1328. It was because the Muslim Sultanates organized their armies to take
military action against the Christian Kingdom.
• The Sultan of Ifat, Haqaddin I stopped merchants belonging to the Christian
King, Amde-Tsion, confiscating the goods, capturing, and imprisoning the
king's agent, Ti’iyintay returning from Cairo. These forced Amde-Tsion to
wage a campaign against Haqaddin I; defeated and took him prisoner and
eventually replaced him by his brother Sabradin. Both Ifat and Fatagar came
under Sabradin.
• The Sultanates of Hadiya and Dawaro made an alliance with Sabradin. Yet,
Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured on his retreat. As a result, Ifat,
Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated. Amde-Tsion required from them
annual tributes and freedom of movement for all caravans through Zeila.
Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Harar,
Bali, Dara, and Arbabani were also seriously weakened.
• It was based on these grounds that some members of the Walasma moved
their seat of power further east to Adal, from where they continued their
struggle. To check their attacks on the highlands, the successors of Emperor
Amde-Tsion conducted repeated campaigns into the lowlands. In 1376,
Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against
Neway-Maryam (1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died
fighting in 1386. Similarly, the successor of Haqadin II, Sa’d ad-Din II (C.
1386-1402) gained initial success until king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) in 1402/3
extended his expansion and defeated him. Sa’d ad-Din II became refuge in
Zeila until King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed him in 1415. Since then the area
was called "the land of Sad ad-Din."
• Following the death of Sa’d ad-Din and loss of Zeila to Christian Kings, the
Muslim sultanates declined in power. Sa’d ad-Din’s sons who took refuge in
Yemen came back to succeed their father. Yet, Adal continued to challenge the
Christian state and were successful in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and
Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance. During the mid-
fifteenth century, Emperor Zara Yaqob gained some access to the Red Sea.
• In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of
• As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed
(r.1445-71) sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78)
to remain vassal of the Christian Kings. On the death of Mohammed,
however, Adal was still strong and continued its struggle. Ba’ede-Mariam
campaigned against Adal & his army lost the battle in 1474.
• The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the
rulers of Muslim Sultanates. At the same time, leaders of the Muslim
Sultanate sought to resolve the problem peacefully. As a result,
Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to harmonize
relations with the Christian Kingdom. However, among the various
Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried out some
effective military campaigns into the highlands. However, in 1517 Emir
Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40)
force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, pupularly
known as Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.
• Trade continued to be the major channel of social integration & had long
been the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence, and
conflict among the states of the region.
• The long distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social
ties. Relatively, the difference in ecology of the Muslim sultanates and
the Christian Kingdom created economic interdependence, which in due
course strengthened socio-economic bondage.
• Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the
coast and vice versa. It was through such caravan merchants that the
social links were strengthened and religions spread.
• These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural
and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia. Beside
the above discussed socio-cultural and economic interaction as, the
period witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from
the works of Abba Giorgis Ze-Gasicha and others and philosophies
epitomized by Zara-Ya'iqob (not to be confused with the king). On the
Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab
writers such as Ibn Fadil al Umari, Ibn Khaldun and others.
 4.5. External Relations
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
• From the late 13th c onwards, Christian Kingdom continued to maintain
relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character.
• In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars
requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church. Furthermore, both Egypt and
Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of religious minorities in their
respective domain. Egypt also wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile
(the Abay River) that originated from Ethiopia.
• In the early 14thc , Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts and
destroyed their churches in Cairo. In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the
restoration of the churches and warned that the failure to do so would
result in the diversion of the Nile waters.
• Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71),
revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is
said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt after which the Sultan
released the patriarch and sent a delegation to the King.
• Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan,
established harmonious relations between King Dawit and
Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross"
and in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of religious
paintings to the Sultan.
• In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay
requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt. Three years later,
however, Patriarch Yohannes XI wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter
stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq (Debre-
Mitmaq). Then ZaraYaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq
(1438-53) with a strongly worded letter. In reply to this message,
Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary gifts to the
King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.
 4.5.2. Relations with Christian Europe
• The Christian Kingdom maintained relations with Christian Europe.
During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were
strongly influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
• This was followed by sustained relations in subsequent decades.
– Ethiopian delegation was in attendance of Gian Galeazzo Visconti’s coronation in Milan in
1395.
– In 1418, three Ethiopians attended the Council of Constance.
– In another report, message from an Ethiopian monarch, Amde-Tsion was
presented to King Phillip of France in 1332.
– The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter
of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John”,
the purported king of the Christian Kingdom. The identification of the King with
“Prester John” was firmly established in the 14 th c. They even thought that it was
possible to liberate Jerusalem with the help of this King. Hence, during the reign
of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria, Armenia and
Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support. King Dawit
received some Italian craftsmen consisting mainly of Florentines. In 1402, King
Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called Antonio
Bartoli.
• Alphonso de Paiva V of Aragon received a delegation from Yishaq in the city
of Valentia, in 1427. Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more
artisans and military experts.
• The embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a
Spaniard and a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
• In 1450 a Silican Pietro Rombulo, who had been in Ethiopia since the last
years of Dawit's reign and who had previously carried out a successful trade
mission to India on behalf of the King, was now sent to Europe as Zara-
Yaqob’s ambassador.
