Lecture 8 Special Senses Part 3-Vision

SPECIAL SENSES
(VISION)
DR.MOSES KAZEVU
(BSC,MBCHB)
Secrets of Physio
OBJECTIVES
1. FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE EYE
2. EYE OPTICS AND IMAGE FORMATION
3. PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
4. VISUAL PATHWAY
5. REFLEXES: ACCOMODATION AND PUPILARY REFLEXES
6. APPLIED ASPECTS AND CLINICALLY RELEVANT
CONDITIONS
AREAS OF INTEREST
1. The retina, photoreceptors and visual pigments
2. Phototransduction
3. Processing and transmission of visual impulse in retina
4. Visual pathway (discussed in next review lecture)
• Vision is a complex phenomenon which is still poorly understood.
• The mechanism include:
1. Initiation of vision (Phototransduction): a function of rods and cones
2. Processing and transmission of visual sensation, a function of the image
processing cells of retina and visual pathway.
3. Visual perception a function of visual cortex and related areas of cerebral cortex.
RETINA
• Recall the gross structures of retina including the
optic disc, macula lutea (yellow spot)
• Recall the microscopic structure of the retina
including all 10 layers.
PHOTORECEPTORS
• The rods and cones are the functional cells of the retina. They transform light
energy into visual (nerve) impulse.
• There are about 120 million rods and 6.5 million cones.
• The highest density of cones is at the fovea (There are no rods present)
• Rods contain a photosensitive substance visual purple (rhodopsin) and are used
for peripheral vision and vision in low illumination (scotopic vision)
• Cones also contain a photosensitive substance and they are used for highly
discriminatory central vision (photopic vision) and colour vision.
• NOTE: The photoreceptors get their nourishment from
choroidal papillary plexus, therefore, in retinal
detachment the receptor cells suffer most and leads to
blindness.
STRUCTURE OF PHOTORECEPTOR
• Each photoreceptor consists of:
a. Outer segment
b. Inner segment
c. Cell body and nucleus
d. Synaptic body
OUTER SEGMENT
• Contains light-sensitive photo-chemicals.
• Rods have rhodopsin (visual purple).
• Cones have iodopsin.
• The outer segments also contain large numbers of discs, each disc is actually an
in-folded shelf of cell membrane. There are as many as 1000 discs in each
photoreceptor.
• Both pigments in rods and cones are conjugated proteins, they are incorporated
into the membranes of the disc in the form of transmembrane proteins
INNER LAYER
• Contains the usual cytoplasm with cytoplasmic organelles especially mitochondria
which play an important role of providing energy for function of the
photoreceptors.
nucleus
Synaptic body
• This is the portion of the rod or cone that connects with
subsequent neuronal cells, the horizontal and bipolar cells
which represent the next stages in the vision chain.
• Synaptic vesicles present in the synaptic terminal contain the
neurotransmitter, glutamate
Visual pigments
• These include:
• Cone pigments
• Rod pigments
ROD PIGMENTS
• Rhodopsin is a conjugated protein with a molecular weight of
40 000.
• It is made up of a protein called opsin and a chromophore.
• Opsin present in rhodopsin is known as scotopsin.
• Chromophore is a chemical substance that develops color in
the cell. Chromophore present in rod cells is called retinal.
• Retinal is the aldehyde of vitamin A.
• Retinal is derived from carotenoid substances like Beta-carotene present in carrots.
• Rhodopsin is thus made up of scotopsin and retinal.
• In humans, Retinal is present in the form of 11-cis retinal known as retinine 1.
• The significane of 11-cis form of retinal is that, only in this form it combines with
scotopsin to synthesize rhodopsin.
PHOTOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN
RHODOPSIN
• In the dark rhodopsin is not bleached.
• When exposed to light rhodopsin undergoes the “bleach reaction”.
• Rhodopsin is decomposed into bathorhodopsin (unstable)
• Bathorhodopsin is converted into lumirhodopsin
• Lumirhodopsin decays into metarhodopsin I
• Metarhodopsin I is changed to metarhodopsin II
• Metarhopsin II is split into scotopsin and all-trans retinal.
• All trans retinal is converted into all-trans retinol (Vitmain A)
• Metarhodopsin is usually called activated rhodopsin since it is responsible for the

