Chapter Two: Ancients and Medieval accounts of state in Ethiopia

1.1. Axumite Empire and its Decline

To start with, the legacy of the Axumite Empire continues to influence Ethiopian politics to this
day. Ethiopia has a long and proud history of independence and resistance against external
domination, which can be traced back to the Axumite era. The Axumite Empire provided a
strong foundation for the development of Ethiopian civilization, which has been celebrated by
successive generations of Ethiopians. The Empires adoption of Christianity led to the
development of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which has played a central role in Ethiopian
history and culture ever since. Dil Naod was the last king of Axumite Empire.

In recent years, there has been renewed interest in the history and legacy of the Axumite Empire,
both within Ethiopia and internationally. This has led to renewed efforts to preserve and promote
Ethiopia’s rich cultural heritage, including archeological sites and manuscripts relatec to the
Axumite Era. Overall, the Axumite Empire continues to play an important role in Ethiopian
politics, serving as symbol of proud and ancient civilization that has endured against the odds.

The Axumite Empire was a powerful ancient kingdom located in present day northern Ethiopia
and Eritrea that existed from the 1st c AD to the 10th century. The Empire thrived on trade and
agriculture, with its main source of power being its control of the Red Sea trade routes.

The Axumite Empire reached its peak during the reign of king Ezana in the 4 th c AD, who
converted to Christianity and made it the state religion of the Empire, making Axum one of the
first Christian states in the world. Axum’s conversion to Christianity led to significant changes in
its trade relationships with other regions.

The decline of the Axumite Empire marked the beginning of a period of political
fragmentation and decentralization in Ethiopia. This trend continued through the Middle Ages, as
different regional kingdoms and empires emerged and vied for power. Despite this
fragmentation, Ethiopian cultural and religious identity remained strong, providing and unifying
that helped to maintain a sense of cohesion and continuity throughout Ethiopia’s long political
history. This has been especially evident in the modern era, as Ethiopia has struggled with issues
of national unity and identity.

During its decline in the 7th c, the emergence of Islam disrupted the trade routes, which eroded
the empires economy, and as result, it lost power over its trade routes. The Axumiter Empire was
further weakened by internal conflicts and shifts in political power, resulting in decentralization
of power and factionalism. Furthermore, the decline of the Axumite Empire accelerated in the
10th c when the Zagwe Dynasty took power. This event marked the end of the Axumite era and
the beginning of the development Christian kingdoms in the region. Despite its decline, the
Axumite Empire left an indelible mark on Ethiopian political history and culture, particularly in
the development of Christianity, architecture, and writing systems.

There were chains of events that consumed the power of Axum and facilitated the transition to
Zagwe Dynasty. The following are decisive historical events that gradually created immense
effect on the demolishing the mighty empire of Axum.

1. First and for most is its own disunity among the leaders; even which decline its economy

2. Hostility with Arab Muslims is the second major factor. During the time in the Middle East
the Islamist expansionists and Ethiopian economic and political interests collides. Therefore, this
collision brought the destruction of Adulis which was the main port of Axum. Following this, the
Arabs entirely closed each and every way Ethiopia contacts with the rest of the world which
were serving as the channels of trade, diplomacy, and religion.

3. Because of the above problems and loss of its colonial possessions, the internal integrity of the
Axumite Empire was dwindled. Continued rebellion of its own people and massive and
successive wave of raid of Bejja people lead Axumites to lose its economic and, military, and
political strength.

4. The destructive war of conquest of Queen Gudit. For about forty years Gudit destroyed the
Town of Axum and its surroundings. Gudit was the first Ethiopian woman in Ethiopian political
history that showed the supremacy of women over men in politics and decision making.

5. Finally, political conspiracy and power straggle that observed between king Dil Na’od and
his son in law Merra Tekle Hymanot and finally Dil Na’od was killed by his son in law Merra
Tekle Hayimanot. This was the first revolution in Ethiopian political history that brought radical
shift of dynastic paradigm that allowed the Agaw-Cushitic people to control state power of
Ethiopia that stayed in power until 1270 A.D.