• An Ethiopian priest, Fikre Mariam and two other individuals accompanied
him. The mission was to Alphonso of Aragon, (also ruled as king of Naples
and Sicily).
• King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and
technical assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to Zara Yaqob and informed him
that he sent him artisans and masons he requested.
• The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of
Egyptus Novelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which
clearly depicted many places and peoples.
• Venetian Gregorio or Hieronion Bicini visited Ethiopia in 1482. Pedros da
Covilhao/Peter de Covilham arrived at court of Eskindir (1478-1494) in
• The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates in the15th century strengthened the relation
between the Christian Kingdom and Christian Europe.
• Queen Elleni (the daughter of Hadiya Garad and married to King Zara
Yaeqob) played an important role in the strengthening of these
relations. She had foreseen the threat that came from the Ottoman
Turkish who showed a clear interest to support the Muslim Sultanates.
She also had foreseen the possibility to consolidate relations with and
get support from Portugal that was against the Tukish.
• In 1508, Portugal sent a person to act as an ambassador to Christian
Ethiopia. Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-
Dengel sent an Armenian called Mathew to Portugal. The Portuguese
court doubted his authenticity and was received coldly. The Portuguese
Embassy led by Rodrigo di Lima, Duwarto Galliba and Francisco
Alvarez reached Ethiopia in 1520 and remained for six years. The
objective was to establish a naval port against the expanding Turkish
power in Red Sea Area. The mission was not successful.
 UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND

SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM
THE EARLY 17TH TO THE END
OF THE 18TH CENTURIES
 5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate
of Adal and After
• The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle for
control over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities.
• This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics.
• While maladministration and exploitation of periphery made military
mobilization possible, religion provided ideological justification for the
wars. The interest to control trade routes lay at the heart of the conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that continued for
over two centuries, culminating in the wars between the Christian Kingdom
and the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543.
• As a prelude to this conflict among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife,
corruption and anarchy was intensified and a new leadership was urgently
called for. Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi.
Imam Ahmed was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila. He
was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam. He soldiered for Garad Abun of
Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
• After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power, the battles were not just fought
for control of the long-distance trade route going through Zeila but
mainly because there was a demographic pressure among the Afar
and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the Christian
Kingdom. For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had
wanted to expand to high plateaus for better and enough pasturelands
and attempted to do so but only to be held back by the Christian army.
• With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar of
eastern Ethiopia, between the 13thand 16th centuries, raiding and
counter-raiding at water holes or animal rustling intensified. It was
one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he
mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the
Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced them
not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the
Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing material needs while at
the same time keep Islamic believes and practices from the
infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to gain
audience as Imam and consolidated his army to fight the Christian
Kingdom.
• Lebne- Dengel who enthroned at the age of 11 was assisted by the elderly Elleni
and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its
interest and advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in the
early 16thc. Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military confrontation in 1520,
he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by a campaign against the
Christian Kingdom in 1527.
• The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali,
Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian Kingdom
was at risk. In 1528, realizing the upcoming threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a
vast force from his domain and encamped about 50 kilometers east of Addis
Ababa.
• There was the problem of logistics and the leadership of the army of Christian
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force.
• On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed logistics
problems with its small-sized army. The Imam’s army had also an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified
command. As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated
in one of the most decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529,
near present day Mojo.
• After victory, Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories
of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved
as far north as Mereb Melash.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on
the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
• One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the
Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military
commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
• She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said
to have marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was
unable to use mules. Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the
campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.
• On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the
reigning king, Lebne-Dengel, to retreat who finally died in 1540 being
fugitive.
• His son Gelawdewos (r. 1540- 1559), ascended to the throne who
continued to face the wars this time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed
had received Turkish musketeers.
• Based on earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about 400
Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks, commanded by Christopher
da Gama arrived in the Christian court in 1541.
• In August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's
southern Tigray. In the battle, about 200 Portuguese and their leader,
Christopher da Gama were killed and beheaded. Seblewongel, the wife of
Lebne-Dengel played important role. She is said to have participated in
the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when the army of the Christian
Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers and their commander
Christopher Da Gama.
• After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to
repulse any future attack by the force of the Christian Kingdom. On the
part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation
under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen
mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor how to prepare and
march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited resources, the
monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s
army.
• On February 25, 1543 Imam Ahmed was killed after a fierce fighting at
the battle of Woyna-Dega, near Lake Tana. Soon after the battle,
Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to
him. Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos
and he was tolerant toward them to promote national conciliation and to
develop revival of smooth relations with the Muslim world.
• Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-1520s territories
and tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state
through campaigns to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in
border areas. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong
Christian Kingdom. In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian
state came from the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the
Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo that advanced into the
center. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid was
ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge.
• In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the
king himself. Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded
Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories in the
coast including Dabarwa.
• However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend the
Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama,
Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north,
defeated Turkish forces, and restored the territories.
• Consequences of Muslim-Christian conflict
1. huge human and material cost.
2. It weakened both the Muslim Sultanate and Christian Kingdom
3. paved the way for an easy infiltration and success of the Oromo
population movement.
4. cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia.
5. Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages
among peoples of the various cultural groups were one of these
manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean
between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global
dimension.
• Persians, Arabs, Syrians, Egyptians, and Turks, traditional international
trade intermediaries, who were under Ottoman Turks were hit by discovery
of a seaway to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and tried to prevent rival
Portuguese ships from trading with India. Therefore, Portugal looked up to
the Christian kingdom as an ally and started the old “semi-spiritual quest”
for Prester John. From the first decade of the century, messengers were being
sent. However, actual military alliance did not take place because Ethiopia
was not a sea power to give sensible maritime support to Portugal against the
Ottoman Turks.
• On its part, the Christian Kingdom had asked Portugal’s military assistance
against its Muslim rival. Having noticed the movement of diplomatic
missions between the Christian Kingdom and Portugal, the Turks gave
moral and military support to Imam Ahmed.
• In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and
regional Ottoman authorities provided two hundred Muslim musketeers and
ten cannons.
 5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

• As with the state, the church was weakened by the wars against the
sultanate of Adal. The destruction of property and deaths of its
clergy hampered the operation of the Church and its service as an
ideological arm of the state. To consolidate their power, the rulers
of the Christian Kingdom made an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and
training to restore its lost territories.
• In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop,
Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism. The
Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and separate,
natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to
Monophysite theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC taught
that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from divinity.
• The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts to
evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo,
Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
• The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos
(r.1540-59), hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the
missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. He defended the
teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the
Confession of Faith.
• Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the
other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and the Turkish forces
to entertain the Jesuits in their courts. The Jesuits got relative success
with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) who secretly converted to
Catholicism. But Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect
the desired result.
• Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who
befell a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
Susenyos, too, as was challenged by provincial leaders who
refused to pay tribute, integrated the Oromo with the forces of
central government to consolidate his power and then stabilize the
country. Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an
alliance, which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro
Paez.
• In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to
be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several
anti-Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and
religious practices.
• Another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered re-consecration
of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass.
Besides, he called for the suspension of Jewish customs such as
male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
• Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching
in Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for
Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and
Gregorian calendar to be adopted. The reforms led to revolts
led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers
of the emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67)
were opposed to the changes initiated by the Jesuits. After
1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the
state came to the verge of falling apart. In a battle in June 1632,
large number of peasants lost their lives in one day. Finally, the
emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who
countered the Catholic transformation.
• Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state
religion, expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including
Susenyos’ uncle and the most fervent supporter of Catholicism,
Se'ela Kristos.
• By fearing another religious conflict, Emperor Fasiledas introduced
a new policy called "Close-Door Policy", which isolated the state
from all Europeans for about a century and a half. Conversely, he
initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic relations with the
Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim
states to ensure that no European crossed into the Christian
Kingdom.
• As a result, in 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman
Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should
block any European from entering in to his territory. By doing so,
Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.
• Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until the
beginning of the 19th c with the exception of secret visits by a French
Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James
Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
• Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and
controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided
into disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity
as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St.
Mary into the world as a perfect man and perfect divinity united in one
nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and
accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at
the moment of his incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy
Ghost anointed him. This sect was dominant in Gojjam. Sost
Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that Christ
was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb
of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in
Gonder and Shawa.
 5.3. Population Movements
• The movements of people from one place to another have played important
roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn. Population
movements occurred in the Horn due to various reasons, in varied scales
and followed different directions.
• People moved from place to place due to pull and push factors, which can
be summed up as natural and social. Specifically, people move out from
their habitats in search of resources and better living environment in
general.
• In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be attributed
to the region's long socio-political conditions involving military
conflicts, drought and demographic factors. Population movements of
the medieval period had extensive effects including the integration of
peoples across ethnic and religious lines.
• Major outcomes of population movements during the period under
consideration include religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
intermingling of peoples. Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage
of peoples, change of abode, original culture and evolution of new
identities.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
• The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of
Adal in the late 15th and the early 16th centuries was partly responsible for
the population movement of the Argoba, Afar and Somali. In addition,
the demographic pressure on environment gave background for the
population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade
routes passed and hence were affected by the consequences of the military
conflict. These peoples moved back and forth in response to the ongoing
military conflict.
• The Argoba: were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim
state formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat
were established by the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties
respectively. Towards the end of the 13th c, the sultanate of Shewa moved
further to the east as the result of the pressure from the Christian
Kingdom.
• The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the
center of Muslim resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al
Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian
Kingdom. The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the
expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of conflict.
• This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through
Argoba territory. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the
conflicts thereof led to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of
the people.
• The Afar: before the 16th c, due to drought, the Afar moved towards
the east until they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the
ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As a result, the
region was the centre of competition between the Christian Kingdom
and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being
actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to
move into different directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts. In the
16th c, their pastoral economy helped them to survive the destructive
effects of the wars.
• The Somali: their territory laid in the medieval
competition for the control of trade routes.
Likewise, prior to the wars of Imam Ahmed al
Ghazi, there was strong demographic pressure
from the Somali. The population movement of
the Somali was a strong force behind the
military strength of the Imam. However, the
population movement of the Somali did not
last for long as they returned to their home
base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in
1543.
 5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-
1618)
A. The Gadaa System
• The Oromo population movement of the 16 thc cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system.
• The Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially
organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories,
maintained law and order, and managed their economies. Studies do not
clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged. However, it is
clear that for long the society organized their politics, economy, social,
cultural, and religious affairs through the Gadaa institution.
• The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the early 16 thc, the
system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were well organized.
Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa
system long before the sixteenth century movement of the Oromo.
• Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest
that the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set social
organization.
• Time computation and recording history was based on the eight-year segment of
time. In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods
or 40 years represented one generation and nine generations represented an era.
• Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure were those of Bidiri
Dhoqqe. Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu around 1450 AD, the
Oromo passed through known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile,
Abroji, Dhittacha and Warra-Daye (warden), each of which survived for an
era.
• Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various
internal and external factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was
instituted after interruption for nearly two generations.
• It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe
(assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.
• The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic
succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man rule.
• Other principles of the system included representation of all lineages, clans
and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion. In addition, Gadaa
constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation) and
rakoo (marriage).
• The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-
grades and generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age
grades and five classes operated in parallel.
• The system provided a socio-political framework that
institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors
and egalitarian relations among members of a grade. The
system helped the members of age-sets to develop a
consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined
the first grade as members of Gadaa class (generation class or
set) forty years after their fathers and were initiated into the
next higher grade every eight years.
• The following table shows a common version of age-grades
and roles associated to them
 Table II: Age-grades and their roles
Gadaa-grade Age Roles
Dabale birth-8 socialization
years
Game 9-16
Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators
and ritual leaders

Source: Gada Melba, Oromiya (Khartoum, 1988), p. 11.

•The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years.
•The head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally
“father of the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set. These included
• Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
• Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
• Abba-Dula (war leader),
• Abba Sera (father of law),
• Abba Alanga (judge),
• Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councilors.
•In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling
gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
• Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-
pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage),
kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of
Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have
sacred power. They involved in occasions like power
transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving and
others. The kalale were also privileged to support
and advise the ruling class.
• The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical
power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next
every eight years. With some minor differences in
nomenclature in different parts of Oromo territories,
the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed
below:
•Table: The Five Gadaa Classes
Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudena Robale

Kilole Birmajii

Bifole Mul’ata

Michille Dulo

• Source: C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford trans. and

eds.,Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593-1646 (London: Hakluyt
Society, 1954).
 B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

•A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo

population movement of the 16th and 17th centuries. Natural
factors include demographic pressure and subsequent need for
land to accommodate the growing human and livestock
population. Furthermore, the conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the 13th to the 16th centuries
might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to leave the
lands they inhabited for other areas.
•In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo were
already organized under Borana and Barentu confederacies. The
Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a
corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya. When they
reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa, they took
westward and penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
Then they headed northwards to the lakes region of the Rift
Valley.
• From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly,
the first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian
regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali while Gadaa
Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River. The Kilole Gadaa
(1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal
Mabraq while Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer. The
Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, and
Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at
Mount Hazalo. The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at
Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
•In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo
defeated Robale gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered
by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force. The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled
Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti
regiment. The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat,
Dambiya and Tigray.
•In the early 17th c, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena
(1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while
others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in
Somalia. In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates, the organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played
crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement.
•In the course of their movement into various regions, different Oromo
branches established Gadaa centers. Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda
Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna, Oda Bisil of
Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers. Other
places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e
Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of
Waloo, etc. Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of
Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established
Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
•However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the
office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at
Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of
difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera
(law) through sending their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the
central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in
1900 due to the political influence of the Ethiopian state.
•In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation
formula including land. Land holding system to regulate
resource and their interaction among different clans is known as
the qabiyye system. The system established rights of precedence
(seniority) in possession of land. Accordingly, place names were
given the names of the pioneer as a marker of qabiyye rights.
 5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious
Diversities
The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were
the major factors for the people's interactions across regions. Such interactions
occurred during peace and conflict times. The cases in point were the trade
contacts and conflicts to control trade routes, religious expansion, and
territorial expansion and population movements. One of the major
consequences of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the
population movement of the 16th c was the integration of peoples across
ethnic and religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn. Population
movement of the period relatively covered extensive geographical areas,
involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions from south to north and
from east to west. The wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements
of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the
central parts of Ethiopia. One consequence of the Oromo population movement
was that it put an end to the wars between the Christian and Muslim states as
well as the southward expansion of the Christian state. The Oromo integrated
non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
•Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this
system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child.
Likewise, Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly known
as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or
groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and obligations
that such membership entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba
Gadaa on behalf of the clan.The process significantly contributed to the
social cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and
institutions. A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted
Gadaa system and Oromo language. Likewise, the Oromo adopted and
adapted cultures and traditions of the people with whom they came into
contact. The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems and the
integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim states. It is
important to mention the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics
particularly during the Gondar period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of
modern Ethiopia.
 5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions
•
1. Somali
•The Somali people have inhabited vast territory in the Horn. For long,
the Somali practiced pastoral economy and moved between places for
centuries possibly in search of sufficient pasture. The Somali lived
south of their present territory at least as early as the 12th c or 13th c.
Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town
located in the southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital
that brought large number of Somalis together during the 13th c. The
songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30) military success depicts
that the Somali lived close to the Christian Kingdom. Somali
contingents also played notable role in the victories of the Sultanate
of Adal against the Christian kingdom.
•Historically, a council known as shir governed the society.
•Along with the Somali and other adjacent Muslim population, Afar
land, which was associated with medieval Adal Sultanate, was home
for many historical cities such as Maduna and Abasa. Following the
collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the 16th c, the Afar
established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and
Gobad. Awsa Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the
middle Awash. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when
Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa. At some
point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in
conjunction with Imam Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension
to the throne. The Sultanate was subsequently re-established by Kedafo
around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty.
Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver baton, which was
considered to have magical properties. Awsa’s economy was mainly
depended on Bati- Ginda’e trade route. Later it became center of
Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola Hanfre.
•

3. Argoba
•Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient. There are two
versions on the origin of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that
they descended from the eighty-two followers of the Prophet Mohammed
who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat. The second version
claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab
immigrants, but claims and arguably seems a logical presentation that
indicates the Argoba as an ancient and indigenous people who accepted
Islam very early from religious leaders who came from Arabia.
4. The Emirate of Harar
•Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the
Horn. In the 16th c, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing
Dakar until 1577 when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the
Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he
launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in 1527. Later during
the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the
sultanate of the Harari developed.
•In the mid 17th c Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation
with the Oromo established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly
two centuries and a half. It was strengthened by Amirs like Abdul
Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis engaged in
supervising Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the
Amir. The emirate grew in importance to be a steady center of
Islamic culture and power. Its economic power grew as it controlled
trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its
authority was established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali
through trade, inter-marriage, and expansion of Islamic teachings.
Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence that they sent an
expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a
decade. Although it was later restored, and ruled by Amir
Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for two years, Emperor
Menilek’s expansion to the region shortly followed in 1887.
 5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts
The Kingdom of Shewa
• The Kingdom of Shewan was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos
(r.1696-1703) and eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo,
Mafud and Yifat. The second king was Merid Azmatch
Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made
Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before
he was killed by the Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful
attempts to control the Afar and Abitchu Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes
(r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz and Tegulet with
his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-
1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and
Shewa Meda. The dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie
(r.1813-47), the grandfather of Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many
travelers visited Shewa and he even signed “treaty of friendship and
commerce” with the British in 1841. Shewa’s economy was mainly based
on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft. Near the capital, Ankobar,
there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba administered by the
Gurage
• The Gurage live in southern Ethiopia. The main Gurage clans and their
sub-divisions are the following; Inor group (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna,
Gyeto and Mesemes), Chaha group (Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer and
Gura) and the Kistane group (Nurana and many other clans). Additional
groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan. The staple crop in
Gurage land is enset. The Gurage had traditional system of governance
developed over the centuries. There was, however, no centralized
leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent
groups displayed corporate rights, obligations, and influence. Gurage’s
notable customary modes of governance include the Yajoka Qicha and
the Gordanna Sera.
Kambata
• By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to
form the contemporary state of Kambata which means, “this is the place”
(where we live-as the Kambata believe in). The first one, Kambata in the
narrow sense, had its original homeland around Mount Hambericho in
the heartland of Kambata territory. The other three namely the Dubamo,
Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.
• Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and
controlled the area between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he
incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian Empire.
• In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army, which
furthered the interaction of peoples.
• At the end of the 16th c, the groups were recognized as and
conscious of the name Kambata related to one of the seven
dominant clans (Kambata Lamala) in the region.
• The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and
speaking the same language called Kambatissa, which belongs to
the Highland East Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba,
Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.
• The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the
Hambericho Council. The council had seven members each
representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at the top,
the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.
Hadiya
• The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the 13th c. It was
mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred
to the area west of the Islamic states in the federation of Zeila. The
people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state
while the southern part was largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking
pastoral communities. There was a considerable Muslim population.
• By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion,
subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported
by a Muslim “prophet” Bel’am aligned with the then leader of Ifat,
Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.
• From the 13th to the 16th centuries, Hadiya’s political importance
was considerable with sizable population and vast territory.
• In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against Emperor
Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his
uncle Bamo.
• To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage.
Accordingly, Princess Elleni, from Hadiya, who became an
important historical figure, married Emperor ZaraYaqob. Another
Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor
Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-98), but was suppressed in 1568/9.
• The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was
interrupted following the wars between the latter and Adal and the
Oromo population movement until Hadiya's incorporation into the
Imperial state in the late 19th c . After these two major historical
events especially the latter, Hadiya’s population became more
diverse.
• Descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from four different
linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba,
and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko, Lemu,
Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho. As with the Kambata and
Sidama, the Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic
family and their languages are intelligible to members of these
ethnic groups.
 5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South
Sidama
• Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of
Ethiopia occupying lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l in the Great East
Africa Rift Valley that cut through Lakes Hawasa and Abaya up to
3000 m a.s.l in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa and
Arroressa districts.
• Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the basis of
Sidama’s economy. Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and
cash crops respectively.
• The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote
(king). The Mote exercised political and administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo.
• Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council
and submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there
was no written constitution, rules were known by heart through
generations and practiced accordingly.
• The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma.
• He was selected for his ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection,
oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma could not participate in
war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma
handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits.
• He also performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage. Sidama
society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa.
• The system had five grades each lasting for eight years. These are Darara,
Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
• Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs
like gerarsha under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called
Ja’lawa.
• The gaden settled disputes within his Luwa, besides handling the defense of
Sidama society together with the Mote.
• Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the
social constitution of the Sidama people governing social life based on the
Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate truth) to judge the right and
wrong. Although it was not written and defined with strict enforcement
mechanisms, people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or
ostracization by the society.
Gedeo
• Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The
dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the
older brother of Gujo (father of Guji Oromo).
• Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven sons of
Daraso. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte
(senior house) where the first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-
clans and the second called sase batte (junior house) where the last three
belonged having 10 sub-clans.
• Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual,
traditional medicine or leadership. The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a
traditional governance system that worked with age classes and ranking. The
baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70- year cycle.
Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta
sharing one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a
new holder with the next age set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that
all positions ranging from the top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed.
Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom they shared a very close language,
their economy was based on the cultivation of enset.
Konso
• The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in
Ethiopia and the Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their
land.
• The literal meaning of the term is a “heavily forested hill/ area.” A century
ago the highlands of Konso, which was covered by dense forest, had been the
traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying environment along
Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds.
• Konso attracted the attention of local and international researchers interested
in human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human settlement sites in the
world.
• Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso.
Farmers practiced a fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized
agricultural technology. The location of mainland Konso within mosquito
infested hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the Great East African Rift Valley
led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture. Farmers combined crop production
with cattle breeding.
• At the same time, they adopted soil conservation techniques notably the
construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged and hilly
areas into permanent cultivation.
Farmers were also adept at selecting plant genes that withstood harsh
climatic conditions. Such complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to
produce sufficient food on small plot of land for their sustenance. Besides
agriculture, Konso’s economy depended on bee keeping and craftworks.
All of these activities attest the ingenuity of local adaptation strategies.
Until the late 19th c, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas)
which were further divided into wards called Kanta. There was no central
authority who acted as sovereign power over the three regions. Each
village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota who were selected
through direct participation of male members of the village. Membership to
the council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen years. At the core
of the socio-political organization of the Konso appear to be the clan or
lineage group and generation set, Tselta. The Konso were divided into nine
exogamous clans namely Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita,
Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta. The Tselta had fixed
cycle of years starting from birth, although they varied across villages
eighteen in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The major function of
the generation set was informing the responsibilities expected of each age
group.
 5.5.4. Peoples and States in Southwestern Part
Wolayta
• The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in
southwestern Ethiopia and their powerful kingdom, which first
emerged as a state back in the 13th c . According to local
traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the
area was inhabited by different communities such as the Badia,
Badiagadala and Aruja. The state flourished in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries because of successful wars that the Wolayta
fought against their neighbors and the material, human and
territorial gains thereof. At the apex of the social and political
hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of advisors.
From the 13th to the late 19th centuries, two successive dynasties
ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the
13thc by Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until
the end of the 15th c.
• It was then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called because it
was supposedly founded by Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.
The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate
climate, with green vegetation cover for the most part of the
year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it to
his dependents. In practice, land relationships were ordered
according to three basic principles of social organization i.e.
kinship, polity and social status. Accordingly, rights over land
were vested in the lineage group, the crown (royal estate) and
the nobility. There were also communal lands allocated for
grazing and social gatherings to which all members of the
society except artisans had equal access. The king rewarded
people with land on grounds of gallant deeds in battle and other
important contributions to the state. By grants of land or by threats
of dispossession the reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the state.
Except those who worked on the royal estate, landholders paid
tribute to the king. The dominant food crop was enset (Enset
Ventricosum).
Kafa
•
According to traditions, Kafa emerged in 14th c. Around mid 17th c ,it come to
prominence. The ruling Minjo dynasty and the medieval kingdom of Ennarya
had close contact. The Oromo expansion might have forced the ruling house of
Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought Christianity and
the royal title tato to Kafa. As with a number of Cushitic and some Semitic
peoples of the south, Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset on
peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working on their land, peasants
rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with the support of slaves who
were acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for debt. As far as trade
is concerned, a prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the Gibe
region. Major trade items, such as, musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-
wax, and civet were exported via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc. From
the 17th to the 18th centuries, the kingdom expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo,
Maji, Nao, She and Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom
was the Tato with his major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power
was Andarcha, seven miles to southeast. The Tato was assisted by a council of
seven advisors called Mikrecho.
• The Mikrecho served to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in
succession as well. The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as
defensive barrier. The Gojeb also served as natural protection against external invasion and
it might have contributed to their relative independence until 1897.
