Cell Ultrastructure: Tissues of The Body Module

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Tissues of the Body Module

LECTURE 1.2

Cell ultrastructure
Dr. Khesar Hussein Khalil

05/02/2023
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Objective Learning

1. Be able to: define the term limit of resolution


2. Explain why electron microscopes are capable of finer
resolution.
3. Understand common components of eucaryotic animal
cells.
4. State how a cell functions by describing the structure
and function of the following cell components and
organelles.
5. Out lines of cytoskeleton Component.
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Limit of Resolution is the minimum distance at which two


objects can be distinguished.

The limit of resolution is proportional to the wavelength


(λ) used by the microscope system.

Unresolved

Resolved (seen as distinct (


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• Light microscope uses visible light (λ = 0.4 – 0.7μm) and has a theoretical limit
of resolution of 0.2 μm (bacteria and mitochondria are 0.5 μm wide).

• Electron microscope uses electrons (λ depends on accelerating voltage used,


i.e.at 100,000V, λ = 0.004nm) and therefore has a much smaller limit of
resolution.
• Scanning electron microscope (S.E.M.) - limit of resolution 10nm
• Transmission electron microscope (T.E.M.) – limit of resolution 2nm for
biological specimens.
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Explain why Electron Microscopes are capable of finer resolution


than Light Microscopes ?
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Draw a simplified diagram of a cell, clearly labelling


those ultrastructural components common to
eucaryotic animal cells.
Eukaryotic cell
Cell interior is divided into functional
compartments, including a nucleus that contains
the DNA – key here is the nucleus that separates
eukaryotes from the prokaryote life forms, Usually
have organelles and sexual reproduction
Prokaryotes, like E. coli (right)
have an external membrane
Prokaryotic cell But no internal membranes.
Small, simple cells without a nucleus All the biochemical processes of
the cell occur in the same
No organelles and asexual reproduction only compartment
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Representative Animal and Plant cell
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Diagrammatic representation of 500 of the


common metabolic reactions occurring in a cell

A typical mammalian
cell synthesises
more than 10,000
different proteins.
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Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells have membrane-delimited


nuclei, and membranes also play a
prominent part in the structure of many
other organelles.

Organelles are intracellular structures that


perform specific functions in cells.
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Plasma Membrane
(Lipid Bilayer )

Because both the intracellular and extracellular


environments are aqueous, barrier must be present to
prevent the loss of cellular molecules.
Since this barrier cannot itself be composed of water-
soluble molecules. It makes sense that the cell membrane
is composed of lipids.
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All living cells are surrounded by a membrane


composed of; phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins
and oligosaccharides.

The membrane is selective capable of transporting


material in both directions across its 7.5-10nm
thickness.
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one layer
of lipids

one layer
of lipids

A lipid bilayer has two layers of lipids, the tails of which are
sandwiched between the heads. Proteins (not shown) typically
intermingle among the lipids.
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Fluid-mosaic Model
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Membrane Lipids

• The most abundant lipids in cellular membranes are phospholipids, which are
consist of two hydrocarbon chains and a polar head group.

• The major phospholipids in the eukaryotic plasma membrane are:


• Phophatidylcholine
• Phosphatidylethanolamine
• Phosphatidylinositol
• Phosphatidylserine
• The name of the compound indicates whether this head component is
ethanolamine, serine, choline, or inositol.
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Membrane Proteins
• The specific function of cellular membranes are carried out by their
constituent proteins.
• The kinds and amounts of proteins in a membrane reflect its
functions.
• About 50% of the mass of a typical plasma membrane in eukaryotes
is protein.
• Two of these proteins are glycophorin and band 3 protein
• Both are transmembrane proteins, which completely cross the lipid
bilayer and protrude from both membrane surfaces
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Membrane proteins can be associated with the lipid


bilayer in different ways.
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Glycophorin

• Glycophorin is a 131 amino acid long, all its sugar


residues are located on the extracellular face of the
plasma membrane.
• The molecule extends through the lipid bilayer as a
single α helix, most of the mass of the molecule is on
the external surface of the membrane.
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Band 3 protein
• Band 3 protein: so named because of its position relative
to other proteins in a gel.
• band 3 protein is believed to differ from glycophorin in
its orientation in the bilayer.
• Band 3 protein probably crosses the bilayer more than
once, rather than as a single α helix, because most of
the mass of the molecule is in the lipid bilayer.
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Functions of plasma membrane


(plasmalemma)
• Selective permeability
• Transport of materials along cell surface
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis
• Intercellular adhesion
• Intercellular recognition
• Signal transduction
Transport of molecules across
membranes
• Plasma membrane serve as a dynamic, regulatory barrier
to the entry and exit of molecules.
• The transport of molecules through the cell membrane
either directly through the lipid bilayer or through the
proteins, occurs by three general routes:
1. Passive transport: by free diffusion or by facilitated diffusion,
along a concentration gradient from higher to lower concentration of
the substance.
2. Active transport; in which energy is expended as a substance
moves against its concentration gradient, going from its lower to its
higher concentration.
3. Enclosure of substances in membranous vesicles:
Cytoskeleton
• The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and
tubules that extends from the nucleus to the plasma membrane.

• The cytoskeleton contains three types of elements responsible


for cell shape, movement within the cell:
1. Actin filaments AF
2. Microtubules MT
3. Intermediate filaments IF
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CYTOSKELETON
• Actin filaments occur in bundles or mesh-like networks.
• Actin filaments play a structural role and interact with
motor molecules, such as myosin.
• Myosin and actin are the proteins involved in
contraction of muscle
Microtubules

Structural elements commonly found in animal cells.


