UNIT-IV

Environmental Hygiene
(Credit Hours-3+1)
AIR POLLUTION
 Introduction
◦ Atmosphere:
Gaseous envelope surrounding a celestial body (earth)
It consists of a mixture of gases (air): vital for the propagation of life processes
◦ Atmospheric pollution:
The presence of substances in air in concentrations sufficient to cause harmful effects on the
health of animals & man, vegetation & property or to interfere with the enjoyment of life &
property
Pollution: means to make (air) impure or unwholesome

(Presence of dust, smoke, fumes, mist, odour or gases (including oxides of carbon, sulphur & nitrogen) in
quantities or of a duration that unreasonably alters the average (acceptable purity) condition of the
atmosphere)
 Pure and impure air
The composition (%) of fresh (pure) air by volume:
Component Percent
Nitrogen 20.946
◦ Oxygen 78.084
Argon 0.934
Total 99.964
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.0005
Krypton and methane 0.0001
Hydrogen and Nitrous oxide 0.00005

Xenon 0.000008
Variable components:
Vapour 0-5
Carbon dioxide 0.01-0.1 (average 0.032)
Ozone 0-0.01
Sulphur dioxide 0-0.0001
 Composition of air Cont…
◦ The composition:
 Change of season,
 Altitude &
 Solar activity

◦ Oxygen: highly reactive (oxidation)

 Exerts marked influence on various geochemical cycles
 Most of the atmospheric oxygen: photosynthesis & ultraviolet radioactivity
 Expired air: concentration reduced to 16.4%
concentration of CO2 increased to 4.24%
concentration of other gases: unaltered
 Sources of pollution
◦ The pollution of outdoor air from: diverse sources
Cause of pollution is traced to one or more of human activities
Ex.
Combustion of coal & oil: pollution by SO2, CO2 & NO
The treatment of wastes: release ammonia & H2S in the atmosphere
◦ The nature of pollution in an area will, therefore, be related to the type of activities
indulged in by the communities inhabiting the area
◦ Many natural sources: volcanoes and forest fires
 Zones of atmosphere
◦ Zones:
◦ Homosphere: chemically uniform up to above 100-
120 km the earth
◦ Heterosphere: above homosphere, structurally
uneven

◦ Altitude increases: change in temperature pattern of

atmosphere
On the basis of this change atmosphere has been
divided into 4 distinct strata/zones:
1. Trophosphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesophere
4. Thermosphere
 Zones of atmosphere cont….

1. Troposphere: 2. Stratosphere:
 Immediately above surface of earth,  Height from the earth: 40-50 km
 A gradual decline in temperature
 Thin layer above troposphere
 Uniform temperature
 Thickness: 10-20 km
 The zone comprises of ozone layer
 At 20 km the temperature falls to -56O C (from 150 C)  Protects the earth against the ill-effects of UV
 The rate of temperature drop: 6.40 C/100 m irradiation
 The zone contains: 99% mass of gases found in the  Ozone shield increases the temperature from -
atmosphere (nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide) 560 C to -20 C at 50 km height
3. Mesophere: 4. Thermosphere:
 Height from the earth: 70-80 km  Height from the earth: above 80 km
 Marked reduction in the temperature  Temperature: very high (upto 12000 C)
 At an altitude of 70 km,
 Thickness of the zone is 500 km
 the temperature falls to -92 C (from -2 C)
o 0
 It contains O2, nascent oxygen & nitrogen oxide.
 Influence
The atmospheric pollution is influenced:of metrological
meteorological conditions
conditions present in an area
Meteorological factors influences: magnitude of vertical & horizontal transfer of air pollution

Major parameters are:

Temperature:
 Direct bearing on the movement of air pollutants
 Influences the diffusion of pollutants
Wind:
 The direction & speed of wind is an important determinant in the movement of air pollutants
Humidity
 Influences the precipitation of pollutants on earth
 Many toxic pollutants combine with water vapor precipitate to the surface of earth
Atmospheric pressure
 Influenced the movement of pollutants in an area
 Important consideration for many pollutional parameter
 Air pollution: a historical perspective
1. Meuse Valley (Belgium), December, 1930
◦ The area was covered by a blanket of thick fog for about 5 days
◦ More than 60 persons died as a result of toxicity due to oxides of
sulphur (and metals) & soot
◦ A large section of the population became ill

2. Donora (Pennsylvania), October, 1948

◦ Intense foggy condition that lasted few days.
◦ A large proportion of the population (more than 40%) became ill due to
exposure to
◦ Manifested ocular & throat irritation, cough & other respiratory
symptoms &vomiting
◦ Caused due to excessive sulphur compounds including sulphuric acid
from industries
 Air pollution: a historical perspective
3. London, December, 1952, 1962
 Famous smog disaster (1952) for 5 days
 Death of thousands people, children & the old
 Caused acute respiratory disease in cattle
 Another episode of smog (Dec., 1962) that also caused substantial morbidity& mortality
 Sulphur compounds: probable causes of the illness