Yem
• The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast of the
Kafa kingdom. Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts. Initially, an
indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in
Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain. Besides being at
the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of Yem acted as a chief priest with
attributes of divinity. A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its chairperson
Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state. Erasho were the provincial governors
and they were responsible for digging ditches called bero and erecting nearly fifty-meter
wooden or iron pillars at the center of the kingdom around Brisi Bita so that the war
father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the surroundings. Especial messengers, Wosi carried
orders from Amno down to district chiefs, Gagna and vice versa. In the 14th c, the last
King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was overthrown by people from the north who founded a new
dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari. In the 19th c, the neighboring state
of Jimma Abba Jifar tried to control the Yem which itself was absorbed into the imperial
state of Ethiopia under Emperor Menilek II towards the end of the century.
Gamo
• Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and
Abaya to the Gughe Mountain and beyond. Gamo’s physical
landscape can be divided into two: the geze (highland) and the
bazo (lowland).
• A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined
land-use in the Gamo highlands. The laws had their origin in a
belief that everything was connected and bound in a delicate
balance.
• Together they formed a natural resource management system
that governed everything from interpersonal relationships to the
conservation and preservation of pasture, forest, soil, and water.
The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of
Gamo highlands while maize and sweet potato were staple food
crops in the lowlands. Other crops grown in the highlands included
barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage.
• Besides farming, most farmers kept cattle for food,
farming and manure, which they needed for successful
agriculture. Craft making, pot making, tanning and
metalworking were other modes of the subsistence
system. These people had developed their own
indigenous knowledge and technologies in manufacturing
different types of tools and weapons, traditional musical
and funeral instruments, weaving colorful textiles etc.
The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates
back to the 15th c in the praise songs of king Yishak
(r.1413-30). The song mentioned the Gamo as one of the
tributary states to the Ethiopian monarch. The Gamo
maintained relative autonomy from control by the
Christian Kingdom after war with the Muslim sultanates
weakened the latter.
• Between the 16th to the 19th centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered
settlements and organized in different communities called dere. The
dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but shared three
essential features. These were:1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler)
who also offered sacrifices and symbolized the unity of the people. 2)
every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and; (3) every dere had its
own assembly place called dubusha, where communal matters were
discussed and disputes solved. Access to politico-ritual status among
the Gamo people was made possible through initiation or election and
baira, a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in
opposition to each other as well as complementarily. Through initiation
or election the dulata (assembly) elected married men to positions that
were known by different names from one dere to another.
• In some dere it was called halaqa, in others it was known by the name
huduga or maga. Election to this office was open to all married men
and accorded representatives with provisional political authority.
• The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions on different
social, political and many other important matters. The assembly had
also the power to impose sanctions as penalty on individuals or groups
who committed serious crimes or violated the community’s social
regulations and cultural values. The second system, the baira, was
ascribed and largely based on genealogical seniority according to
primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans
each having a system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira
(senior) of the clan had a privilege over lineage members. The baira
made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at all levels of the
community. The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept
of kawo refers to the first rank status, with variable attributes and he
was legitimatized by birth and primogeniture. The kawo represented the
unity of dere and played an important role in relations with the outside
world.
Dawuro
• Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and
lowland and plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins. The land is divided into
three climatic zones. These are geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and
gad’a (lowland). Such climatic conditions enriched Dawuro with a variety of
tree species and natural vegetation/forest. The livelihood of Dawuro people is
based on mixed agricultural activities. The language of Dawuro people is
Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family. Historically, Dawuro land
had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla, and Amara
which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos. The area was also home
for people that came from neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta, Kucha,
Gamo, Gofa, and Kafa and from places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and
Shewa since early times. A political alliance through royal marriages was one
important factor that facilitated the movement of people from neighboring
territories into Dawuro. By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big
state from a great number of petty chieftainships on the territory between the
Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south and the Kafa high mountains
in the west. Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati Irashu
and Kati Halala were famous. Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of
Kafa. During his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta. He is known for his stone
fortifications which he oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.
Ari
• The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of
people since early times. These included the Ari, Dasenech,
Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi,
Male, etc. Major economic activities in the region were
sedentary agriculture, pastoralism and handcrafts. The
language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch
of the Omotic language family. The people were sedentary
agriculturalist. The society was organized into ten independent
clan based chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief known as Babi
headed each of these chiefdoms. The clan chief was entitled
with both political and ritual authorities over the people of his
respective domain. The clan chief was assisted by officially
appointed prominent figures in the administration of the
political unit. The assistants included Godimis (religious
leaders), Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of
Babi).
 5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West
Berta and Gumuz
• The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State. The
earliest record of Berta settlement in this region dates from the 16 th c.
The Berta people speak the Berta language as their mother tongue. It is
a tonal language classified as a branch of the Nilo-Saharan linguistic
group. In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the
Gumuz. They are already mentioned by the Scottish explorer James
Bruce. He notes that they hunted with bows and arrows, a custom that
survives today. The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language, which belongs to
the Nilo-Saharan family. It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic
influence had been strong on the Berta and other Nilotes because of their
trade and social contacts with the northern Sudan.
Anywa
Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat,
Gila, Akobo, Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western
borderlands of the present-day Gambella region. The people speak Dha-
anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan language family. The Anywa
had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived under
a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the
distribution of farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the
community. Although local traditions mention a certain person by the
name Oshoda as the founding father of the Anywa, the administration of
the territory was not centralized. Economically, they are engaged in small
scale cultivation, fishing and hunting. While most Anywa practiced
Christianity, they also believed in traditional religion.