 Facts about Axumite Empire

I. Territory: - North East Ethiopian which occupying Zeyla in the South, South Egypt and
N.E. Sudan (Meroe) and across Red Sea West Yemen and Southern Soudi Arabia.
II. Government:- Monarchy
III. Title of head of state:- King of Kings (Neguse Negest)
IV. Official language:- Ge’ez
V. Population:- 500,000 and above
VI. Established:- 100 B.C ( according to historical evidences)
VII. Dissolution: - 10th C. A.D.
VIII. First Historically known Emperor:- Zoskales
IX. Last Emperor:- Dil Na’od
X. Preceding state:- Dama’at
XI. Proceeding state:- Zagwe Dynasty
 XII. Currency:- Axumite Currency
XIII. Ethnicity:- mix of dominant Ge’ez speaking population, which was proto- Tigrigna and
proto Amharic, Cushitic speaking, Nilo-Saharan speaking people( Kunama & Nara)-
collectively known as Habasha- Ethiopia.
XIV. Legacy: - Obelisks, Gee’ez Alphabets, St. Yared Chants Songs, Christianity and Islam
introduced in 340’s and 615 A.D. consecutively.
1.2. The Rise of the Zagwe Dynasty

The Zagwe Dynasty, also known as the Dynasty of Good Hope, ruled Ethiopia from the late 10th
to the mid-13th c and founded by Mera Tekle Haimanot until the solomonic Shewa governor
snached its power in 1270. Although they were a relatively short-lived dynasty, their impact on
Ethiopian politics and culture was significant. Zagwe’s were successful to govern north-east of
Ethiopia with peace and piousness/devotion-. Obviously, Zagwe’s political importance lost after
1270 A.D, however, its capital city Lalibela Formerly Roha remained as a religious center and
pilgrimage site for all orthodox Christians in Ethiopia.

The name Zagwe means “of agaw”, “ze” in Ge’ez means “of”. Agaw is the name of the Cushitic
people in North-east of Ethiopia. The dynasty was established from the Christian nobilities of the
Agaw people, after Merra Tekle Haimanot- the founder set the scene of the regime.

Zagwe’s introduced new political trend in Ethiopian political history, which was unprecedented
before them and never happened again after them. The order of succession was that of brother
succeeding brother as a king, based on the Agaw law of inheritance.

The last king of Zagwe dynasty is not exactly known. However, most historians beliefs that the
last king of Zagwe, who lost his power for solomonids, was king Yitbarak. But the famous
king of Zagwe dynasty was king Lalibela who is believed to be the founder of the eleven
monolithic rock-hewn churches at Roha.

The Zagwe Dynasty emerged in the aftermath of the collapse of the Axumite Empire, which had
ruled Ethiopia for centuries. The new rulers established their capital at city of Lalibela, where
they constructed a series of remarkable rock-hewn churches that are still considered among the
architectural wonders of the world.

Under the Zagwe Dynasty, Ethiopia experienced a period of relative peace and stability, as the
rulers managed to consolidate their power and establish a strong central government they also
expanded Ethiopia’s borders, annexing several neighboring kingdoms and territories. The Zagwe
Dynasty was also known for its patronage of the arts, particularly architecture and music. The
rock-hewn churches of Lalibela are the most famous example of their architectural legacy, but
they also commissioned many other buildings and structures throughout their kingdom.

However, the Zaguwe Dynasty’s legacy is not without controversy. Some scholars argue that
their rise to power was marked by violence and instability, and that they imposed their religious
beliefs on the people of Ethiopia, leading to divisions and conflicts that persisted long after their
reign ended. Overall, the Zaguwe Dynasty played a significant role in Ethiopian politics and
culture, and their achievements continue to be celebrated today.

 Facts about Zagwe Dynasty

I. It was peaceful period.

II. Its leaders were devoted religious.
III. No significant economic progress, foreign relation, and military expansion were observed
IV. Population:- unknown
V. Ethnicity:- multi-ethnic
VI. Official language:- Ge’ez, Agawegna- people’s language
VII. Legacy: - monolithic rock-hewn churches and Ethiopia got places of worship in
Jerusalem and Bethlehem.

2.3. The Restoration of Solomon Dynasty and its South ward Expansion

The name solomonic dynasty had become very popular in medieval times, as soon as the shewan
nobilities had developed extreme sensitivity and eagerness for political power. The history that
describes about solomonic dynasty had already existed in Axumite times. However, the story
becomes much more crucial in medieval times than the Axumite times. The shewan nobilities
employed the story employed the story as a vehicle and legal justification for accomplishing their
political desires.

