Fundamentals of Global Positioning System Receivers

Lecture One Monday, August 29, 2011

Lecture Notes by HeHe-Sheng Wang

Preface
The purpose of this course is to present detailed fundamental information on a global positioning system (GPS) receiver. Although GPS receivers are popularly used in every-day life, their operation principles cannot be easily found in one book. In a GPS receiver, the signal is processed to obtain the required information, which in turn is used to calculate the user position.
Most other types of receivers process the input signals to obtain the necessary information easily, such as in amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) radios.

At least two areas of discipline, receiver technology and navigation scheme, are employed in a GPS receiver. This course covers both areas.

Preface
In the case of GPS signals, there are two sets of information: the civilian code, referred to as the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, and the classified military code, referred to as the P(Y) code. This course concentrates only on the C/A code. The material in this course is presented from the software receiver point of view.
It is likely that narrow band receivers, such as the GPS receiver, will be implemented in software in the future. A software receiver approach may explain the operation better.

Preface
Aim: To introduce the principles of the operation of the GPS system and its applications There is flexibility in the exact content of the course depending on student interests Generic topics include standalone, millimeter accuracy positioning and kinematic GPS Emphasis is on fundamental principles and limitations

Topics to be Covered
Coordinate and time systems:
When working at the millimeter level globally, how do you define a coordinate system What does latitude, longitude, and height really mean at this accuracy Light propagates 30 cm in 1 nano-second, how is time defined

Topics
Satellite motions
How are satellite orbits described and how do the satellites move What forces effect the motions of satellites What do GPS satellite motions look like and what are the main perturbations to the orbits Where do you obtain GPS satellite orbits

Topics
GPS observables Satellite motions
GPS signal structure and its uniqueness Code Phase measurements Carrier phase measurements Initial phase ambiguities Effects of GPS security: Selective availability (SA) and antispoofing (AS) Data formats (RINEX)

Topics
Estimation Procedure
Simple weighted-least-squares estimation Stochastic descriptions of random variables and parameters Kalman filtering Statistics in estimation procedures Propagation of variance-covariance information

Topics
Propagation medium
Neutral atmosphere delay Hydrostatic and water vapor contributions Ionospheric delay (dispersive) Multipath

Topics
Mathematic models in GPS positioning
Basic theory of contributions that need be to included for millimeter level global positioning Use of differenced data Combinations of observables for different purpose

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Topics
Methods of processing GPS data
Available software Available data (International GPS service, IGS; University consortium Cycle slip detection and repair Relationship between satellite based and conventional geodetic systems (revisit since this is an important topic)

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Topics
Applications and examples from GPS
Tectonic motions and continuous time series Earth rotation variations; measurement and origin Kinematic GPS; aircraft and moving vehicles Atmospheric delay studies

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Text Books and References

Text
Pratap Misra and Per Enge, Global Positioning System: Signals, Measurements, and Performance, Ganga-Jamuna Press. James Bao-Yen Tsui, Fundamentals of Global Positioning System Receivers A Software Approach, Wiley-Interscience.

References
Kayton & Fried, Avionics Navigation Systems, Second Edition, Wiley Interscience. E. D. Kaplan, Understanding GPS: Principles and Applications, Artech House. Global Positioning System: Theory and Applications, 2 Volumes, edited by B. Parkinson, J. Spilker, P. Axelrad, and P. Enge, AIAA, http://www.aiaa.org, 1996

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Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction GPS: An Overview GPS Coordinate Frames, Time References, and Orbits GPS Measurements and Error Sources PVT Estimation Precise Positioning with Carrier Phase GPS Signals Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Ranging Precision GPS Receivers

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Introduction to Radionavigation Systems Predecessors to GPS

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Global Positioning System

Satellite Navigation System
Multilateration based on one-way ranging signals from 24+ satellites in orbit. Operated by the United States Air Force Nominal Accuracy
10 m (Stand Alone) 1-5 m (Code Differential) 0.01 m (Carrier Differential)

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Navigation Terminology
Navigation
Answer to the question Where am I? Implies the use of some agreed upon coordinate system. Coordinates systems will be the subject of future lectures.

Related Terminology
Guidance: Deciding what to do with your navigation information Control: Orienting yourself/vehicle/weapon to follow out the guidance decision

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Latitude, Longitude and Attitude

One of many coordinate systems used to described a location on the surface of the earth Lattitude
Range: 90 North latitude are + South latitude are -

Longitude
Range: 180 East longitude is + West longitude is -

Altitude
Normally Upward is +
In a North East Down (NED) coordinate system up is -

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Definition of Latitude and Longitude

Latitude (Paralles) are formed by the intersection of the surface of the earth with a plane parallel to the equatorial plane

Longitude or Meridians are formed by the intersection of the surface of the earth with a plane containing the earths axis. 19

Latitude Determination Using Polaris

Actual location of Polaris is 89o05 The Sky Above Stanford on Jan 6, 2002

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Instruments of Navigation

An Astrolabe

A Sextant
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View Through a Sextant

Easier to align Suns (or other celestial bodys) limb with the horizon.

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Latitude Determination Using the Sun

0= 900 Suns Altitude Suns Declination

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The Longitude Problem

Celestial map changes because of Earths 15o/hr (approximately) rotation rate.

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Longitude Determination
Longitude Determination Methods
Methods based on time
Compare the time between a clocks at the current location and some other reference point. Requires Stable Clocks

Celestial Methods
Eclipses of Jupiters Moons Lunar Distance Method
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Stability of Clocks
A $20 wrist watch has an oscillator stable enough to meet the accuracy requirements of the longitude prize. The size and cost of the super-stable clocks makes them unsuitable for use in mass produced device.
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Fundamentals Radionavigation

Radio Frequency (RF) signals emanating from a source or sources. The generators of the RF signal are at known locations RF signals are used to determine range or bearing to the known location
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Classification of Radio Frequencies

Propagation characteristic of RF signals is a function of their frequency

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Line of Sight Transmission

VHF (VOR, ILS Localizer) and UHF (ILS Glide Slope, TACAN/DME) are line of sight systems.
Limited Coverage area Large coverage area In the case of Omega, coverage was global

LORAN and OMEGA are over the horizon systems

Frequency band in which GPS operates makes it a line of sight system. However, because of the location of the satellites, it is able to cover a large geographic area.
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INS and Radionavigation Systems

* INS is not a radionavigation system but is normally used in conjunction with such systems

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Phases of Flight

The required navigation accuracy and reliability (i.e., integrity, continuity and availability) depend on the phase of flight Currently, as well as in the past, this meant that an aircraft had to be equipped with various navigation systems.
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VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)

Provides Bearing (=) Information Operates 112 118 MHz Accuracy 1o to 2o. Principles of Operation
Transmits 2 Signals
1st signal has azimuth dependent phase 2nd signal is a reference Phases difference between 1st signal and 2nd signal is =
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Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

Measures Slant Range (V) Operates between 962 and 1213 MHz Based on Radar Principle
Airborne unit sends a pair of pulses Ground Station receives pulses After short delay (50 Qs) ground station resends the pulses back Airborne unit receives the signal and calculates range by using the following equation:

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Instrument Landing System (ILS)

Used extensively during approach and landing to provides vertical and lateral guidance Principle of Operation
Lateral guidance provided by a signal called the Localizer (108-112 MHz) Vertical guidance provided by another signal called the Glide Slope (329-335 MHz) 34

Distance along the approach path provided by marker beacons (75 MHz)

Generic GPS Receiver Functional Block Diagram

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A Fundamental Software GPS Receiver

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Software Approach
This course uses the concept of software radio to present the subject. The software radio idea is to use an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to change the input signal into digital data at the earliest possible stage in the receiver.
The input signal is digitized as close to the antenna as possible.

Once the signal is digitized, digital signal processing will be used to obtain the necessary information. The primary goal of the software radio is minimum hardware use in a radio. Conceptually, one can tune the radio through software or even change the function of the radio such as from amplitude modulation (AM) to frequency modulation (FM) by changing the software.

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Software Approach
The main purpose of using the software radio concept to present this subject is to illustrate the idea of signal acquisition and tracking. A software approach should provide a better understanding of the receiver function because some of the calculations can be illustrated with programs. Once the software concept is well understood, the readers should be able to introduce new solutions to problem such as various acquisition and tracking methods to improve efficiency and performance.

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Potential Advantages of the Software Approach

An important aspect of using the software approach to build a GPS receiver is that the approach can drastically deviate from the conventional hardware approach. The software approach is very flexible. New algorithms can easily be developed without changing the design of the hardware.

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OUTLINE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction GPS: An Overview GPS Coordinate Frames, Time References, and Orbits GPS Measurements and Error Sources PVT Estimation Precise Positioning with Carrier Phase GPS Signals Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Ranging Precision GPS Receivers

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GPS: An Overview

GPS: An Overview
Objectives, Status, and Policies System Architecture Signals Receivers and Measurements Augmentation System and Differential GPS (DGPS) Civil Applications Modernization Plans Summary

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Objectives, Status, and Policies

The principle objective of GPS was to offer the U.S. military accurate estimates of position, velocity, and time (PVT).
Position error: 10 m Velocity error: 0.1 m/s Time error: 10 ns

The U.S. DoD decreed that the civil users of GPS would be provided with a reasonable accuracy consistent with the national security considerations.
Standard Position Service (SPS) for peaceful civil use Precise Positioning Service (PPS) for the DoD-authorized users

Access to the full capability of the system (i.e., PPS) is restricted by cryptographic techniques
Anti-Spoofing (AS)

SPS signals were degraded throughout the 1990s by introducing controlled errors to reduce their precision
Selective Availability Deactivated by a Presidential Order on 2 May 2000

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Predecessors
Applied Physics Laboratorys TRANSIT: Navy Navigation Satellite System
Doppler Shift Broadcast Satellite Ephemeris (Satellite prediction algorithm) Limitation: Velocity Sensitivity, Mutual Interference Provide very precise time and time transfer between various points on the Earth Navigation Information: Side-tone ranging Satellite-ranging signal based on pseudorandom noise (PRN) All satellites could broadcast on the same nominal frequency Anti-jamming capability Slow communication link (50bps) NAVSTAR (Navigation System with Time and Ranging) GPS

Naval Research Laboratorys Timation Satellites

U.S. Air Force Project 621B

Joint Program Office

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GPS Design Choices & Enabling Technology

Design Choices
Active or passive
Passive system need only receive transmission

Positioning method: Doppler, Hyperbolic, or Trilatertion

Trilateration time synchronized signals from satellites

Pulsed or continuous wave (CW)

CW signal in the form of code division multiple access spread spectrum

Carrier frequency
L-band offering line-of-sight with minimal atmospheric attenuation

Satellite constellation and orbits

MEO constellation of 24 satellites

Enabling Technology
Stable space platforms in predictable orbits Ultra-stable clocks Spread spectrum modulation/signaling Integrated circuits

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Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)

GPS is not the only modern satellite-based navigation system. GLONASS is a Russian parallel to GPS
24 satellite FDMA navigation system

Galileo is expected to be EU offering for satellite navigation in 2005 Beidou ( ) experimental satellite navigation system is Chinas developing testbed.

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GPS vs. GLONASS

GPS 24+ 6 4 55 26,560km 11 58 CDMA L1:1575.42MHz L2:1227.60MHz UTC(USNO) WGS84 (SA) ( )
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GLONASS 243 8 64.8 25,510km 11 FDMA L1:1602.5625~1615.5MHz L2:1246.4375~1256.5MHz UTC(SU) SGS85 15

System Architecture
Space Segment Control Segment User Segment

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Space Segment
Constellation Number of Satellites Number of Orbital Planes Number of Satellites Per Orbit Orbital Inclination Orbital Radius Period Ground Track Repeat 24 6 4 550 26560km 11h57m57.26s Sidereal Day

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GPS Nominal Orbit Planes

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Control Segment

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GPS Control Monitor

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User Segment

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GPS Positioning Services

Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
Authorized users with cryptographic equipment and keys and specially equipped receivers use the Precise Positioning System.

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

Civil users worldwide use the SPS without charge or restrictions. Most receivers are capable of receiving and using the SPS signal. The SPS accuracy is intentionally degraded by the DOD by the use of Selective Availability. (SA Turn off on May 1, 2000)

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Positioning and Timing Accuracy Standard (SPS)

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Signals
Signal Structure Anti-Spoofing (AS) and Selective Availability (SA) Signal Power

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Signals
Currently, each GPS satellite transmits continuously using two frequencies in the L-band referred to as Link 1 (L1) and Link 2 (L2)
L-band covers frequencies between 1GHz and 2 GHz
Subset of the ultra-high frequency (UHF)

L1: fL1 = 1575.42 MHz L2: fL2 = 1227.60 MHz

Two signals are transmitted on L1, one for civil users, and the other for DoD-authorized users. The lone signal on L2 is intended for the DoDauthorized users only.

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Signal Structure
Carrier: RF sinusoidal signal with frequency fL1 or fL2. Ranging Code: a unique sequence of 0s and 1s assigned to each satellite which allows the receiver to determine the signal transit time instantaneously.
PRN (Pseudo-random noise) codes allow all satellites to transmit at the same frequency without interfering with each other Each satellite transmit two different codes
Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) code Precision (Encrypted) [P(Y)] code

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Signal Structure
Navigation Data: a binary-coded message consisting of data on the satellite health status, ephemeris (satellite position and velocity), clock bias parameters, and an almanac giving reduced-precision ephemeris data on all satellite in the constellation
data rate: 50 bits per second (bps) bit duration: 20 ms 12.5 minutes for the entire message to be received

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Signal Structure
The three components of a signal are derived coherently from one of the atomic standard aboard the satellite.
10.23 MHz fL1 = 1575.42 MHz = 27710.23 MHz fL2 = 1575.42 MHz = 26010.23 MHz

The specific form of modulation used is called binary phase shift keying (BPSK)

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Signal Structure

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Signal Structure
s ( k ) (t ) ! 2 x ( k ) (t ) D ( k ) (t ) sin( 2Tf L1t  U L1 )  2 C
Y ,L 2

y ( k ) (t ) D ( k ) (t ) cos(2Tf L1t  U L1 ) Y , L1

 2

(k )

(t ) D

(k )

(1)

(t ) cos(2Tf L 2t  U L 2 )

where PC is the signal power of C/A-code, PY,L1, and PY,L2 are the signal powers of P(Y)-code on L1 and L2, respectively; x(k)(t) = 1 and y(k)(t) = 1 represent the C/Acode and P(Y)-code sequences, respectively, assigned to satellite number k; D(k)(t) = 1 denotes the navigation data bit stream; fL1 and fL2 are the carrier frequencies corresponding to L1 and L2, respectively; UL1 and UL2 are the initial phase offsets. Note: In order to express the BPSK signals as (1), we have switched the binary values of the codes and navigation data to 1. From our old notation, a bit 0 maps into 1; and a bit 1 map into -1.
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L1 1575.42 MHz L2 1227.6 MHz

P(Y)-Code Encrypted U.S.military use P(Y)-Code Encrypted U.S.military use C/A-Code Degraded Civil use

GPS signals. Currently, each GPS satellite transmits three signals, two on L1 and one on L2 frequency. The BPSK-modulated signals are shown. The signal carrying C/A-code on L1 was degraded purposely throughout the 1990s, but this practice has now ended. Access to P(Y)-code is limited to the DoD-authorized users via encryption.
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Spread Spectrum
The modulation of a carrier by a binary code spreads the signal energy, initially concentrated at a single frequency, over a wide frequency band: over 2 MHz for the C/A-code and about 20 MHz for the P(Y)-code, centered at the carrier frequency. While the signal power is unchanged, this step reduces the power spectral density below that for the background RF radiation Such signals, referred to as spread spectrum signals, have many properties which make them attractive for use in communication and navigation.

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Spread Spectrum

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Power Spectra

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Pseudo-Random Noise (PRN)

PRN sequences are nearly orthogonal to each other. For satellites k and l, which are assigned unique PRN sequences called C/A-codes x(k) and x(l),
1022 i !0

x (k ) (i) x (l ) (i  n) } 0,

for all n, k { l , where x (y) (1023  m) ! x (y) (m).

(2)

The left hand side of (2) defines the cross-correlation function of the two sequences for shift n. A PRN sequence is nearly uncorrelated with itself, except for zero shift. For a C/A-code
1022 i !0

x ( k ) (i) x (k ) (i  n) } 0,

for all n u 1.

(3)

The left hand side of (3) defines the auto-correlation function of a sequence for shift n. The auto-correlation function of a PRN is nearly zero except for zero shift where it has a sharp peak.
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Anti-Spoofing (AS) and Selective Availability (SA)

Anti-Spoofing: The main mechanism for limiting access to the full capabilities of GPS has been encryption of the P-code broadcast on both L1 and L2.
Encrypted P-code is referred to as Y-code Access to the Y-code is under cryptographic key

SPS limits civil users to the C/A-coded signal on L1 but dualfrequency measurements are essential for precise positioning.
Receiver manufacturers have devised proprietary techniques to gain access to measurements on both L1 and L2. The same P(Y)-code is being transmitted by a satellite on both frequencies. The L2 measurements are more fragile and noisier than they would be if the codes were known.

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Anti-Spoofing (AS) and Selective Availability (SA)

Throughout the 1990s, the signal available for unrestricted use were purposefully degraded under the policy of Selective Availability (SA) by adding controlled errors in the measurements.
A five-fold increase in positioning error Dithering the satellite clock Can be eliminated via differential corrections SA was deactivated on 2 May 2000 in accordance with a Presidential Decision
Perhaps the European plans to develop Galileo accelerated the U.S. move to drop SA

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Signal Power
The GPS signals received on the earth are extremely weak.
RF power at the antenna input port of a satellite is about 50 watts Half is allocated to the C/A-code

In order to deal simply with a wide range of power levels, electrical engineers express power ratios on a logarithmic scale in units of decibel (dB), defined as

P1 P 0

P ! 10 log10 1 P dB 0

, where P1 , P0 are power levels to be compared

(4)

Absolute values of power can be expressed similarly in relation to 1 watt or 1 milliwatt in units of dBW or dBm, respectively. Consider a signal with power (P1) of 0.1 watt. This power level can also be represented as -10dBW or 20dBm. A second signal, with a power (P2) of 100 watt is 30dB more powerful than the first signal. A third signal, with 200-watt power (P3), is 3dB stronger than the second signal. We can capture these relationships as follows.

P1 ! 10dBW ,

P2 P ! 30dB, 2 ! 3dB P1 P3

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Signal Power
P L1 L2 -133 dBm -136 dBm C/A -130 dBm -136 dBm*

*Presently not in L2 frequency

The actual signal powers in recent years have been 3-5 dB higher than the specifications. Even so, the powers are still only around 10-16 watt. Interestingly, 10-16 watt is enough power to navigate with if we were among friends and people of good will. The GPS signals are well below the background RF noise level sensed by an antenna. It is the knowledge of the signal structure that allows a receiver to extract the signal buried in the background noise and make precise measurements. The signal boost so realized is called processing gain. The low signal power is the Achilles heel of GPS, especially in military use.

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Power of Received Signal

Zenith SV Transmit Power SV Antenna Gain Effective Power Radiated Towards Earth Path or Spreading Loss Received Power Density Effective Area of Receive Antenna Atmospheric Losses 2 dB Effective Received Power In dBm = 10log10 (Power in mW) 27 W 10.5 dB 294 W 1.95x10-16m-2 5.51x1014W/m2 2.87x10-3m2 0.63 1.00 x 10-16 W -130 dBm 5o Elevation 27 W 16.2 dB 467 W 1.20x10-16m-2 5.26x1014W/m2 2.87x10-3m2 0.63 0.95 x 10-16 W -130 dBm
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Comparable Power
Tracking -130dBm is roughly equivalent to listening to a 500 mW baby monitor a thousand miles away.
0.5 W 1,000 miles

27 W 16,000 miles

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Receivers and Measurements

Signal Acquisition and Tracking Estimation of Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) Evolution of Receiver Technology

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Signal Acquisition and Tracking

The basic functions of a GPS receiver are:
to capture the RF signals transmitted by the satellites spread out in the sky, to separate the signals from satellites in view, to perform measurements of signal transit time and Doppler shift, to decode the navigation message to determine the satellite position, velocity, and clock parameters, to estimate the user position, velocity, and time

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GPS Collected Data Time Domain Plot

This is the digital data that results from the GPS analog front end ASIC. Important parameters: sampling frequency=5.0425MHz, IF=1.25MHz
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GPS Collected Data Frequency Domain Plot

This is the frequency domain representation of the digital data that results from the GPS analog front end ASIC. Important parameters: sampling frequency=5.0425MHz, IF=1.25MHz 77

GPS Signal Acquisition

No visible signal under any representation does it exist? In order to begin processing the signal it is necessary to go through the acquisition process and find the signal & its parameters. This is achieved by referring to the spread spectrum properties of the CDMA system The signal can be correlated with the matching replica and achieve a significant gain.
Based on the correlation But must be done at baseband (no carrier), thus carrier must be removed.

Acquisition can provides a coarse estimation of the pseudorange.

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Q. So How Does GPS Work?

Answer: By integrating the signal until SNR >> 0 dB
This is the key to everything from here on. As we will see, the GPS signal has an element that repeats every 1 millisecond, and we can accumulate many identical signals until the SNR is high enough.

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Estimation of Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT)

The quality of the PVT estimates obtained by a user from GPS depends basically upon two factors:
number of the satellites in view and their spatial arrangement in the sky
The spatial distribution of the satellites relative to the user is referred to as satellite geometry

quality of the range and range rate measurements

There are several sources of biases and random errors. Errors in the navigation message parameters which specify satellite position and signal transmission time introduce errors in the pseudorange measurements. Propagation delays in the ionosphere and troposphere, signal distortion due to multipath, and receiver noise also introduce measurement errors.

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Basic GPS Positioning Concept -- Trilateration

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How GPS Works

Basic Equations for Finding User Position

V1 ! V2 ! V3 !

x1  xu  y1  yu  z1  zu
2 2 2 2

x2  xu  y2  yu  z2  zu x3  xu  y3  yu  z3  zu

Nonlinear Equations: Difficult to Solve Relatively Easily Solved with Linearization and Iterative Approach

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Measurement of Pseudorange
Every satellite sends a signal at a certain time tsi. The receiver will receive the signal at a later time tu. ViT= c(tu tsi) ---- true value of pseudorange or geometric range From a practical point of view it is difficult to obtain the correct time from the satellite or the user. The actual satellite clock time and actual user clock time are related to the true time as
' t si ! t si  (bi ' tu ! tu  but

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Measurement of Pseudorange Contd

Besides the clock error, there are other factors affecting the pseudorange measurement. The measured pseudorange Vi can be written as

V i ! V i  (Di  c ( (bi  but )  c ( (Ti  (I i  Yi  (Yi )

(Di: satellite position error, (Ti: tropospheric delay error, (Ii: ionospheric delay error, Ri: receiver measurement noise error, (Ri: relativistic time correction

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Measurement of Pseudorange Contd

V1 ! V2 ! V3 ! V4 !

x1  xu  y1  yu  z1  zu
2 2 2 2

 bu
2

x2  xu  y2  yu  z 2  zu x3  xu  y3  yu  z3  zu
2 2

 bu  bu  bu

x4  xu  y4  yu  z 4  zu

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GPS/SPS Performance Specifications for Global Positioning and Time Dissemination

Error (95%) PPS SPS SA Active Position Horizontal Vertical Time 22 m 28 m 200 ns 100 m 156 m 340 ns SA OFF* 10 m 15 m 50 ns
*Estimates

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Evolution of Receiver Technology

Several generation of GPS receivers came to market between 1980 and 2000. The receivers available today bear the same resemblance to the early receivers as the laptop and palm computers do to the minicomputers of the early 1980s. The advent of very large scale integration (VLSI) has led to powerful microprocessors and memory chips, which have changes the look and feel of all electronic equipment, including the GPS receivers.

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Complete Receivers
Handheld receivers for hikers, backpackers and sailors. $100 - $300 Small in size with lat-lon displays or simple maps In-car navigation systems. Detailed street maps and turn-by-turn directions Marine navigation. Fixed mount large screens with electronic charts Aviation. FAA certified, panel mounted, with maps Survey and mapping. Often tripod mounted, exclusively Differential GPS, one meter to centimeter accuracy $400 - $2000 $400 - $3000

$3000 - $15,000

$3500 - $30,000
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Modules
Plug-in modules. Integrated receiver and antenna, used for tracking and monitoring OEM boards. Receiver circuitry for customer integration $100 - $300

$60 - $100

Chip sets

$10 - $30

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Augmentation Systems and Differential GPS (DGPS)

The accuracy of the different navigation and positioning applications vary widely. Horizontal positioning accuracy of tens of meters is generally more than adequate for navigation in wide-open spaces:
maritime navigation on the open seas; aircraft navigation in en route, terminal, and non-precision approach phases of flight; recreational use by hikers and backpackers.

Many important applications require greater accuracy:

under poor visibility conditions, harbor entry by ships, taxiway guidance on airport surface, Category I precision approaches by aircraft typically require meter-level accuracy Automobile navigation over roads and highways has a similar accuracy requirement Category III precision approaches require decimeter-level accuracy vertically

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Reducing Measurement Errors and/or Improving Satellite Geometry

Mitigation of the measurement errors turns out to be simpler: The errors associated with the worst error sources are similar for users located not far from each other, and change slowly in time. In other words, the errors are correlated both spatially and temporally. We can estimate the error in a measurement if the receiver location is known. Such error estimates can be used as differential corrections if made available to the GPS users in the area, allowing them to mitigate errors in their measurements. Thats differential GPS, generally abbreviated as DGPS.

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Reducing Measurement Errors and/or Improving Satellite Geometry

Satellite geometry can be improved by adding satellites to the constellation to provide additional ranging signal. A user can improve the geometry by deploying pseudosatellites, called pseudolites, which transmit GPS-like signals. The pseudolites can be deployed on the ground, in the air, or on a ship. A GPS receiver has to be modified to receive and process these signals.

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Differential GPS

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Hierarchy of GPS Capability

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Civil Applications
High-precision (millimeter-to-centimeter level) positioning Specialized applications such as aviation and space navigation Land transportation and maritime uses Consumer products

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Modernization Plans
L5 1176.45 MHz
Civil signal (starting 2005)

L1 1575.42 MHz

L2 1227.6 MHz

P(Y)-Code Encrypted M-code (starting 2003) C/A-Code (starting 2003) P(Y)-Code Encrypted M-code (starting 2003)

C/A-Code Degraded (2 May 2000)

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Summary
Basic Description
Space-based radionavigation system broadcasting synchronized timing signals to provide estimates of position, velocity, and time based on passive, one-way ranging to satellites.

Milestones
1973: Architecture approved 1978: First satellite launched 1995: System declared operational 2000: Purposeful degradation of the civil signal stopped

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Summary
Satellite Constellation
Twenty-four satellites in six orbital planes inclined at 55o; near-circular orbits with radius 26,560 km; orbital period: 11h 58m; ground track repeats each sidereal day

Reference Standards
Coordinate frame: WGS 84 Time: UTC (USNO)

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Summary
Signals
Carrier Frequency (Wavelength)
L1: 1575.42 MHz (0.19029 m) L2: 1227.60 MHz (0.24421 m)

Multiple Access Scheme

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

PRN Codes
C/A-code on L1 P(Y)-code on L1 and L2

Code Frequency (Mcps)

C/A-code: 1.023 P(Y)-code: 10.23

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Summary
Performance Achievable
Real time: Typically, absolute positioning error of several meters with a single receiver, decimeters in differential mode Batch processing: millimeter-level relative positioning

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