IS L A M IC P E R S P E C T IV E :

PSYCHOLOGY FROM C H O L A R S A N D
N S O F E A R L Y M U S L IM S
CONTRIB U T IO H O L O G IS T S
M PO R A R Y M U SL I M P S Y C
CHALLENGES T O C O N T E
• ISLAM IS A MAJOR WORLD RELIGION AND THERE ARE GROWING NUMBERS OF MUSLIMS IN THE WEST,
PARTICULARLY IN NORTH AMERICA WHERE THE MUSLIM POPULATION ESTIMATES RANGE BETWEEN 4 AND 6
MILLION (HADDAD, 1991; HUSSAIN AND HUSSAIN, 1996).
WHILE MANY MUSLIMS ARE HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY THE QUR'AN (MUSLIM HOLY BOOK) AND SAYINGS OF
PROPHET MUHAMMAD, SOME ARE ALSO INFLUENCED BY THE WORKS OF EARLY MUSLIM SCHOLARS WHO
CONTRIBUTED IN THE REALM OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES. WHAT MAKES SUCH CON TRIBUTIONS UNIQUE
IS THAT THEY ARE BASED ON ISLAMIC PHILOSOPHY OR THE CONCEPT OF UNITY OF GOD. KNOWLEDGE OF ISLAMIC
PERSPECTIVES CAN GO A LONG WAY AS A PART OF CULTURAL SENSITIVITY TRAINING FOR MAINSTREAM
CLINICIANS AND RESEARCHERS.
• IF WE EXAMINE THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND UNDER WHICH MUSLIM SCHOLARSHIP
DEVELOPED, WE WILL FIND THAT IT AROSE UNDER THE UMBRELLA OF PHILOSOPHY, WHICH ENCOMPASSED ALMOST ALL
AREAS OF HUMAN ENQUIRY. PHILOSOPHY, IN MOST SIMPLISTIC TERMS, REFERS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF ALL THINGS, BOTH
DIVINE AND HUMAN.2 IT WAS DURING THE 8TH AND 9TH CENTURIES THAT ALEXANDRIA AND SYRIA BECAME THE CENTER OF
PHILOSOPHY INFLUENCED MAINLY BY THE GREEK THOUGHT AND ALSO TO SOME EXTENT BY INDIAN AND PERSIAN THOUGHT.
AL-MAMUN (813-933), A CALIPH FROM THE ABBASSID DYNASTY, SHOWED INTEREST IN GETTING GREEK WORKS
TRANSLATED INTO ARABIC. HE ESTABLISHED A PHILOSOPHICAL ACADEMY BAITUL HIKMAH THAT STIMULATED INTEREST IN
AND DISCUSSIONS AMONG MUSLIM SCHOLARS ON PHILOSOPHICAL IS SUES, RESULTING IN TRANSLATIONS OF GREEK
PHILOSOPHICAL WORWORKS, COMMENTARIES AND SOME ORIGINAL TREATISES IN MANY AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE.
AL ASH'ATH BIN QAIS AL-KINDI (801-
866)
• AL KINDI (LATIN, ALCHENDIUS) FROM BAGHDAD IS CONSIDERED AS THE FIRST MUSLIM PHILOSOPHER.
• WROTE MORE THAN 239 TITLES INCLUDING BOOKS AND SHORT TREATISES.
• RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGY ARE: ON SLEEP AND DREAMS, FIRST PHILOSOPHY, AND THE ERADICATION OF SORROW.
• KINDI EXPLAINED "SORROW" AS "A SPIRITUAL (NAFSANI) GRIEF CAUSED BY LOSS OF LOVED ONES OR PERSONAL BELONGINGS, OR BY FAILURE IN OBTAINING WHAT ONE LUSTS
AFTER." HE THEN ADDED, "IF CAUSES OF PAIN ARE DISCERNABLE, THE CURES CAN BE FOUND (HAMARNAH, 1984, P. 362)." KINDI RECOMMENDED THAT IF WE DO NOT TOLERATE
LOSING OR DISLIKE BEING DEPRIVED OF WHAT IS DEAR TO US, THEN WE SHOULD SEEK AFTER RICHES IN THE WORLD OF THE INTELLECT.

• HE SAID THAT SORROW IS NOT WITHIN US WE BRING IT UPON OURSELVES.

• HE USED COGNITIVE STRATEGIES TO COMBAT DEPRESSION AND DISCUSSED FUNCTIONS OF THE SOUL AND INTELLECTUAL OPERATIONS IN HUMAN BEINGS. HE REMINDED THAT THE
SOULS THROUGH THE ACT OF THE WILL DEVELOP A GOOD CONSTITUTION.

• INSPIRED BY ARISTOTELIAN AND PLATONIC IDEAS.

• UPPER AND LOWER WORLD
• HE MENTIONED THAT GOD CANNOT BE UNDERSTOOD BY INTELLECT THAT ACTUALLY LED TO "NEGATIVE THEOLOGY".
ALI IBN SAHL RABBAN AT-TABARI
(838-870)
• AT-TABARI, A PERSIAN AND A MUSLIM CONVERT, WAS A PIONEER IN THE FIELD OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT, WHICH HE
ELUCIDATED IN HIS BOOK FIRDAUS AL HIKMAH.

• FIRDAUS IS BASICALLY A MEDICAL TEXT.

• TABARI DISCUSSES ANCIENT INDIAN TEXTS IN THIS BOOK AND REFERS TO THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF SUSHTRA AND CHANAKYA
IN RELATION TO MEDICINE INCLUDING PSYCHOTHERAPY (HAMARNAH, 1984).

• HE ALSO EMPHASIZED THE NEED FOR PSYCHO THERAPY AND URGED THE PHYSICIANS TO BE SMART AND WITTY TO MAKE
THEIR PATIENTS FEEL BETTER.

• PEOPLE FREQUENTLY FEEL SICK DUE TO DELUSIVE IMAGINATION, AT-TABARI EXPLAINED, BUT THE COMPETENT DOCTOR CAN
TREAT THEM BY "WISE COUNSELING".
ABU ZAID AL-BALKHI (850-934)
• ABU ZAID AL-BALKHI IS PROBABLY THE FIRST COGNITIVE AND MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGIST WHO WAS ABLE TO CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN NEUROSES
AND PSYCHOSES.

• AL BALKHI CLASSIFIED NEUROSES INTO FOUR EMOTIONAL DISORDERS: FEAR AND ANXIETY, ANGER AND AGGRESSION, SADNESS AND DEPRESSION, AND
OBSESSIONS.

• HE ALSO COMPARES PHYSICAL WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND SHOWED THEIR INTERACTION IN CAUSING PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS.
• AL-BALKHI SAID THAT IT IS THE BALANCE BETWEEN THE MIND AND BODY THAT BRINGS ABOUT HEALTH AND THE IMBALANCE WILL CAUSE SICKNESS.
• FURTHERMORE, AL-BALKHI SAID THAT THE TREATMENT OF A BODY FOLLOWS OPPOSITE AND RECIPROCAL APPROACHES WITH RESPECT TO THE IMBALANCE,.
E.G., FEVER-COLD SURFACE, CHILL-HEAT.

• THIS APPROACH IS CALLD "AL-ILAJ BI AL-DID" WHICH IS SIMILAR TO THE TERM "RECIPROCAL INHIBITION"
• AL-BALKHI CLASSIFIED DEPRESSION INTO THREE KINDS: EVERYDAY NORMAL HUZN OR SADNESS, ENDOGENOUS DEPRESSION AND REACTIVE DEPRESSION.
ABU BAKR MOHAMMAD IBN ZAKARIYA AL-RAZI (864-932)

• AL-RAZI PROMOTED PSYCHOTHERAPY, JUST LIKE HIS MENTOR, AL-TABARI.

• HE POINTED OUT THAT HOPEFUL COMMENTS FROM DOCTORS ENCOURAGED PATIENTS, MADE THEM FEEL BETTER, AND PROMOTED SPEEDIER RECOVERY.
• AL-RAZI BELIEVED THAT AN UNEXPECTED HIGH EMOTIONAL OUTBURST HAS A QUICK CURATIVE EFFECT ON PSYCHOLOGICAL, PSYCHOSOMATIC AND
ORGANIC DISORDERS.

• AL-RAZI WROTE A TREATISE ON HOW TO MEASURE INTELLIGENCE, ALTHOUGH ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF THIS WORK COULD NOT BE FOUND. HIS KITAB AL-
HAWI OR AL HAWI FIT-TIBB IS THE LONGEST WORK EVER WRITTEN IN ISLAMIC MEDICINE AND HE WAS RECOGNIZED AS A MEDICAL AUTHORITY IN THE
WEST UP TO THE 18TH CENTURY.

• IN THIS COMPENDIUM, RAZI COMPARES MEDICAL OPINIONS OF GREEK AND ARAB SCHOLARS WITH HIS OWN AND UNLIKE CERTAIN OTHER SCHOLARS OF
HIS TIME HE CRITICIZED THE WORKS OF HIPPOCRATES AND GALEN, THE CELEBRATED GREEK SCHOLARS. SOME OF THE OTHER WORKS OF AL-RAZI INCLUDE
MUJARABBAT, A BOOK ON HOSPITAL EXPERIENCES, AL-TIBB AL-MANSURI, A BOOK ON MEDICINAL HEALING ART, AND AL-TIBB AL-RUHANI, WHERE HE
DISCUSSES WAYS TO TREAT THE MORAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ILLS OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT.
ABU NASR MOHAMMAD IBN AL-FARAKH
(AL-FARABI) (870-950)
• AL FARABI, WROTE HIS TREATISE ON SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, MOST RENOWNED OF WHICH IS HIS MODEL CITY.
• AL FARABI STATED THAT AN ISOLATED INDIVIDUAL COULD NOT ACHIEVE ALL THE PERFECTIONS BY HIMSELF, WITHOUT THE AID OF
OTHER INDIVIDUALS.

• HE ALSO WROTE ON THE CAUSE OF DREAMS?

• AL FARABI ALSO WROTE A TREATISE ON THE MEANINGS OF THE INTELLECT AND THE THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON THE SOUL.
• LIKE OTHER MUSLIM PHILOSOPHERS OF HIS TIME, AL-FARABI WROTE COMMENTARIES ON THE GREEKS, INDEPENDENT TREATISES,
AND REFUTATIONS ON THE WORKS OF BOTH PHILOSOPHERS AND THEOLOGIANS. MANY OF HIS TREATISES ON META PHYSICS ARE
CONSIDERED THE CROWN OF HIS INTELLECTUAL WORKS, E.G., TREATISE ON THE AIMS OF ARISTOTLE'S METAPHYSICS, BEZELS OF
WISDOM, THE BOOK ON THE ONE AND THE UNITY, EXPLANATORY REMARKS ON WISDOM, ETC.
ABUL HASAN ALI ABBAS AL-MAJUSI (D.
995)
• -MAJUSI KNOWN IN EUROPE, AS "HALY ABBAS" WAS PERSIAN.
• AL-KITAB AL-MALAKI (AL-KAMIL) OR "THE ROYAL NOTEBOOK," WHICH IS ONE OF THE GREAT CLASSICAL WORKS OF ISLAMIC
MEDICINE.

• IN THIS BOOK THAT WAS TRANSLATED INTO LATIN TWICE AND CALLED LIBER REGIUS (LATER CALLED "THE COMPLETE ART OF
MEDICINE"), MAJUSI WRITES ABOUT THE ENTIRE HEALTH FIELD INCLUDING MENTAL DISEASES AND THE BRAIN.

• MAJUSI DESCRIBED THE ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND DISEASES OF THE BRAIN INCLUDING SLEEPING SICKNESS, LOSS OF
MEMORY, HYPOCHONDRIA, COMA, HOT AND COLD MENINGITIS, VERTIGO EPILEPSY, LOVE SICKNESS, AND HEMIPLEGIA.