These may be scattered through the cytoplasm, but
many are located just under the plasma membrane. The
outside diameter of a microtubule usually about
25nm,whereas the diameter of central lumen about
15nm.
Functions of the microtubules

1. Participate in intracellular movement and communication (They


provide the tracks for transport of vesicles, organelles such as
secretary granules ,and mitochondria from one part of the cell to
another).
2. They form the spindle, which moves the chromosomes or
chromatids in cell division.
3. They maintain the shape of the cell because they are rigid.
4. Melanin transport in pigment cell.
5. They are provide the basis for several complex cytoplasmic
components, including centrioles, basal bodies, cilia and flagella.
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Intermediate filaments
intermediate filaments have a diameter of about 10nm.
several different proteins belong to this family. common
in epithelial cells. form tough supporting meshwork in
cytoplasm. also found just beneath inner nuclear
membrane forming the nuclear lamina.
• Support the plasma membrane
• Support the nuclear envelope.
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Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)

• It is an extensive network of branching and anastomosing


membrane-limited channels or cisternae collectively within the
cytoplasm of animal cells.
• An extension of the nuclear envelope that forms a continuous, folded
compartment.
• Two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum
1. Rough ER (with ribosomes) makes proteins, folds polypeptides
into their tertiary form
2. Smooth ER (no ribosomes) makes lipids, breaks down
carbohydrates and lipids, detoxifies poisons
Functions of RER:

• Synthesis of protein to be exported outside the cell.


• Modification of newly formed polypeptide.
• Phospholipid synthesis.
• Initial glycosylation of the glycoprotein.
• In biology glycosylation mainly refers in particular to the
enzymatic process that attaches glycans (polysaccharide) to
proteins, lipids, or other organic molecules.
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Golgi apparatus consists of:
1. A set of smooth cisternae which often are stacked together in parallel rows.
2. Small vesicles.
3. Large vacuoles.

Functions of Golgi body:


4. The packaging of secretory materials that are to be discharged from the cell.
5. The processing of proteins by the processes (glycosylation ,phosphorylation ,
and sulfation).
6. The synthesis of certain polysaccharides and glycolipids.
7. The sorting of proteins destined for various locations in the cell.
8. The proliferation of membranous elements for the plasma membrane.
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The Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes

• It is a vesicular structures . Lysosomes varied in diameter from


about 0.1 to 0.8µm, were bounded by a single membrane.
Lysosomes contain quantities of various hydrolytic enzymes.
• Several different lysosomal forms have been identified within
individual cell, including:
1. Primary lysosomes.
2. Secondary lysosomes
3. Residual bodies.
Primary lysosomes (protolysosomes):

Are newly produced organelles bounded by a single membrane and varying greatly in size.
The primary lysosome is a virgin particle in that its digestive enzymes have not yet taken part
in hydrolysis.
Secondary lysosomes:
Two different kinds of secondary lysosomes can be identified:
• Heterolysosomes; are formed by the fusion of primary lysosomes with cytoplasmic
vacuoles containing extracellular substances brought into the cell by any of a variety of
endocytic processes.
• Autolysosomes; contain particles isolated from the cell ‘s own cytoplasm, including
mitochondria, microbodies, and smooth and rough fragments of the ER.
Residual bodies;
Endocytosed substances and parts of autophagocytosed organelles that are not digested
within the secondary lysosomes and transferred to the cytoplasm are retained (usually
temporarily) within the vacuoles as residues.
Nucleus
• The nucleus is the control center of the eukaryotic cell. The cell
cannot survive if the nucleus has been lost or extensively
damaged
• Nucleus Separates the genetic material from the rest of the cell .
Filled with nucleoplasm.
• Spherical bodies about 5-7 µm in diameter. Dense fibrous
material called chromatin can be seen within the nucleoplasm of
the nucleus of a stained cell. This is the DNA-containing part of
the nucleus.
Nucleolus (Pl. nucleoli)

• The nucleolus is not separated from the nucleoplasm by


a membrane (it is present freely in nucleoplasm or
attached with inner surface of nuclear envelope).
• Nucleolus is the site of rRNA transcription and
processing, and of ribosome assembly (rRNA joins
with proteins).
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Mitochondria (plural = mitochondria)
• Mitochondria are vesicular organelles present in the cytoplasm.
Each mitochondrium is bordered by two membranes. The outer
membrane is smooth, but the inner membrane displays numerous
infoldings called cristae. The space between neighboring cristae
is called the mitochondrial matrix and often contains inclusions
(proteins, ribosomes, DNA circular strands, ATPase, positive
charges ions).
• Mitochondria is the center of aerobic respiratory activities
and ATP synthesis.
• The division of mitochondria similar to bacteria
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Ribosomes (ribonucleoprotein)
• These particles are either distributed along the hyaloplasmic
surface of the ER (attached ribosomes) or free in the
hyaloplasm (free ribosomes)
• A ribosome is composed of three molecules of ribosomal RNA
and 55 molecules of proteins.
• Arranged to form two subunits of unequal size. The small
subunit of ribosome contains one molecule of an RNA ,while
the large subunit contain two RNA molecules.
• The functions of the rRNA molecules in the ribosomes are
not fully understood ,but they are seen to play key role in
the binding of mRNA to ribosomes and its translation.

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