In the beginning of the second half of 14th C. the Shewan nobility began accusing Zagwe kings as
usurpers and claimed that power should transfer to the legal heirs. They start threatening
Zagwe’s by force, but the later showed no interest of major engagement. The shewan nobilities
later on used maneuvers-they resorted to settle the matter peacefully using influential religious
leaders as mediators-most importantly Abune Takle Hymanot of Debre Lebanos.

To begin with, the solomonic dynasty is one of Ethiopia’s oldest continuous monarchies, and it
ruled from 1270 until 197, except for a brief period of foreign occupation from 1936-1941. The
dynasty was founded by Emperor Yukno Amlak, who claimed to be a descendant of King
Solomon and the queen of Sheba sometimes called Mekida.

In the let 19th C, Ethiopia faced external pressures from European colonial powers, and internal
conflict weakened the solomonic dynasty. However, Emperor Menelik II, who came to power in
1889, reestablished the dynasty’s authority and expanded the Ethiopian empire by defeating
Italian colonial forces at the battle of Adwa in 1896.

During Menelik’s reign, the Ethiopian empire also expanded southward, annexing territories
such as kaffa, Wolayita, Sidama…etc. Menelik’s successors Emperor Haile Selassie and
Emperor Amha Selassie continued the southward expansion, creating the southern provinces of
Ethiopia and integrating them into the Empire.

The solomonic dynasty southward expansion was not without challenges, as it faced resistance
from local communities and occasional rebellions. Additionally, Ethiopia’s policies of
assimilation and cultural/identity suppression of both majority and minority groups in the south
have been criticized and continued to be a source of tension and conflict even today. Overall, the
restoration of solomonic dynasty and its southward expansion played a significant role in
shaping modern day Ethiopia’s political and cultural landscape.

2.4. Perpetual Power Struggle among Muslim and other Dynasties

The political landscape of Ethiopia has been marked by several Muslim dynasties throughout
history and their reigns have been characterized by periods of power struggles, as well as periods
of relative stability. Here are some examples of these power struggles:

1. Zagwe Dynasty: the Zagwe dynasty ruled Ethiopia from 10th to 13th C, and they were
known for their patronage of the Ethiopian Orthodox church. However, their rule was
challenged by the solomonic dynasty, who claimed to descendants of the Queen of Sheba
and King Solomon.
2. Adal Sultanate: the Adal Sultanate was a Muslim state that existed from the 14 th to the
16th C in the Horn of Africa. They attempted to invade Ethiopia several times; but their
power was eventually challenged by the Ethiopian empire, led by Emperor Lebna
Dengel.
3. Imamate of Harar: the Imamate of Harar was Muslim state/dynasty existed from the
16th C to 19th C in what is now the Harari region of Ethiopia. The Imamate was
characterized by power struggle among different clans and factions.
4. Sultanate of Aussa: the Sulatanete of Aussa was a Muslim state the existed from the 18 th
to the 19th C in what is now the Afar region of Ethiopia. The Sultanate was known for its
trade and diplomatic relations with neighboring states, but it also experienced internal
power struggles.
5. Sulatanate of Welayta: the Sulatanate of Walayta was a Muslim dynasty/state that
existed from the 17th to the 19th C in what is now the southern Nations, Nationalities, and
People’s Region of Ethiopia. The Sulatanate had a close relationship with the Ethiopian
empire, but it also experienced power struggles among different class and factions.

In conclusion, the perpetual power struggle among Muslim and other dynasties in Ethiopia have
been influenced by different factors, including religious identity, ethnic identity, and economic
as well as political power interests. These struggles shaped Ethiopia’s political history and have
continued to affect the country’s present-day political landscape.
2.5. The Annihilation of the Northern Dynasties and the Rule of Ahmed Gran

The annihilation of the northern dynasties in Ethiopia and the rule of Ahmed Gran, also known
as Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, occurred from 1529 to 1543. During this period, the Ethiopian
Empire experienced a significant political and religious upheaval as the Muslim leader, Ahmed
Gran, attempted to conquer the country.

In 1529, Ahmed Gran led a large Muslim army from Adal Sultanate into Ethiopia. The Ethiopian
Empire, led by Emperor Lebna Dengel, initially resisted the invasion but suffered a crushing
defeat at the battle of Amba Sel in 1531. This victory led to the fall of the Ethiopian capital,
Axum, and marked the beginning of Ahmed Gran’s rule.

Ahmed Gran established his capital in Harar and began implementing Islamic sharia law in the
areas he controlled. He also initiated a campaign of destruction against Ethiopian Orthodox
Churches and Christian artifacts, which led to the annihilation of northern dynasties and sparked
a centuries-long religious conflict between Muslims and Christians in Ethiopia.

Despite his initial success, Ahmed Gran faced several challenges in maintaining his rule,
including internal divisions within his army and opposition from the neighboring states. In 1543,
the Ethiopian Empire, with the help of its Portuguese allies, defeated Ahmed Gran in the Battle
of Wayna Daga, resulting in his death and the end of his brief reign.

The rule of Ahemad Gran and the annihilation of the northern dynasties had a profound impact
on Ethiopia’s political history and religious identity. It paved the way for future Muslim
Dynasties in Ethiopia, such as the Imamate of Harar, and contributed to the contry’s complex
religious and ethnic landscape.

2.6. Population Crisscrossing and Nobilities

Ethiopia’s historical, geographic, demographic and cultural foundation evolved through centuries
collusion and collision of various peoples moving back and forth in search of a better livelihood.
The population of Ethiopia is a diverse mixes of ethnic and linguistic groups, with largest being
the Oromo, secondly the Amhara peoples. Historically, Ethiopian populations have been
characterized by crisscrossing migration and assimilation of groups from neighboring regions
and beyond. This has resulted in a complex and diverse society with a rich cultural heritage.

In pre-colonial Ethiopia, nobility played a significant role in the country’s social and political
structure. The nobility was characterized by feudal lords who held land titles and maintained
large armies of solders. They were powerful figures in Ethiopian society and often played key
roles in the country’s governance.

Nobles were accorded privileges, such as the right to own and control land, levy taxes, and
access the emperor’s court. They also had obligations, such as providing solders for the
emperor’s army and maintaining law and order in their territories. The nobility in Ethiopia was
based on an inherited aristocracy and loyalty, which refers to the personal relationship between
the Emperor and the noble. The emperor would grant titles to individuals based on their loyalty,
service, or military prowess. The titles were hereditary, loyalty, and nobles had to earn and
maintain the emperor’s favor to keep their status.

Under Emperor Haile Selassie, the nobility was abolished, and land was nationalized. This was
part of the emperor’s modernization program, which aimed to establish a centralized and weaken
the power of regional lords. Today, Ethiopia is a federal state with a parliamentary system of
government. The country’s diverse population remains an important factor in its politics and
social structure.

2.7. Gonderian Period and the Era of the prince

The Gonderian period in Ethiopia refers to the time between the 17 th and mid-19th centuries when
the city of Gondar served as a capital of Ethiopia. This period was marked by a flourishing of the
arts and architecture, as well as political stability. During this time, Ethiopia was ruled by a
series of Emperors who were supported by powerful nobility. The city of Gondar became a
center for royal court culture, with musicians, poets and artists flocking to the city. The emperors
constructed impressive palaces and churches, many of which still stand today and are UNESCO
world heritage sites.

The Era of princes in Ethiopia refers to the period in the late 19 th and early 20th centuries when a
series of formidable rose to prominence in Ethiopian politics. This women included Empress
Taytu Betul, the wife of Emperor Menilik second and Zewditu the daughter of Menelik II who
became Ethiopia’s first women monarch. Under Empress Taytu’s influence, Ethiopia was able to
resist European colonization attempts and maintain its independence. She was skilled diplomat
and was instrumental in negotiating treaties with foreign powers. Zewditu who, became empress
at the age of 30, continued the tradition strong female leadership and ruled Ethiopia from 1916 to
1930.

Therefore, the era of princess was significant in Ethiopian history as it challenged the traditional
patriarchal view of women and their place in society. These women played crucial roles in
shaping Ethiopian politics and diplomacy and helped maintain the country’s independence in the
face of colonialism.