• HE EMPHASIZED PRESERVING HEALTH BY PREVENTING DISEASES AND NATURAL HEALING RATHER THAN MEDICAL TREATMENT
OR DRUGS THAT SHOULD COME AS A LAST RESORT.
IKHWAN AL-SAFA: THE BRETHEREN OF
PURITY (10TH CENTURY A.D.)
• THIS GROUP OF SCHOLARS WHO KEPT THEIR IDENTITIES A SECRET, ORIGINATED IN BASRA, SOUTHERN IRAQ. THEIR 52 OR 53 EPISTLES OR RASA'IL CONTAINING SPIRITUAL AND
PHILOSOPHICAL KNOWLEDGE BECAME WELL KNOWN BY THE END OF THE 10TH CENTURY.

• THEIR WORKS ARE GENERALLY DIVIDED INTO MATHEMATICAL AND NATURAL SCIENCES, PSYCHOLOGY, METAPHYSICS, AND THEOLOGY. THESE SCHOLARS DREW THEIR KNOWLEDGE FROM
DIVERSE SOURCES INCLUDING THE TORAH AND THE GOSPELS, EARLIER GREEK PHILOSOPHERS, ASTRONOMY, NATURE, AND OTHER "DIVINE BOOKS". CONSEQUENTLY, THEIR WRITING IS
OFTEN CALLED "SYNCRETIC".

• THESE SCHOLARS TRIED TO WORK OUT A DOCTRINE THAT WOULD REPLACE THE HISTORICAL RELIGIONS AS THEY BELIEVED THAT THERE IS NO COMPULSION IN RELIGION. HOWEVER, THEY
RECOMMENDED THAT ALL MEN SHOULD FOLLOW A RELIGION, BY WHICH THEY MEANT THAT LAWS ARE NECESSARY FOR A CIVILIZED SOCIETY. YET THEY BELIEVED THAT THE QUR'AN IS THE
FINAL REVELATION AND MUHAMMAD IS THE PROPHET OF GOD.

• IN THEIR EPISTLES, THESE SCHOLARS WROTE ABOUT SOUL, THE BRAIN, AND THE PROCESS OF THINKING. THEY DIVIDED THE SOUL INTO THE VEGETATIVE, ANIMAL, AND HUMAN (RATIONAL)
SOUL. WHILE THE VEGETATIVE SOUL WORKS ON NUTRITION, GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION, THE ANIMAL SOUL IS CONCERNED WITH MOVEMENT AND SENSATION (PERCEPTION AND
EMOTION). THE RATIONAL SOUL IS RESTRICTED TO MAN AND POSSESSES THE FACULTY OF THINKING AND TALKING.

• THEY CONSIDERED BRAIN AS THE MOST IMPORTANT ORGAN WHERE HIGHER FUNCTIONS LIKE PERCEPTION AND THOUGHT TAKE PLACE; THE PREVAILING BELIEF WAS THAT IT IS THE HEART
THAT IS THE MASTER ORGAN. THEY VIEWED THAT THE THINKING PROCESS BEGINS WITH THE FIVE EXTERNAL SENSES THAT SEND THE MESSAGES THROUGH THE FINE NERVES TO THE BRAIN
WHERE ACTUAL PROCESSING OCCUR IN DIFFERENT LOCATIONS.
ABU ALI AHMAD B. MUHAMMAD B.
YA'KUB IBN MISKAWAYH (941-1030)
•IBN MISKAWAYH WAS A THINKER WHO WROTE ON A WIDE VARIETY OF TOPICS INCLUDING PSYCHOLOGY. HOWEVER, HE IS WELL-KNOWN FOR HIS WORKS ON A
SYSTEM OF ETHICS, ESPECIALLY, THE TAHARAT AL-ARAQ ("PURITY OF DISPOSITIONS") ALSO KNOWN AS TAHDHIB AL-AKHLAQ ("CULTIVATION OF MORALS"). IN HIS
BOOK AL-FAUZ AL-ASGAR ("THE LESSER VICTORY"), IBN MISKAWAYH TALKED ABOUT THE PROOF OF THE EXISTENCE F GOD, OF PROPHETHOOD AND OF THE SOUL.
•REGARDING DEVELOPMENT OF VIRTUES, HE COMBINED PLATONIC AND ARISTOTELIAN IDEAS WITH A TOUCH OF SUFISM AND CONSIDERED VIRTUE AS PERFECTING
THE ASPECT OF SOUL REPRESENTING HUMANITY, I.E. REASON THAT DISTINGUISHES HUMANS FROM ANIMALS.
•HE SUGGESTS THAT WE NEED TO CONTROL OUR EMOTIONS AND DEVELOP TRAITS TO RESTRAINT OURSELVES FROM FAULTS. HIS ARGUMENTS ON THE FUTILITY OF
THE FEAR OF DEATH IS INTERESTING, AS HE REMINDS THAT LIKE REASON ITSELF THE SOUL AND MORALITY CANNOT BE TAKEN AWAY. THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY
PREACHED BY IBN MISKAWAYH WAS CLOSELY RELATED TO PROBLEMS WITH THE SOUL. IBN MISKAWAYH INTRODUCED WHAT IS NOW KNOWN AS "SELF
REINFORCEMENT" AND RESPONSE COST. IBN MISKAWAYH NARRATED THAT A MUSLIM, WHO FEELS GUILTY ABOUT DOING SOMETHING PLEASURABLE TO HIS AL-
NAFS AL-AMMARAH, SHOULD LEARN TO PUNISH HIMSELF BY PSYCHOLOGICAL, PHYSICAL OR SPIRITUAL WAYS SUCH AS PAYING MONEY TO THE POOR, FASTING,
ETC.

•
ABU ALI AL-HUSAYN B. ABD ALLAH IBN
SINA (980-1037)
• IBN SINA, KNOWN AS AVECENNA IN THE WEST WAS FROM BUKHARA.
• HE CONTRIBUTED IN THE ADVANCEMENT OF ALL SCIENCES IN HIS TIME.
• IN THE FIELD OF PSYCHOLOGY, IBN SINA WROTE ABOUT MIND, ITS EXISTENCE, THE MIND-BODY RELATIONSHIP, SENSATION, PERCEPTION,
ETC. IN HIS FAMOUS BOOK ASH SHIFA (HEALING).

• AT THE MOST COMMON LEVEL, THE INFLUENCE OF THE MIND ON THE BODY CAN BE SEEN IN VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS, I.E., WHENEVER THE
MIND WISHES TO MOVE THE BODY, THE BODY OBEYS.

