A Tour of The Cell

The Fundamental Units of Life
• All organisms are made of cells
• The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function
• All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells

Biologists use microscopes and
biochemistry to study cells
The size range of cells

• Most cells are between 1 and 100
μm in diameter (yellow region of
chart) and their components are
even smaller, as are viruses.
Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize
their functions
• The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two
types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic
• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of

prokaryotic cells
• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Basic features of all cells
• Plasma membrane (cell membrane): Cells are all bounded by a selective

barrier
• Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike substance called cytosol
• Chromosomes (carry genes)
• Ribosomes (make proteins), tiny complexes that make proteins according

to instructions from the genes
Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
• No nucleus
• DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
• No membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
• DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope
• Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus
• suspended in cytosol, are a variety of organelles of specialized form

and function. These membrane-bounded structures are absent in
almost all prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells

The plasma membrane is a selective
barrier that allows sufficient passage
of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to
service the volume of every cell
The basic fabric of most biological

membranes is a double layer of
phospholipids and other lipids.
Embedded in this lipid bilayer or attached to
its surfaces are diverse proteins
A smaller cell has a greater ratio of surface
area to volume
Larger organisms do not generally have larger

cells than smaller organisms—they simply
have more cells
A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell
• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into
organelles
• The basic fabric of biological membranes is a double layer of phospholipids

and other lipids
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles

The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the
nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
The Nucleus: Information Central
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid

bilayer
• Pores, lined with structure called a pore complex, regulate the entry and exit of
molecules from the nucleus
• The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina
• the nuclear lamina, a netlike array of protein filaments (in animal cells,
called intermediate filaments).
• In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes
• Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated with

proteins
• The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin
• The nucleolus (plural, nucleoli) is located within the nucleus and is the site
of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations

• In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
• On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the
nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs
metabolic functions
Components of the endomembrane system

Nuclear envelope
Endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Plasma membrane
These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is such an extensive network of

membranes that it accounts for more than half the total membrane in
many eukaryotic cells
• The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
• There are two distinct regions of ER

Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
A membranous system of
interconnected tubules and flattened
sacs called cisternae,
There are two distinct regions of ER

• Smooth ER, which lacks
ribosomes
• Rough ER, surface is studded
with ribosomes
Functions of Smooth ER
• Synthesizes lipids
• Metabolizes carbohydrates
• Detoxifies drugs and poisons
• Stores calcium ions
Functions of Rough ER
• Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently
bonded to carbohydrates)
• Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes
• Is a membrane factory for the cell
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
Functions of the Golgi apparatus

Modifies products of the ER
Manufactures certain macromolecules
Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicle
The Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest
macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and

nucleic acids
• Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the

lysosome
• Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are made by rough ER and

• Some types of cell can
engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a
food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the

food vacuole and digests the
molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi apparatus
Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds of cells
A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles,

Central vacuoles, found in plants cells, hold organic compounds and
water
Contractile vacuoles, found in

many freshwater protists, pump
excess water out of cells
Food vacuoles are formed by

phagocytosis
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to
another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that

uses oxygen to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells
They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae
The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space and
mitochondrial matrix
Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the mitochondrial
matrix
Cristae present a large

surface area for enzymes
that synthesize ATP
Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and

other molecules that function in photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in
algae
Chloroplast structure includes
• Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum
• Stroma, the internal fluid
The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles, called plastids

Peroxisomes: Oxidation
• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a
single membrane
• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water
• Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different functions

The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures
and activities in the cell
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles
It is composed of three types of molecular structures
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape
• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility
• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails” provided by the
cytoskeleton
• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may help regulate

biochemical activities
Motor proteins and the cytoskeleton.
Motor proteins that attach to receptors on

vesicles can “walk” the vesicles along
microtubules or, along microfilaments.
Cytoskeletal elements and motor proteins work together with plasma membrane
molecules to allow whole cells to move along fibers outside the cell.
Components of the Cytoskeleton
Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton
• Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton
• Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components
• Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle range

(larger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules)
Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
Centrosomes and Centrioles
• In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the

nucleus, where the cell’s microtubules are initiated
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring
Centrosome containing a pair
of centrioles
In animal cells, the centrosome has

a pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in
a ring
Cilia and Flagella
Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella,

locomotor appendages of some cells
Cilia and flagella share a common structure Flagellum

• A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma
membrane
• A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
• A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending
movements of a cilium or flagellum
Cilia
The outer microtubule
doublets are held together
with the two central
microtubules by flexible
cross-linking proteins (blue
in art), including the radial
spokes. The doublets also
have attached motor
proteins called dyneins
(red in art).
A structural role of microfilaments
The surface area of this nutrient-

absorbing intestinal cell is increased
by its many microvilli These actin
In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are filaments are anchored to a network
arranged parallel to one another of intermediate filaments
• Localized contraction brought In plant cells, actin-myosin
about by actin and myosin also interactions and transformations
drives amoeboid movement drive cytoplasmic streaming
Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of

cytoplasm within cells
Extracellular components and connections between cells help
coordinate cellular activities
• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the
plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include

Cell walls of plants
The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
Intercellular junctions
Cell Walls of Plants
• The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells
from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also have cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other

polysaccharides and protein
Plant cell walls may have multiple layers
• Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible
• Middle lamella: thin layer between primary

walls of adjacent cells
• Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added

between the plasma membrane and the
primary cell wall
Plasmodesmata are channels between

adjacent plant cells
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells
• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular
matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as collagen, proteoglycans, and

fibronectin
• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called

integrins
• Functions of the ECM

Support Adhesion
Movement Regulation
Cell Junctions
• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere,
interact, and communicate through direct physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact
There are several types of intercellular junctions

Plasmodesmata
Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions
Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells
• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata,
water and small solutes
(and sometimes proteins
and RNA) can pass from
cell to cell
Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions
in Animal Cells
At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together,

preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets
Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels

between adjacent cells
Cell Junctions in Animal Tissues

A Tour of The Cell

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The Fundamental Units of Life

• All organisms are made of cells

• The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive

• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function

• All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells

The size range of cells

• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of

• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells

• Plasma membrane (cell membrane): Cells are all bounded by a selective

• Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike substance called cytosol

• Chromosomes (carry genes)

• Ribosomes (make proteins), tiny complexes that make proteins according

• DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid

• Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane

• DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope

• Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus

• suspended in cytosol, are a variety of organelles of specialized form

Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells

The basic fabric of most biological

Larger organisms do not generally have larger

• The basic fabric of biological membranes is a double layer of phospholipids

• Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles

• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid

• In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes

• Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated with

Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein

Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations

Components of the endomembrane system

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is such an extensive network of

• The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope

• There are two distinct regions of ER

There are two distinct regions of ER

The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and

• Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the

• Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are made by rough ER and

• A lysosome fuses with the

Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds of cells

A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles,

Contractile vacuoles, found in

Food vacuoles are formed by

• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that

• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis

• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

Cristae present a large

Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and

The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles, called plastids

• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water

• Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different functions

It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles

It is composed of three types of molecular structures

• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility

• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may help regulate

Motor proteins that attach to receptors on

Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

• Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton

• Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components

• Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle range