ILA COLLEGE OF

HEALTH
KUJE
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
COURSE LECTURER:
ZAKARI B.M
COURSE OUTLINE
•Cell
•Cell Junctions
•Transport through Cell
Membrane
Cell
All the living things are composed of cells. A single cell is the smallest unit that has
all the characteristics of life. Cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of
the living body.

General Characteristics of Cell

Each cell in the body:
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen
2. Produces its own energy necessary for its growth, repair and other activities
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment for its survival
TISSUE

Tissue is defined as the group of cells having similar

function. All the tissues are classified into four major types which are
called the primary tissues. The primary tissues include:
1. Muscle tissue (skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle)
2. Nervous tissue (neurons and supporting cells)
3. Epithelial tissue (squamous, columnar and cuboidal epithelial cells)
4. Connective tissue (connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone and
blood)
ORGAN

• An organ is defined as the structure that is formed by two or more

primary types of tissues, which execute the functions of the organ.

SYSTEM
• The organ system is defined as group of organs that work together to
carry out specific functions of the body. Each system performs a
specific function. Digestive system is concerned with digestion of food
particles. Excretory system eliminates unwanted substances
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

Each cell is formed by a cell body and a membrane covering the cell
body called the cell membrane. Cell body has two parts, namely
nucleus and cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus. Thus, the structure of
the cell is studied under three headings:
• 1. Cell membrane
• 2. Cytoplasm
• 3. Nucleus.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
CELL MEMBRANE
• Cell membrane is a protective sheath, enveloping the
cell body. It is also known as plasma membrane. This
membrane separates the fluid outside the cell called
extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid inside the cell
called intracellular fluid (ICF).
• The cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane.
So, there is free exchange of certain substances
between ECF and ICF.
COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE
Cell membrane is composed of three types of substances:
1. Proteins (55%)
2. Lipids (40%)
3. Carbohydrates (5%).
STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
On the basis of structure, cell membrane is called a unit membrane or a three-layered
membrane.
Fluid mosaic model
In 1972, SJ Singer and GL Nicholson proposed ‘The fluid mosaic model’. According to them, the
membrane is a fluid with mosaic of proteins (mosaic means pattern formed by arrangement of
different colored pieces of stone, tile, glass or other such materials). This model is accepted by
the scientists till now. In this model, the proteins are found to float in the lipid layer instead of
forming the layers of the sandwich-type model.
Diagram of the cell membrane
FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the
organelles present in the cytoplasm
2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a semipermeable
membrane, which allows only some substances to pass through it and
acts as a barrier for other substances
3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the
cell membrane
4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products from the cell
are excreted out through the cell membrane
5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon
dioxide leaves the cell and enters the blood through the cell membrane
6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell membrane is responsible
for the maintenance of shape and size of the cell.
CYTOPLASM
• Cytoplasm of the cell is the jellylike material formed by 80% of water.
It contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles of
different shape and size. These particles are proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids or electrolytes in nature.
ORGANELLES IN CYTOPLASM
• Cytoplasmic organelles are the cellular structures embedded in the
cytoplasm. Organelles are considered as small organs of the cell.
Some cytoplasmic organelles are:
1. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubular and microsomal
vesicular structures which are interconnected with one another. It is
covered by a limiting membrane which is formed by proteins and
bilayer lipids.
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types, namely rough endoplasmic
reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
• Both the types are interconnected and continuous with one another.
Depending upon the activities of the cells, the rough endoplasmic
reticulum changes to smooth endoplasmic reticulum and vice versa.
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is the endoplasmic reticulum with rough, bumpy or bead-like
appearance. Rough appearance is due to the attachment of granular
ribosomes to its outer surface. Hence, it is also called the granular
endoplasmic
Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

1. Synthesis of proteins
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with the
synthesis of proteins in the cell. It is involved with the
synthesis of mainly those proteins which are secreted from
the cells such as insulin from βcells of islet of Langerhans in
pancreas and antibodies from B lymphocytes.
2. Degradation of worn-out organelles
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays an important role in
the degradation of worn-out cytoplasmic organelles like
mitochondria. It wraps itself around the wornout organelles
and forms a vacuole which is often called the
autophagosome.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

• It is the endoplasmic reticulum with smooth appearance. It is also called agranular

reticulum. It is formed by many interconnected tubules. So, it is also called tubular
endoplasmic reticulum.
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
1. Synthesis of non-protein substance
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesis of non-
protein substances such as cholesterol and steroid. This type of
endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cells that are involved in the
synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, lipoprotein substances, steroid
hormones, sebum, etc.
2. Role in cellular metabolism
• Outer surface of smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains many
enzymes which are involved in various metabolic processes of the
cell.
3. Storage and metabolism of calcium
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site of storage and
metabolism of calcium. In skeletal muscle fibers, it releases calcium
which is necessary to trigger the muscle contraction.
4. Catabolism and detoxification
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also concerned with catabolism and
detoxification of toxic substances like some drugs and carcinogens
(cancer-producing substances) in the liver.
MITOCHONDRION

• Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria) is a membrane bound

cytoplasmic organelle concerned with production of energy.
It is a rod-shaped or oval-shaped structure.