• THE SECOND LEVEL OF THE INFLUENCE OF MIND ON THE BODY IS FROM EMOTIONS AND THE WILL. SAY FOR INSTANCE, IF A PLANK OF
WOOD IS PLACED AS A BRIDGE OVER A CHASM, ONE CAN HARDLY CREEP OVER IT WITHOUT FALLING BECAUSE ONE ONLY PICTURES
ONESELF IN A POSSIBLE FALL SO VIVIDLY THAT THE "NATURAL POWER OF LIMBS ACCORD WITH IT." STRONG EMOTIONS CAN ACTUALLY
DESTROY THE TEMPERAMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND LEAD TO DEATH BY INFLUENCING VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS.
• ON THE OTHER HAND, A STRONG SOUL COULD CREATE CONDITIONS IN ANOTHER PERSON AS WELL?BASED ON
THIS PHENOMENON, HE ACCEPTS THE REALITY OF HYPNOSIS (AL WAHM AL-AMIL). HE DIVIDED HUMAN
PERCEPTIONS INTO THE FIVE EXTERNAL AND FIVE INTERNAL SENSES:

• (A) SENSUS COMMUNIS OR THE SEAT OF ALL SENSES THAT INTEGRATES SENSE DATA INTO PERCEPTS, (B) THE
IMAGINATIVE FACULTY WHICH CONSERVES THE PERCEPTUAL IMAGES, (C) THE SENSE OF IMAGINATION, WHICH
ACTS UPON THESE IMAGES BY COMBINING AND SEPARATING THEM (BY INTELLECT IN HUMANS) AND IS
THEREFORE THE SEAT OF PRACTICAL INTELLECT, (D) WAHM OR INSTINCT THAT PERCEIVES QUALITIES LIKE GOOD
AND BAD, LOVE AND HATE, ETC. AND IT FORMS THE BASIS OF ONE'S CHARACTER WHETHER OR NOT INFLUENCED
BY REASON, (E) INTENTIONS (MA'NI) THAT CONSERVES IN MEMORY ALL THESE NOTIONS.
• HE WROTE ABOUT THE POTENTIAL INTELLECT (WITHIN MAN) AND ACTIVE INTELLECT (OUTSIDE MAN) AND THAT
COGNITION CANNOT BE MECHANICALLY PRODUCED BUT INVOLVES INTUITION AT EVERY STAGE.

• ACCORDING TO HIM, ORDINARY HUMAN MIND IS LIKE A MIRROR UPON WHICH A SUCCESSION OF IDEAS REFLECTS
FROM THE ACTIVE INTELLECT. BEFORE THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE THAT EMANATES FROM THE ACTIVE
INTELLECT THE MIRROR WAS RUSTY BUT WHEN WE THINK, THE MIRROR IS POLISHED AND IT REMAINS TO DIRECT IT
TO THE SUN (ACTIVE INTELLECT) SO THAT IT COULD READILY REFLECT LIGHT. IBN SINA ALSO GAVE PSYCHOLOGICAL
EXPLANATIONS OF CERTAIN SOMATIC ILLNESSES. HE CONSIDERED PHILOSOPHIZING AS A WAY OF MAKING "THE SOUL
REACH PERFECTION". IBN SINA ALWAYS LINKED THE PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ILLNESSES TOGETHER.
• HE CALLED MELANCHOLIA (DEPRESSION) A TYPE OF MOOD DISORDER IN WHICH THE PERSON MAY BECOME SUSPICIOUS
AND DEVELOP CERTAIN TYPES OF PHOBIAS. ANGER HE SAID HERALDED THE TRANSITION OF MELANCHOLIA TO MANIA. HE
EXPLAINED THAT HUMIDITY INSIDE THE HEAD CAN CONTRIBUTE TO MOOD DISORDERS. THIS HAPPENS WHEN THE
AMOUNT OF BREATH CHANGES. HAPPINESS INCREASES THE BREATH, WHICH LEADS TO INCREASED MOISTURE INSIDE
THE BRAIN BUT IF THIS MOISTURE GOES BEYOND ITS LIMITS THE BRAIN WILL LOSE CONTROL OVER ITS RATIONAL
THOUGHT LEADING TO MENTAL DISORDERS. HE ALSO USED PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS TO TREAT HIS PATIENTS.

• IBN SINA ALSO WROTE ABOUT SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT OF LOVE SICKNESS (ISHQ), NIGHTMARE, EPILEPSY, AND
WEAK MEMORY.
ABU HAMID MUHAMMAD AL-GHAZALI
(1058-1111)
HE IS CONSIDERED THE ARCHITECT OF THE LATTER DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM. IT IS SAID THAT WITH AL GHAZALI, AN AGE
CAME TO AN END AND A NEW AGE BEGAN.
AFTER GHAZALI, THE VOICES OF DIFFERENT SCHOOLS WERE NOT STILLED BUT A FRESH MEASURE OF UNITY AND
HARMONY WAS ACHIEVED.
SOME OF HIS GREAT WORKS INCLUDE, IHYA ULUM AD DIN (REVIVAL OF THE RELIGIOUS SCIENCES), AL MUNQID MIN AD-
DALAL (THE SAVIOR FROM ERROR), TAHAFUT AL-FHALASIFA (DESTRUCTION OF THE PHILOSOPHY), KIMIYA AS-SAADAH
(ALCHEMY OF FELICITY), YA AYYUHAL WALAD (O YOUNG MAN), MISHKAT AL-ANWAR (THE NICHE OF THE LIGHTS).
IN ALL, HE WROTE ABOUT 70 BOOKS.
• GHAZALI'S DESCRIPTION OF HUMAN NATURE CENTERED ON DISCOVERING THE "SELF, ITS ULTIMATE PURPOSE, AND
CAUSES OF ITS MISERY AND HAPPINESS.

• HE DESCRIBED THE CONCEPT OF SELF BY FOUR TERMS: QALB, RUH, NAFS, AND AQL, WHICH ALL SIGNIFY A SPIRITUAL
ENTITY. HE PREFERS THE TERM QALB FOR SELF IN ALL HIS WRITINGS. SELF HAS AN INHERENT YEARNING FOR AN IDEAL,
WHICH IT STRIVES TO REALIZE AND IT IS ENDOWED WITH QUALITIES TO HELP REALIZE IT. FOR FULFILLING BODILY NEEDS
THE SELF HAS MOTOR AND SENSORY MOTIVES.