development of receptor potential in rod cells.
RESYNTHESIS OF RHODOPSIN
• All- trans retinal is converted into 11-cis retinal.
• 11-cis retinal immediately combines with scotopsin to form rhodopsin.
• All-trans retinol (vitamin A) also plays an important role in the re-synthesis of
rhodopsin.
• All-trans retinol is converted into 11-cis retinol by the activity of enzyme retinol
isomerase.
• It is converted into 11-cis retinal which combines with scotopsin to form rhodopsin.
• All-trans retinol is also reconverted into all-trans retinal.
• Rhodopsin can be synthezied directly from all trans retinol (vitamin A) in the
presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH2) however, the synthesis of
rhodopsin from 11-cis retinal (retinine) is faster than from 11-cis retinol (vitamin A).
PHOTOTRANSDUCTION
• This is conversion of light energy into receptor potential.
• RMP is around -70 and -90mV.
• In the visual receptors during darkness, negativity is reduced and resting
membrane potential is about -40mV.
• Normally in dark, sodium ions are pumped out of inner segments of rod
cell to ECF.
• However, these sodium ions leak back into the rod cells through the
electronegativity inside rod cell.
• Sodium influx maintains a decreased negative potential up to -40mV.
• This potential is constant and it is also called dark current.
• Influx of sodium ions into outer segment of rod cells
occurs mainly because of cyclic guanosine
monophosphate (cGMP) present in the cytoplasm of cell.
• The cGMP always keeps the sodium channels open.
• Closure of sodium channels occur due to reduction in
cGMP.
• Concentration of sodium ions inside the rod cell is
regulated by sodium potassium pump.
• When light falls on retina, rhodopsin is excited leading to development of receptor potential in
the rod cells.
• When a photon is absorbed by rhodopsin, rhodopsin is decomposed to metarhodopsin II through
a series of reactions.
• Metarhodopsin II activates a G protein called transducin that is present in rod disk.
• Activated transducin activates the enzyme called cGMP phosphodiesterase.
• cGMP phosphodiesterase hydrolyzes cGMP to 5’-GMP.
• When the concentration of cGMP is reduced in rod cell decreases there is closure of sodium
channels in the membrane of visual receptors.
• Sudden closure of sodium channels prevents entry of sodium ions leading to hyperpolarization.
The potential reaches -70 to -80mV. It is because of the sodium-potassium pump.
• Thus the process of receptor potential in visual receptors in unique in nature. (hyperpolarization
and not depolarization like the other sense)
• Hyperpolarization in visual receptors cells reduces the release of synaptic
transmitter glutamate.
• It leads to development of response in bipolar cells and ganglionic cells so that the
action potentials are transmitted cerebral cortex via optic pathway.
Dark adaptation
• This is the process by which the person is able to see the objects in dim light.
• The maximum duration for adaptation is about 20 minutes.
• Dark adaptation is due to
• Increased sensitivity of rods as a result of resynthesis of rhodopsin in the dark.
• Dilation of pupil to allow more light to enter the eye.
Cone pigments
• These pigments have not been extensively studied like rhodopsin.
• There are 3 kinds of cones in primates.
• Blue: 440nm wavelength
• Green: 535nm wavelength
• Red: 565nm wavelength
• There are 3 types of pigments namely:
• Porphyropsin
• Iodopsin
• Cyanopsin
Light adaptation
• This is the process in which the eyes get adapted to increased illumination.
• Notice when you enter a bright-lighted area from a dim-lighted area you feel
discomfort due to the dazzling effect of bright light.
• After sometime the eyes adapt and you feel ok.
• The maximum period for light adaptation is about 5 minutes.
• Light adaptation is due to:
• Reduced sensitivity of rods: Rhodopsin is bleached.
• Constriction of pupil (pupillary light reflex)
VISUAL ACUITY
• This is the ability of the eye to determine the precise shape and details
of the object.
• Cones are responsible for visual acuity.
• The fovea centralis has the highest visual acuity.
• The Snellen chart is used to test the acuity of vision for distant vision
in the diagnosis of refractive errors of the eye.
• The Jaeger chart is used to test the visual acuity for near vision.
THANK YOU
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SPECIAL SENSES

• Metarhodopsin is usually called activated rhodopsin since it is responsible for the

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