Chapter Three: The Formation of Modern State and Nation Building Process

The political process that was set in motion by the mid-19 th c as an antithesis to the era of Yejju/
princes or conventionally called Zemene Mesafint was able to produce, in half century, a full-
fledged empire state of un-equals. This was a product a conjuncture of three historical
processes- the drive to centralize historic Ethiopia, which was generally kwon as Abyssinia, the
derive to expand to the rich lands in the center-south and the European derive to curve up the
continent of Africa as a whole.
The conjuncture of three derives created the fundamentally different Ethiopia with two
contradictory phenomenon. On the one hand, multi ethnic Ethiopia was created; on the other
hand, it led to a century of ethnic and religious domination of one group over the others or in
short it creates nation state of un-equals. Typically, before 1991, different phenomenon took
place in the political History of Ethiopian state. Consequently, three emperors Tewodros,
Yohannis, and Menilik laid the foundation for the modern empire state of Ethiopia.

3.1. The Rise of Tewdros as Modern State Builder (1855-1868)

To point out, Kasa an Amahara shifta leader crowned Emperor Tewodros in 1855 and brought
the era of princes to an end and bring one rule to divided territory of the north. He also attempted
to bring the church under his control and reduce the power of regional leaders by establishing
regional administration responsible to him.

Moreover, Tewodros also divided the greatly enlarged kingdom in to four major provinces and
thirty nine districts through reducing the power of regional leaders by establishing local
administrations responsible to him. What is more, Tewodros made public that “his attention once
and for all to break every threat to his mission, suppress Islam, abolish slavery, end the
autonomy of provincial rulers of the era of princes, establish strong central government with
standing army, and above all, reunite Ethiopia as a Christian empire”

When the creation of the modern multi-ethnic empire state was started by Tewodros around
1850s, ‘historic Ethiopia’ (roughly a major parts of today’s northern half of the country and part
of Eritrea) had been under feudal anarchy for over eighty years and central authority existed in
name only. In the struggle for supremacy among the Tigray, Amhara, and Oromo elites various
competing warrior classes emerged.

Tewodros, who was able to close the chapter of the era of the princes/ era of the Yejju, has both
sense of history and sense of modernization. His sense of history had to do with the past of the
Christian kingdom have been weakened by the intrusion of the Oromo whom he vowed to stop
by restoring the country to its former glory. His modernization derive, had provoked both
internal resistance and external conflict.

The dominant mobilizing factors of Tewodros as an empire builder were religion and region.
Tewodros was the first Ethiopian ruler who explicitly conscious of the ethnic in his project of
empire building and consciously challenged the supremacy of the Oromo princes over the
Abyssinian kingdom. Thereafter, ethnicity was to become one of the key factors in the modus
operandi of the Ethiopian state.

Another key thing to add is, even if it lacks consistency and method, Tewodros’s reforms
embrace social, cultural, administrative, and military reforms which enables him to secure his
financial problems and absolute power over the regional lords of zemene mesafint. Most
importantly, he also strongly argued that church would refrain from interfering in politics and the
state would also leave spiritual matters to the church. In addition, he confiscated the property of
most churches and distribute to the farmers which marked the transition from old fragmented
system of government or zemena mesafint to the modern one

However, to the contrary, “church and most of the provincial nobles did not recognize his
ambition for reforms and finally his reform were reverted; Thus, Tewoderos plans for the
reunification and modernization of Ethiopia on unequal bases were not realized in his time and
finally dead in 1868”.

Although his rise to power was spectacular, Tewodros rule was short lived (1855-1868) and none
of his missions were accomplished. Internally, his attempt to unify the state pitted him against
the regional, those who were enjoying autonomous fiefdoms during the period of weaker kings
before him. Externally, his mission of acquiring firearms to build a stronger army pitted against
the British.

In conclusion, one may consider it as the transition between the traditional Ahamara kingdom,
and the modern Ethiopian state of today. Thereafter, the struggle for power of the time was won
by Dejazmach Kasa Mercha from Tigray who took the name Emperor Yohannis IV in 1871.

3.2. Emperor Yohannis IV and the Process of State Building (1871-1889)

Emperor Yohannes pursued the goal of unity initiated by Tewodros; however his approach were
decidedly different. “Unity was not to be achieved by overthrowing regional opponents,
eliminating Islam, or taming the Church, but instead by accepting a measure of cultural diversity
and the existence of other centers of power, something which has been called ‘controlled
regionalism’” with sami-autonomy; but still, did not end the cultural dominance of the Amhara
and Amharigna remained the language of his court.