• MOTOR MOTIVES COMPRISE OF PROPENSITIES AND IMPULSES. PROPENSITIES ARE OF TWO TYPES, APPETITE AND ANGER.
APPETITE URGES HUNGER, THIRST AND SEXUAL CRAVING. ANGER TAKES FORM IN RAGE, INDIGNATION, AND REVENGE.
IMPULSE RESIDES IN THE MUSCLES, NERVES AND TISSUES AND MOVES THE ORGANS TO FULFILL THE PROPENSITIES.
• SENSORY MOTIVES (APPREHENSION) INCLUDE FIVE EXTERNAL, I.E., SIGHT, HEARING, TASTE, SMELL, AND TOUCH AND FIVE
INTERNAL MOTIVES, I.E., COMMON SENSE (HISS MUSHTARIK)-IT SYNTHESIZES SENSUOUS IMPRESSIONS CARRIED TO THE
BRAIN WHILE GIVING MEANING TO THEM, IMAGINATION (TAKHAYYUL)-ENABLES MEM TO RETAIN IMAGE FROM EXPERIENCE,
REFLECTION (TAFAKKUR)-BRINGS TOGETHER RELEVANT THOUGHTS AND ASSOCIATES OR DISSOCIATES THEM AS IT
CONSIDERS FIT; IT HAS NO POWER TO CREATE ANYTHING NEW, WHICH IS NOT ALREADY PRESENT IN THE MIND,
RECOLLECTION (TADHAKKUR)-REMEMBERS THE OUTER FORM OF OBJECTS AS IN MEMORY; TADHAKKUR RECOLLECTS THE
MEANING, AND MEMORY (HAFIZA)-IMPRESSIONS RECEIVED THROUGH THE SENSES THAT ARE STORED IN THE MEMORY. THE
INTERNAL SENSES HAVE NO SPECIAL ORGANS BUT ARE LOCATED IN THE DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE BRAIN.

• FOR EXAMPLE, MEMORY IS LOCATED IN THE HINDER LOBE, IMAGINATION IN THE FRONTAL LOBE, AND REFLECTION IN THE
MIDDLE FOLDS OF THE BRAIN. T
• THESE INNER SENSES HELP THE PERSON TO LEARN FROM PAST EXPERIENCES AND FORESEE FUTURE SITUATIONS. IN IHYA, HE AS
SERTS THAT ANIMALS SHARE ALL THE FIVE INTERNAL SENSES WITH MAN.

• HE CLARIFIES THAT ANIMALS DO NOT POSSESS A WELL-DEVELOPED REFLECTIVE POWER. ANIMALS THINK MOSTLY IN TERMS OF
PICTORIAL IDEAS IN A SIMPLE WAY AND ARE INCAPABLE OF COMPLEX ASSOCIATION AND DISSOCIATION OF ABSTRACT IDEAS
INVOLVED IN REFLECTION.

• THE SELF CARRIES TWO ADDITIONAL QUALITIES, WHICH DISTINGUISHES MAN FROM ANIMALS ENABLING MAN TO ATTAIN
SPIRITUAL PERFECTION. THESE QUALITIES ARE AQL (INTELLECT) AND IRADA (WILL). INTELLECT IS THE FUNDAMENTAL RATIONAL
FACULTY, WHICH ENABLES MAN TO GENERALIZE AND FORM CONCEPTS AND GAIN KNOWLEDGE. WILL IN MAN IS DIFFERENT FROM
ANIMAL. IN MAN, THE WILL IS CONDITIONED BY THE INTELLECT WHILE IN ANIMAL; IT IS CONDITIONED BY ANGER AND APPETITE.
ALL THESE POWERS CONTROL AND REGULATE THE BODY. THE QALB (HEART) CONTROLS AND RULES OVER THEM.
• THE HEART HAS SIX POWERS: APPETITE, ANGER, IMPULSE, APPRE HENSION, INTELLECT, AND WILL. THE LAST THREE DEPENDS ON THE OTHER
THREE AND DIFFERENTIATES HUMANS FROM ANIMALS. ONLY HUMANS HAVE ALL SIX, ANIMALS HAVE FIRST THREE.

• ACCORDING TO GHAZALI, KNOWLEDGE IS EITHER INNATE OR ACQUIRED. ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE IS OF TWO KINDS: PHENOMENAL (MATERIAL
WORLD) AND SPIRITUAL (GOD, SOUL, ETC.).

• KNOWLEDGE CAN BE ACQUIRED THROUGH IMITATION, LOGICAL REASONING, CONTEMPLATION AND/OR INTUITION. THERE ARE FOUR ELEMENTS
IN MAM'S NATURE: THE SAGE (INTELLECT AND REASON), THE PIG (LUST AND GLUTTONY), THE DOG (ANGER) AND THE DEVIL (BRUTE CHARACTER).

• THE LAST THREE REBELS AGAINST THE FIRST AND CONSE QUENTLY DIFFERENT PEOPLE HAVE SUCH POWERS IN DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS.
• GHAZALI DIVIDES NAFS INTO THREE CATEGORIES BASED ON THE QUR'AN: NAFS AM MARAH - THAT EXHORTS ONE TO FREELY INDULGE IN
GRATIFYING PASSIONS AND INSTIGATES TO DO EVIL. NAFS LAWAMMAH-THE CONSCIENCE THAT DIRECTS MAN TOWARDS RIGHT OR WRONG,
AND NAFS MUTMAINNAH -A SELF THAT REACHES THE ULTIMATE PEACE. THE SOUL IN THE BODY IS COMPARED TO THE KING IN HIS KINGDOM.
• THE MEMBERS OF ONE'S BODY AND FACULTIES ARE LIKE THE ARTISANS AND WORKERS AND INTELLECT IS LIKE A WISE
VIZIER, WHILE DESIRE IS A WICKED SERVANT, AND ANGER LIKE THE POLICE IN THE CITY.