• The inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf-like inward

projections called cristae. Cristae contain many enzymes and
other protein molecules which are involved in respiration
and synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Functions of Mitochondrion
1. Production of energy
• Mitochondrion is called the ‘power house’ or ‘power plant’ of the cell
because it produces the energy required for cellular functions.

2. Synthesis of ATP
• The components of respiratory chain in mitochondrion are
responsible for the synthesis of ATP by utilizing the energy by
oxidative phosphorylation.
NUCLEUS
• Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It occupies about
10% of total volume of the cell. Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body
except the red blood cells. The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those
without nucleus are known as prokaryotes. Presence of nucleus is necessary for
cell division. Most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few
types of cells like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei (multinucleated cells).
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
• Nucleus is covered by a membrane called nuclear membrane and contains many
components. Major components of nucleus are nucleoplasm, chromatin and
nucleolus.
Nuclear Membrane
• Nuclear membrane is double layered and porous in nature. This allows the
nucleoplasm to communicate with the cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm
• Nucleoplasm is a highly viscous fluid that forms the ground substance of the
nucleus. It is similar to cytoplasm present outside the nucleus.
FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
• Major functions of nucleus are the control of cellular activities and storage of
hereditary material. Several processes are involved in the nuclear functions.

• Functions of nucleus:
1. Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein synthesis,
growth and reproduction (cell division)
2. Synthesis of RNA
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes
4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis through
messenger RNA (mRNA)
5. Control of the cell division through genes
6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of this
information from one generation of the species to the next.
Cell Junctions
DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION
• Cell junction is the connection between the neighbouring cells or the contact
between the cell and extracellular matrix. It is also called membrane junction.
Cell junctions are classified into three types:
1. Occluding junctions
2. Communicating junctions
3. Anchoring junctions.
OCCLUDING JUNCTIONS
• Cell junctions which prevent intercellular exchange of substances are called
occluding junctions, i.e. these junctions prevent the movement of ions and
molecules from one cell to another cell.
TIGHT JUNCTION
• Tight junction is the intercellular occluding junction that prevents the passage of
large molecules. It is also called zonula occludens. It is the region where the cell
membranes of the adjacent cells fuse together firmly.
Structure of Tight Junction

• Tight junction is made up of a ridge which has two halves. One half of the
ridge is from one cell and another half is from the other cell. Both halves of
the ridge fuse with each other very tightly and occupy the space between the
two cells (Fig. 2.1). Each half of the ridge consists of tight junction strands.

• Functions of Tight Junction

• 1. Strength and stability:
• 2. Selective permeability (gate function):
• 4. Maintenance of cell polarity:
• 5. Blood-brain barrier:
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY

1. Hereditary deafness
2. Ichthyosis (scaly skin)
3. Sclerosing cholangitis (inflammation of bile duct causing obstruction)
4. Hereditary hypomagnesemia (low level of magnesium in the blood)
5. Synovial sarcoma (soft tissue cancer)
Tight Junction Gap Junction
COMMUNICATING JUNCTIONS
• Cell junctions which permit the intercellular exchange of substances are called
communicating junctions, i.e. these junctions permit the movement of ions and molecules
from one cell to another cell. Gap junction and chemical synapse are the communicating
junctions.

GAP JUNCTION
• Gap junction is the intercellular junction that allows passage of ions and smaller molecules
between the cells. It is also called nexus. It is present in heart, basal part of epithelial cells of
intestinal mucosa, etc.
Structure of Gap Junction
• Membranes of the two adjacent cells lie very close to each other and the intercellular space is
reduced from the usual size of 2.5 to 3 nm. Cytoplasm of the two cells is connected by the
channels formed by the membranes of both cells. So, the molecules move from one cell to
another cell directly through these channels, without having contact with extracellular fluid
(ECF). Each channel consists of two halves. Each half belongs to one of the two adjacent cells.
Functions of Gap Junction

1. Diameter of the channel in the gap junction is about 1.5 to 3 nm. So,
the channel permits the passage of glucose, amino acids, ions and
other substances, which have a molecular weight less than 1,000
2. It helps in the exchange of chemical messengers between the cells
3. It helps in rapid propagation of action potential from one cell to
another cell.
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY

1. Deafness
2. Keratoderma (thickening of skin on palms and soles)
3. Cataract (opacity of lens in eye)
4. Peripheral neuropathy (damage to the nerves of peripheral nervous
system)
5. Heterotaxia (abnormal arrangement of organs or parts of the body in
relation to leftright symmetry).
ANCHORING JUNCTIONS

• Anchoring junctions are the junctions, which provide strength to the

cells by acting like mechanical attachments, i.e. these junctions
provide firm structural attachment between two cells or between a
cell and the extracellular matrix. Anchoring junctions are responsible
for the structural integrity of the tissues and are present in the
tissues like heart muscle and epidermis of skin, which are subjected to
severe mechanical stress.