4. New York (United States)

 Air pollution disasters were reported during 1953, 1962 & 1966
 The smog caused substantial morbidity and mortality in 1962

5. Bhopal (India),1984
 Leakage of a toxic gas (methyl isocynate) from a pesticide plant.
 More than 5000 people died
 Many more thousands were affected by a variety of illnesses including respiratory dysfunction,
blindness & deformities in the infants
 Air pollution: a historical perspective
◦ Chernobyl (erstwhile USSR), 1986
 Most famous radiation disasters that occurred in as a result of massive leakage of
radioactivity from a nuclear reactor
 The melting of & explosion in the reactor led to death of about 2000 persons &
contamination of the environment in the neighboring areas

o Los Angeles (California)

 The smog pollution in the city has more to do with petrol than coal
 The area is highly industrialized and densely populated
 The problem that was associated with various respiratory symptoms was recognized as
early as 1940(s)
 Caused ocular & respiratory irritation& damage to vegetation
 Air pollution: a historical perspective
◦ Coal dust explosion (China, 1942 and Chasnala, India, 1957)
◦ Forest fires (South East Asia, 1997-98): impact on health & productivity

◦ Nitrogen oxide & hydrocarbons present in the atmosphere (following use of petrol
by the automobiles) reacted with sunlight
◦ Toxic compounds were produced through a photochemical reaction between
sunlight & the two pollutants
◦ The photochemical smog pollution of 1969 has been reported in detail as a part of
episode 104 (associated with hurricane Camille emanating from Gulf of Mexico)
 Classification of air pollutants

A wide variety of pollutants are present in the atmosphere

In order to understand their impact on health & ecology, & to evolve appropriate
strategies for their control, the pollutants are classified in a number of ways:

(1) Source of emission,

(2) Physico-chemical characteristics &
(3) Effects on life processes
 Sources of air pollutants
Sources
Natural sources Man induced activities

Geochemical contamination, Incineration: wood, coal, petroleum products,

 Photochemical reactions, Automobile industry: oxides of sulphur &
 Change in climatic conditions, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, smoke & fly ash
 Volcanic eruptions, Oil refineries
 Gaseous discharge from marshes & swamps, Iron/steel mills, fertilizer plants & rendering
 Forest fires units metal fumes & fluorides into the atmosphere
 Dust, fog & radiation fall-outs Agricultural, textile, paper & pharmaceutical
 Microbial agents industries
Dust particles: milling, crushing /grinding
pesticide & drug residues
Organic/inorganic vapours
 Physico-chemical characteristics
Two major groups

Particulate pollutants: Gaseous pollutants:

 Dust particles,  Oxides of Sulphur & Nitrogen,
 Mist,  Carbon monoxide
 Fly ash  Hydrogen sulphide
 Droplets,  Vapours of gasoline &
 Fog, trichlorethylene
 Smoke,
 Fumes & soot
Toxic to animals & man
Organic decomposition of waste
Methanogenesis: methane (gobar gas) &
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide: respiration
 Effects of pollutants
◦ Direct bearing on the health of animals & man, & planetary bio-diversity

◦ Toxic gases & substances present in the atmosphere cause:

 Retardation of growth,
 Promote ageing,
 Bleaching of leaves
 Necrosis in plants

◦ The degree of damage:

 Dose of pollutant &
 Duration of exposure

◦ Loss of valuable plant materials especially around industrial areas

◦ damage to physical structures, monuments and buildings.

Ex: damage of Taj Mahal
 Effects of pollutants
◦ Nonirritant pollutants (carbon monoxide) may not always be associated with overt clinical
manifestations.
◦ Studies have shown that zinc & lead pollution of air: marked fatalities in cattle & horses in Germany
◦ Arsenic: Bloody diarrhea, vomiting & excessive thirst in animals
◦ Smog pollution: Variety of respiratory problems in animals
◦ Lead pollution: Teeth grinding & laryngeal paralysis (roaring sound) in cattle
◦ Fluorosis: Cattle & sheep reared near brick kilns and iron/steel aluminum plants & ceramic factories
 In soil (0.1-1.0 g/kg)
 Water (in some areas in India, 25 mg/litre)
 Air (Volcanic eruptions & in the dust particles originating from soil)
 Conditions: lameness, mottled teeth, fragile bones & loss of milk yield in dairy cattle

◦ Metallic pollutants: Induce anaemia & emaciation in animals

 Effects of pollutants
◦ In humans (atmospheric pollution due to metallic & gaseous substances is manifested by
 Bronchitis, pulmonary asthma & inflammation of upper respiratory tract

◦ Nitrogen oxide: Pulmonary oedema & congestion

◦ Sulphur oxide: Injury to mucosa
◦ Ozone: Effects similar to ionizing radiation
◦ Carbon monoxide: Depriciation of blood oxygen level following its combination with haemoglobin)
◦ Particulate matter have been described in detail by many workers
 Pollution within animal houses