• IF THE KING AVAILS HIMSELF OF HIS VIZIER IN HIS ADMINISTRATION AND TURNS AWAY FROM THE COUNSEL OF
WICKED SERVANT AND KEEPS THE SERVANT AND THE POLICE IN THEIR PROPER PLACES THEN THE AFFAIRS OF THE
STATE ARE SET RIGHT. SIMILARLY, THE POWERS OF THE SOUL BECOME BALANCED IF IT KEEPS ANGER UNDER
CONTROL AND MAKES THE INTELLECT DOMINATE DESIRE.

• A PERFECT SOUL HAS TO PASS THROUGH SEVERAL STAGES, I.E., SENSUOUS (MAN IS LIKE A MOTH, HAS NO MEMORY
AND BEATS AGAIN AND AGAIN THE CANDLE), IMAGINATIVE (LOWER ANIMAL), INSTINCTIVE (HIGHER ANIMAL),
RATIONAL (TRANSCENDS ANIMAL STAGE AND APPREHENDS OBJECTS BEYOND THE SC
• HE EXPLAINED THAT DISEASES ARE OF TWO KINDS, PHYSICAL AND SPIRITUAL. SPIRITUAL DISEASES ARE MORE
DANGEROUS AND RESULT FROM IGNORANCE AND DEVIATION FROM GOD.

• THE DIFFERENT SPIRITUAL DISEASES ARE: SELF-CENTEREDNESS, ADDICTION TO WEALTH, FAME AND STATUS,
IGNORANCE, COWARDICE, CRUELTY, LUST, DOUBT (WASWAS), MALEVOLENCE, CALUMNY, ENVY, DECEIT, AVARICE.

• GHAZALI USED THE THERAPY OF OPPOSITES, I.E., USE OF IMAGINATION IN PURSUING THE OPPOSITE, E.G.,
IGNORANCE/ LEARNING, HATE/LOVE, ETC. HE DESCRIBED PERSONALITY AS AN INTEGRATION OF SPIRITUAL AND
BODILY FORCES. GHAZALI BELIEVED THAT CLOSENESS TO GOD IS EQUIVALENT TO NORMALITY WHEREAS
DISTANCE FROM GOD LEADS TO ABNORMALITY.
• FOR GHAZALI, MAN OCCUPIES A POSITION MIDWAY BETWEEN ANIMALS AND ANGELS AND HIS
DISTINGUISHING QUALITY IS KNOWLEDGE. HE CAN EITHER RISE OF THE LEVEL OF THE ANGELS WITH THE
HELP OF KNOWLEDGE OR FALL TO THE LEVELS OF ANIMALS BY LETTING HIS ANGER AND LUST DOMINATE
HIM.

• HE ALSO EMPHASIZED THAT KNOWLEDGE OF URN AL BATIN IS FARD KIFAYAH OR INCUMBENT ON EVERY
PERSON AND ASKED PEOPLE TO DO TAZKIYA NAFS OR PURIFICATION OF SELF. GOOD CONDUCT CAN ONLY
DEVELOP FROM WITHIN AND DOES NOT NEED TOTAL DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL PROPENSITIES.
ABU BAKR MOHAMMED BIN YAHYA AL-
SAIGH IBN BAJJAH (1095-1138)
HE BASED HIS PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES ON PHYSICS.
IN HIS ESSAY ON RECOGNITION OF THE ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE HE EX PLAINED THAT IT IS THE MOST IMPORTANT ABILITY OF MAN AND WROTE MANY ESSAYS ON
SENSATIONS AND IMAGINATIONS.
HOWEVER, HE CONCLUDED THAT KNOWLEDGE CANNOT BE ACQUIRED BY SENSES ALONE BUT BY ACTIVE INTELLIGENCE, WHICH IS THE GOVERNING
INTELLIGENCE OF NATURE.
HE BEGINS HIS DISCUSSION OF THE SOUL WITH THE DEFINITION THAT BODIES ARE COMPOSED OF MATTER AND FORM AND INTELLIGENCE IS THE MOST
IMPORTANT PART OF MAN-SOUND KNOWLEDGE IS OBTAINED THROUGH INTELLIGENCE, WHICH ALONE ENABLES ONE TO ATTAIN PROSPERITY AND BUILD
CHARACTER.
HE WRITES ON THE UNITY OF THE RATIONAL SOUL AS THE PRINCIPLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL IDENTITY, YET, BY VIRTUE OF ITS CONTACT WITH THE ACTIVE
INTELLIGENCE "BECOMES ONE OF THOSE LIGHTS THAT GIVES GLORY TO GOD." HIS DEFINITION OF FREEDOM IS THAT WHEN ONE CAN THINK AND ACT
RATIONALLY AND THE AIM OF LIFE SHOULD BE TO SEEK SPIRITUAL KNOWLEDGE AND MAKE CONTONT WITH ACTIVE INTEL LIGENCE AND THUS WITH THE DIVINE.
IBN AL-AYN ZARBI (D. 1153)
BORN
• HE WAS RECOGNIZED FOR HIS HEALING ART. ON TOP OF BEING A PHYSICIAN, HE WAS ALSO ACKNOWLEDGED AS IN
ASTRONOMY, ASTROLOGY, LOGIC, MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES.

• IBN ZARBI WROTE SEVEN TREATISES OF WHICH ONLY TWO ARE EXTANT.
• HIS BOOK ON HEALING ART AL-KAFI FIT-TIBB DESCRIBES PHYSICAL AND MENTAL ILLNESSES AND THEIR TREATMENTS.
• ON HIS CHAPTER ON BRAIN AND MENTAL INFIRMITIES THE AUTHOR DESCRIBES PHYSICAL BASIS FOR INTELLECTUAL
LOSS, MENTAL CONFUSION, AMNESIA, RESTLESSNESS, LETHARGY, EPILEPSY, ETC.

• HE NEVER REFERRED TO INFLUENCES OF EVIL SPIRITS IN HIS DISCUS SIONS OF MENTAL ILLNESS-HIS APPROACH
REMAINED OBJECTIVE AND FREE OF CULTURAL INFLUENCES OF THE TIME.
ABU BAKAR MUHAMMAD BIN ABDUL MALIK IBN TUFAYL (1110-1185)

• HIS PHILOSOPHICAL TALE GAVE A UNIQUE CONCEPT OF MAN AS HAYY BIN YAQZAM (THE LIVING, SON OF THE
AWAKE), WHICH SHOWS THAT AN INDI VIDUAL HAS ENOUGH MYSTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL POWERS, EVEN IF
HE LIVED ON AN ISLAND, TO REACH THE ULTIMATE TRUTH PROVIDED HE HAS THE DESIRED APTITUDE TO DO SO.