Nuer
Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and
marshes of the Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan.
Since the 19th c, they had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella
along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts of the Sudan. The mainstay of
Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding supplemented by crop production. The
Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture around their cattle,
which were used as bride wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system
combining social and political functions.
Majang
The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that
covered the escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains.
Linguistic evidence relates the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in
South Sudan. Gradually, they moved northwards and settled in forested
areas of western Ethiopia. By mid 20th c, their settlement extended to areas
near Dembi-Dollo in the north. Economically, the Majang practiced shifting
cultivation and animal husbandry. Other economic activities of the Majang
include beekeeping, hunting and fishing.
The Kunama
• The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient
inhabitants of western Eritrea on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in
today’s northwestern and western Tigray. The Arab traveller al-Ya‛qubi in
872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a self-designation of
the Kunama. The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-
anene mandated with the administration of the society. Other
responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting asylum to new
comers in the sanctuary of their compounds and performed rituals as part
of reconciliation process in case of homicides. The office of the sanga-
anene was held by male members of the society. The office was
transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the next born on
matrilineal line. The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed
agriculture. Agriculture is based on the use of hoe, spades, sickles and
the ox (camel)-drawn plough. Signs of past practices of terraced
agriculture are still visible in some areas of the Kunama. The staple crop
among the Kunama is sorghum (kina), which also has a ceremonial
value. Other crops grown are millet (bortaor beca), pulses and maize
(afokina). The Kunama also keep livestock mainly goats, sheep, oxen,
and camels.
 5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint
5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle
when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area.
Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar like at
Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo. Gondar was founded in 1636 when
Fasiledas established his political seat there. Gondar achieved its glory
during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–
67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Among the major
reforms during these periods were the restoration of Orthodox Church
as state religion, and the establishment of a royal prison at Amba
Wahni to solve problems stemming from power rivalry. Emperor
Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at
Addis Alem. His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in Begemder, taxes, and
customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).
• The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own
son, Tekle Haymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues
and poisoning of reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before
the death of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos. Tewoflos was again
killed by Yostos, who was also poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was
poisoned and replaced by Bakafa. Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of
his followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The
Gondarine Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in politics
and the army. From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-
Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767 dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda
Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69).
Following his death in 1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her
daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the
royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was
politically astute and military powerful. Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the
situation and refused to return to Tigray although demanded by Iyoas. This was
followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by
Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son TaklaHaymanot II
(1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-
1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
• Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education,
art, and crafts for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful
not only in political affairs but also in cultural developments. Gondar had great
influence on the country’s cultural developments. The cultural achievements of the
period led some writers to describe Gondarine period in history as Ethiopian
Renaissance.
• Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred
fifty years, Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges,
residences, bath, library, towers, fortifications and there are squared, round and
unknown shape of churches. In the cities compound the most impressive building
known as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces corresponding to Emperor
Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and regent Queen
Mentewab. The Gondarine architecture would have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, at
Guzara near Enfranz. Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne-Dengel (r.1508-
1540) that is the pointed oval dome over the center of the church of Bahir Gimb
Mikael considered as built by him. The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle
usually have two stride and almost square; circular domed corner towers. Not only
castle, bridge building did not originate with the reign of Fasiledas. Rather,
Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is said to have built a very fine bridge near his palace at
Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
Picture 4: Fasilidas's Castle in Gondar

Source: https://www.britannica.com/place/Gondar#/media/1/238349/11150
• Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on manuscripts and on wood,
ornaments, weapons and other accessories especially, the churches built by
Queen Mentwab were known by beautiful paintings, cross and an art works.
• Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of
manuscripts. Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian
Saints and the Litanies, and many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were
also produced. Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine, music and
poetry.
• Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long
distance trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the
Ethio-Sudan border. Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. The
appearance of daily market was known. With spread of urbanization, the city
became residences of foreign communities like Indians, Greeks and Armenians.
The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population. In addition to its political
and commercial importance, it served as religious center of Christians, Muslims
and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox Church
(residence of the abun and Ichege) until the mid of nineteenth Century. Many of
Orthodox churches served as education centers (known by excellence in
teaching aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting was centered at Gondar.
 5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
• Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual position of political
power was in the hands of different regional lords. The period lasts from the
time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when
Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II. Ras Mika’el who was a king
maker in the period took strong measures against the nobility. These
measures made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of
Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo that defeated him at the battle of
Sarba-Kussa in 1771. Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative
stability but several regional lords evolved. The main political regions that
Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir,
Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. When compared to each other the
“Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the
center at Debretabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as
the founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786. Yejju rule reached its zenith under
Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras
Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
• In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre
of Simen. Maru of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827.
The period of Zemene mesafint was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara
through a series of battles that lasted from 1840s to 1855.
• Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
– absence of effective central government;
– the growing power and influence of the regional warlords;
– the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
– rivalry and competition among regional lords to assume the
position of king maker;
– establishment of fragile coalition to advance political interests;
– Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional
role of unifying the state due to doctrinal disputes;
– Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door
Policy.”
In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of
 UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND

EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND
THE HORN, 1800-1941