 The quality of environment within animal houses: on the health of animals & their productivity
 High densities of animals: not well ventilated lead to accumulation of excessive moisture and carbon
dioxide
 Atmospheric oxygen level to 10-12% may not prove fatal to animals,
 An increase of atmospheric Carbon dioxide level to 6.0% may lead to asphyxia
 A concentration of Carbon dioxide 30% for some hours could result in death
 In horses Carbon dioxide concentration of 3-5% may cause rapid breathing
 A combination of high moisture & carbon dioxide makes animals uncomfortable & leads to a reduction in
production
◦ Major gases: include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide & methane besides carbon dioxide
◦ Ammonia: irritating gas that is frequently found in the dirty farm houses
◦ Concentration between 0.04% and 0.5% of the gas causes much irritation of mucous membranes,
asphyxia and death.
◦ Hydrogen sulphide (0.01 - 0.14%): irritation of eyes, throat & nose, & lung oedema
◦ Excessive amounts of methane may prove explosive
◦ Turbulence activity may also lead to production of harmful particulate pollutants
 Microbial pollution of air
◦ A variety of microbes are carried by air
◦ Meteorological conditions (temperature, humidity, solar radiation)
◦ Amount of particulate & gaseous pollutants contribute immensely to the variation in the load
and type of microbes
◦ Most of the atmospheric microflora emanates from the soil or due to stirring action induced by
animal/human activity within the animal houses
◦ The microbes are adsorbed on the dust particles
◦ Carried over long distances under favorable weather conditions (high wind velocity) especially
during outbreaks of diseases
◦ A large numbers of organisms (many of them pathogens) can be transmitted through air in an
area
◦ Animals suffering from respiratory diseases discharge the microorganisms during sneezing &
coughing
◦ In man:
Sneeze can release upto 10,000-10,00,000 droplets
Microbes released by animal & human sources survive in the environment for varying
lengths of time
Some organisms may not survive for more than few minutes (Leptospira in dry
atmosphere),
Can resist the adverse environmental conditions for as long as 28 years (spores of
Bacillus anthracis in soil)
Brucellae can survive in soil for about one month
Exposure to sunlight causes destruction of many environmental microorganisms
(Mycobacterium spp)
In soil: mycobacteria can survive for upto 6 months
 Measurement of air contamination
◦ The microbial load of moving air is determined
To assess the level of contamination within a building or given area

◦ Several techniques are used

To collect the samples & conduct qualitative & quantitative analysis of air
1. Sedimentation
2. Impaction
3. Impingement
4. Precipitation
5. Filtration
6. Sieve cascade sampler
 Methods of air sampling
1. Sedimentation (settling plate method)
◦ Permits settlement of atmospheric air on the surface of an agar plate for 10 min
or more
◦ It does not allow the settlement of suspended particles the air

2. Impaction
 Collecting the atmospheric particles on the surface of a solid/semi-solid agar
medium
 Air centrifuge is used
 The air flow on the sides of a rotating cylinder lined with a culture medium
 Suitable for large sized particles
 A better known device called slit sampler is preferred by many to test air quality
 The air is sucked through a slit onto a rotating culture plate kept underneath the
device
 The flow rate one cu ft .( 28.3 cu cm)/min
 Rotation rate is kept at 0.5, 2 or 6 min/revolution
 Methods of air sampling

3. Impingement
 To collect atmospheric particles in a liquid medium
 The air is sucked through a glass instrument at a defined rate into the fluid
 The microbial load: determined by examining the fluid

4. Precipitation
 The precipitation of atmospheric particles in two ways:
1. Thermal precipitation
 A slowly moving air current (3 lit/min) is directed between heated & cooled
surfaces (distance 0.038 cm)
 The heated wire/surface repulses the particles towards cold surface
 They get collected in cold surface
 The organisms are then transferred on to the agar medium
2. Electrostatic precipitation
 Collects the organisms on the basis of their electric charge
 It is a highly efficient instrument for collecting the airborne particles
 Methods of air sampling

5. Filtration
 The microorganisms are trapped on a filter (cotton, glass wool or paper) or membrane
filter
 Membrane filter technique is considered to be better for the purpose
 Air is filtered through the membrane
 The particles (with microbes) are impunged on this membrane
 The membrane is then placed on a paper saturated with an appropriate medium &
incubated

6. Sieve (cascade) samplers

 It is desired to collect samples of air on the basis of the particle size of the
pollutant
 Sieves of varying sizes are arranged in a cascading manner (one upon the other)
 Larger particles are collected on top
 Smaller ones towards the bottom sieves
 Cascade impactor is a highly efficient trap
 Control of air pollution
◦ Minimize the production & release of pollutants near the animal or human dwellings
◦ Control of dust particles: by improving sanitary conditions within the houses
◦ Frequent washings of floor & equipment: controlling the dust within the buildings
◦ Vacuum cleaners: used effectively
◦ Proper ventilation: a prompt clearance of foul gases & particulate pollutants
Filters can be installed to check the entry of external contaminants
o Use of laminar air flow systems for closed compartments/ cabins
Allows unidirectional passage of air through cellulose acetate filters