• THIS BOOK WAS TRANSLATED INTO LATIN BY POCOCKE AS PHILOSOPHICUS AUTODIDACTUS THAT INSPIRED
DANIEL DEFOE TO WRITE ROBINSON CRUSOE. THE ALLEGORY BY IBN TUFAYL IS ACTUALLY BASED ON THE
"FLOATING MAN" THOUGHT EXPERIMENT WRITTEN BY IBN SINA WHILE HE WAS PRISONED IN THE CASTLE OF
FARDAJAN (NEAR HAMADHAN) AND REFERS TO THE ACTIVE INTELLECT THROUGH WHICH GOD
COMMUNICATED HIS TRUTH TO HUMAN BEINGS.
• IN HIS ALLEGORY, IBN TUFAYL TRIES TO SHOW THAT NOT ONLY LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND EVEN RELIGION
MAY BE UNNECESSARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A PERFECT MIND-THEY MAY EVEN CAUSE HINDRANCE
IN SUCH DEVELOPMENT.

• HE DISTINGUISHES BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION BY SAYING THAT ALTHOUGH THEY TAKE TO
THE SAME TRUTH, PHILOSOPHY IS NOT MEANT FOR EVERYBODY.

• RELIGION ON THE OTHER HAND, TAKES AN EXOTERIC APPROACH TO UNDERSTAND THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
THROUGH SYMBOLS AND THE TRANSGRESSING OF RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY INTO EACH OTHER IS
BOUND TO FAIL. THIS ARGUMENT OF COURSE, WILL NOT BE ACCEPTABLE TO MANY SCHOLARS.
ABU'L WALID MUHAMAD BIN AHMAD
IBN RUSHD (1126-1198)
• HE MAINTAINED THAT THOUGHT IS PASSIVE, AND ABSTRACTION IS ACTIVE.
• THERE IS EXISTENCE OF FACULTY OF THE MIND, WHICH IS DESIGNED TO RECEIVE INTELLIGIBLE FORMS, FROM THE ACTIVE INTELLECT. THIS
FACULTY OR DISPOSITION IS REFERRED TO AS THE PAS SIVE INTELLECT OR THE IMAGINATION, AND SINCE IT IS PARTIALLY CONSTITUTED BY THE
BODY, IT PERISHES WITH IT.

• FOR IBN RUSHD, IF AN INDIVIDUAL IS TO UNDERSTAND SOMETHING, THE ACTIVE INTELLECT MUST BE CONNECTED WITH HIS MIND IN SOME WAY.
THE ACTIVE INTELLECT IS THE EFFICIENT CAUSE OF THE FORMS IN THE IMAGINATION, AND IS THE FORM OF HUMAN BEINGS IN THAT IT SPECIFIES
FOR THEM AS THEIR PROPER FUNCTION AND PRODUCTION OF ABSTRACT IDEA AND CONTEMPLATION.

• HE ARGUES THAT THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF INTELLECT. THEY ARE THE RECEIVING INTELLECT, THE PRODUCING INTELLECT, AND THE PRODUCED
INTELLECT. THE FIRST TWO OF THESE INTELLECTS ARE ETERNAL, BUT THE THIRD IS GENERABLE AND CORRUPTIBLE IN ONE SENSE, AND ETERNAL IN
ANOTHER SENSE. HE BELIEVED THAT WE CANNOT USE SENSATION ALONE AS THE OBJECT OF OUR THOUGHT, BUT MUST ALSO EMPLOY
IMAGINATION TO DETACH US SUFFICIENTLY FROM THE SENSE DATA, FOR OBJECTIVITY TO BE POSSIBLE.
• IBN RUSHD DESCRIBED THREE-FOLD HIERARCHY OF LEARNING. THE NATURE OF MAN IS ON DIFFERENT LEVELS
WITH RESPECT TO THEIR PATH TO ASSENT. ONE OF THEM COMES TO ASSENT THROUGH DIALECTICAL ARGUMENT
(JADALI). ANOTHER COMES TO AS SENT THROUGH DEMONSTRATION (BURHAN). THE THIRD COMES TO ASSENT
THROUGH RHETORICAL ARGUMENT (KHATABI).

• HE BELIEVES THAT THE REASON WHY WE RECEIVED A SCRIPTURE WITH BOTH APPARENT (ZAHIR) MEANING AND
THE INNER MEANING (BATIN) LIES IN THE DIVERSITY OF PEOPLES' NATURAL CAPACITIES AND THE DIFFERENCE OF
THEIR INNATE PREDISPOSITION WITH REGARD TO ASSENT. THE REASON WHY WE HAVE RECEIVED IN SCRIPTURE
TEXTS WHOSE APPARENT MEANING CONTRADICT EACH OTHER IS TO DRAW ATTENTION OF THOSE WHO ARE WELL
GROUNDED IN SCIENCE TO THE INTERPRETATION, WHICH RECONCILES THEM.
AKHR AL-DIN MUHAMMAD UMAR AL
RAZI (1149/50-1209)
• ACCORDING TO HIM, HUMAN SOUL DIFFERS IN NATURE; SOME ARE NOBLE, SOME ARE MEAN AND DEBASED. SOME ARE KIND AND
TENDER AND SOME DESPOTIC, DOMINATING; SOME DO NOT LIKE THE BODY AND SOME DESIRE TO RULE AND ACHIEVE POSITION.
THEY NEVER DEVIATE FROM THEIR NATURE AND DISPOSITION BUT BY TRAINING AND CAUTION THEY MAY CHANGE THEIR
MANNERS AND HABITS.

• AL RAZI IN HIS BOOK, KITAB AL NAFS WA'L RUH ANALYZES THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLEASURES AS SENSUOUS AND
INTELLECTUAL AND EXPLAINS THEIR COMPARATIVE RELATIONS WITH EACH OTHER.

• THE NATURE OF SENSUOUS PLEASURE FOR BOTH MAN AND ANIMALS DOES NOT CONSTITUTE THE DISTINCTIVE GOAL OF HUMAN
BLISS OF PERFECTION. IN FACT, AL RAZI ASSERTS THAT A CAREFUL SCRUTINY OF PLEASURE WOULD REVEAL THAT IT CONSISTS
ESSENTIALLY IN THE ELIMINATION OF PAIN. FOR INSTANCE, THE HUNGRIER A MAN IS, THE GREATER IS HIS ENJOYMENT OF
PLEASURE OF EATING.
• MOREOVER, THE GRATIFICATION OF PLEASURE IS PROPORTIONATE TO THE NEED OR DESIRE OF THE ANIMAL. WHEN THESE NEEDS ARE
SATISFIED OR DESIRES FULFILLED, THE PLEASURE ACTUALLY TURNS INTO REVULSION, EXCESS OF FOOD OR SEX RESULTS NOT IN MORE
PLEASURE, BUT IN PAIN. IN ADDITION, THE EXCESSIVE QUEST FOR BODILY PLEASURE AMOUNT TO A REPUDIATION OF HUMANITY.

• MAN IS NOT CREATED IN ORDER TO OCCUPY HIMSELF WITH THE SATISFACTION OF HIS BODILY PLEASURES, BUT RATHER TO ACHIEVE
INTELLECTUAL APPREHENSIONS AND CONTEMPLATE THE DIVINE PRESENCE AND GAZE ON THE DIVINE LIGHTS. HUMAN NEEDS AND
DESIRES ARE ENDLESS, AND ACCORDING TO AL RAZI, THEIR SATISFACTION IS BY DEFINITION IMPOSSIBLE.

• THUS, THE IMPORTANT MATTER OF THIS WORLD IS NOT ACCOMPLISHED THROUGH CONSTANT IMPROVEMENT AND FULFILLMENT BUT
RATHER THROUGH ABANDONING AND AVOIDING THEM. HE CONCLUDES THAT THE MENTAL PLEASURE IS NOBLE AND PERFECT THAN
THE SENSUAL PLEASURE AND SUGGESTS THAT THE EXCELLENCE AND PERFECTION OF A MAN IS ONLY REALIZED BY MEANS OF THE
SCIENCE, KNOWLEDGE, AND EXCELLENT MANNERS AND NOT BY EATING, DRINKING, AND MATING.
MUHYID-DIN MUHAMMAD IBN ALI (IBN
ARABI) (1164-1240)
IN THE AREA OF PSYCHOLOGY, IBN ARABI WROTE ON THE THEORY OF SOUL, PERCEPTION, THE NATURE OF DESIRE,
IMAGINATIONS AND DREAMS. HIS SUFI INTERPRETATION OF THE HEART IS THAT IT IS AN INSTRUMENT WHERE
ESOTERIC KNOWLEDGE IS REVEALED.
HEART IS NOT EHCONE-SHAPED PIECE OF FLESH IN THE CHEST BUT IT IS "CONNECTED WITH IT PHYSICALLY AS WELL
AS SPIRITUALLY BUT ALSO DIFFERENT FROM IT." HEART IS THE SYMBOL FOR THE RATIONAL ASPECT OF MAN BUT
NOT SAME AS INTELLECT-IT IS PART OF THE "UNIVERSAL REASON." THE HEART HAS AN "INNER EYE" THAT CAN
PERCEIVE REALITY. HOWEVER, THE EVIL THOUGHTS OF THE ANIMAL SOUL AND NEEDS OF THE MATERIAL WORLD CAN
EASILY BLIND THIS "INNER EYE." LIKE ARISTOTLE, IBN ARABI RECOGNIZED THREE ELEMENTS IN MAN-BODY, SOUL,
AND THE SPIRIT AND CLASSIFIED THE HUMAN SOUL INTO THREE ASPECTS, VEGETATIVE, ANIMAL, AND RATIONAL.
• HOWEVER, HE DID NOT EQUATE THE RATIONAL SOUL WITH THE INTELLECT. HUMAN SOUL FOR HIM IS A MODE OF THE UNIVERSAL SOUL
AND SPIRIT A MODE OF UNIVERSAL REASON. THE SPIRIT IS ALSO THE RATIONAL PRINCIPLE MEANT FOR SEEKING TRUE KNOWLEDGE.
WHILE THE VEGETATIVE SOUL SEEKS FOOD FOR THE ORGANISM, THE ANIMAL SOUL IS A SUBTLE VAPOR IN THE PHYSICAL HEART.

• THE RATIONAL SOULS WHICH IS ETERNAL IS A PURE SPIRIT BORN FREE OF SINS BUT SINS ACCUMULATE AS A RESULT OF CONFLICT
BETWEEN RATIONAL AND ANIMAL SOUL. INTELLECT IS ONE OF THE POWERS OF THE RATIONAL SOUL THAT FUNCTIONS DURING ITS
ASSOCIATION WITH THE BODY. THE RATIONAL SOUL IS ABSOLUTELY INDEPENDENT OF THE BODY AND CAN EXIST INDEPENDENTLY AS
IT DID BEFORE JOINING IT AND WILL EXIST AFTER LEAVING IT AS IN DEATH. HE EXPLAINS THAT KHAYAL OR IMAGINATION IS ALWAYS
ACTIVE, EVEN IN SLEEP RESULTING IN DREAMS THAT ARE AN ASSOCIATION OF IMAGES DESIRED BY THE INDIVIDUAL.

• HOWEVER, THE INDIVIDUAL SOUL MAY ALSO REVEAL ITSELF IN DREAMS, ALTHOUGH THE SYMBOLS THAT MUST BE INTERPRETED
CORRECTLY.
• CONTEMPORARY WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY AND THE DILEMMA OFMUSLIM PSYCHOLOGISTS .
REFERENCE

• HAQUE, A. (2004). PSYCHOLOGY FROM ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE: CONTRIBUTIONS OF EARLY MUSLIM

SCHOLARS AND CHALLENGES TO CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM PSYCHOLOGISTS. JOURNAL OF RELIGION AND
HEALTH, 43(4), 357-377.