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Testing methods in tribology of polymeric composites

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International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (IJMME), Vol.6 (2011), No.3, 367-373

TESTING METHODS IN TRIBOLOGY OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITES

U. Nirmal, J. Hashim and S.T.W. Lau

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Multimedia University,
Jalan Ayer Keroh Lama, 75450, Melaka, Malaysia.
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Received 2 December 2011, Accepted 18 December 2011

ABSTRACT a car engine versus time) can be improved by means of

This article attempts to describe some of the testing extending its life span using tribology technology.
methods commonly used in tribology. It namely
illustrates the contact of solid mechanics and nature of
surface interaction. With the advent of sustainable
development, composite materials now become more
prominent in many applications. Many natural fibres in
polymeric composites are being introduced in aviation
industry, construction, industrial applications,
automotive parts, bearing and many others, making
tribo-testing more demanding. Relevant to this, the
testing methods elaborated here are focused on the
different types of wear test rigs used for testing of solid
specimens for composite materials. Different
mechanisms of wear and sliding friction of materials
subjected to different wear test rigs which are built
based on ASTM standards simulating the real time
conditions are explained. Typical factors contributing
to the wear performance of a material such as
interfaces temperature (i.e. test specimen / counterface) a) The human skeleton
under dry and wet tribo-testing conditions and
roughness property are also detailed.

Keywords: Tribology testing methods, wear test rigs,

roughness, composite material, natural fibre.

1. INTRODUCTION
Tribology is defined as the study of friction, wear and
lubrication of interacting surfaces in relative motion.
The importance of tribology at present time is crucial
since most design applications involve ‘wear and tear’
process when subjected to relative motion. Medalia
(1980) reported that about 63% of wear has
contributed to the total cost of industries. Interestingly,
these contribution factors (friction, heat, wear, etc.)
cannot be eliminated completely; however, they can be b) Four stroke inline engine
minimized. According to the famous law regarding Figure 1: Typical spots on the importance of tribology
conservation of energy, it states that the total amount
of energy created can never be destroyed; it can only From the past decade up to present time, many
be transformed from one state to another, for an researchers had introduced advance materials as a
example, kinetic energy is transformed into useful substitute to the conventionally used materials as these
work, friction and heat dissipation to the surroundings. modified materials are excellent in wear and friction,
To link the above idea in terms of tribology, Figure 1 light in weight and improved life span (El-Tayeb,
is presented. It illustrates two typical examples relating 1997). For an instance, Nautiyal et al. (1983) observed
wear process due to relative motion; the human that the factors responsible for wear of a piston ring
skeleton (c.f. Figure 1a) and the inline four stroke sliding against cast iron combustion chamber were its
engine (c.f. Figure 1b). Thus, depending on the surface temperature, peak combustion pressure, total
severity of the wear process, these areas (red spots) energy of the wearing surfaces and other physical
have a certain period of life span. This naturally properties of the material under sliding. As such Dahm
occurring process (i.e. the decrease of output power of et al. (2003) proposed to replace the conventional
367
piston rings with ceramic matrix nano composite the drum rotates at a desired speed with the help of the
piston rings as the latter had smooth wear (i.e. micro drive chain. The speed of the specimen and the drum
scale wear) which contributed in low wear rates during can be controlled by means of a speed controller
the test. Nevertheless, new applications involving incorporated at the motor system. Test can be abrasive
natural fibres in polymeric composites are being if drum is coated with abrasive paper of different
introduced in various areas such as housing grades. Without abrasive paper, test is adhesive. Drum
construction materials (Hariharan et al., 2005), can be of different material (i.e. stainless steel,
industrial applications (Satyanarayana et al., 1990), aluminum, cast iron, mild steel, etc) based on the
automotive parts fabrication (John et al., 2008), suitability of the test conducted simulating the real
bearing applications (El-Sayed et al., 1995), structural time conditions. Application of test involves sliding of
and non-structural applications (Sreekala et al., 2002). goods on rotating rollers or conveyer belts (Rajesh et
Hence, scientific principles and calculating methods of al., 2002; Stevenson et al., 1996; Mutton 1978;
creating new materials / composites and estimation of Mutton, 1980; Blickensderfer et al., 1988).
its wear resistance of friction nodes as well as physical
simulation of friction and wear processes on a small-
sized laboratory test machine need to be carried out Hopper
experimentally before a proposed material/composite
is commercially introduced in the market (Dahm, et al.,
2003; Pogosian 1973). Prior to this, a suitable type of Rubber Wheel
wear test rig should be used with appropriate
parameters selected which reflect the real time
application of the material/composite. Examples of this
parameters are testing techniques, type of counterface
used against the test samples, sliding velocities, sliding
distances, applied loads, contact conditions and Specimen
orientations of the test specimen with respect to the
sliding direction of the counterface.
Figure 2: Schematic view of a dry sand rubber wheel
Having such knowledge, a tribo-testing machine which wear test rig
is capable to simulate the wear and frictional test based
on the selected parameters is developed. From Travel
Power screw
available published works, there are numerous types of Weights
tribo-testing machines. They differ with one another
based on the suitability of the test for a specific
application. Thus, the aim of this paper is to explain Drive chain
the various types of tribo-testing machines used in
performing different types of test which reflects the Chuck Motor
Specimen
real time conditions. In conjunction to that, the work
further illustrates on common ways in presenting
data/results upon completion of a tribological
experiment/test. Drum

2. TYPES OF TRIBO-TESTING MACHINES Shaft

2.1 Dry sand rubber wheel
Figure 3: Schematic view of a pin on drum wear test rig
Its schematic is shown in Figure 2. It is built based on
ASTM G65 standard where its recommended
2.3 Linear tribo machine
specimen size is 70mm x 20mm x 7mm. The rubber
The schematic view of the linear tribo machine is
wheel is in contact with the specimen when a load is
presented in Figure 4. Its stainless steel counterface
applied. Sand particles (i.e. fine, grain or coarse) are
moves linearly with the help of the power screw which
introduced at a certain flow rate to the rubbing zone
is directly coupled to the motor. Test can be abrasive
during the test. The flow rate can be varied based on
when the stainless steel container is filled with
the outlet diameter of the sand hopper. Since it
abrasive particles, else the test is purely adhesive. A
involves sand, the test is abrasive. Adhesive testing is
frictional indicator is connected to a load cell to
possible if sand is not used. Typical application of test
measure frictional forces and a speed controller is used
involves the wear performance of tire treads, bushes,
to vary the counterface sliding speed. Dead weights are
bearings and rollers (Pogosian 1973; Rajesh et al.,
applied parallel to the test specimen. The counterface
2002; Kim et al., 2002)
can be of different material for different test
.
conditions. For the adhesive test, water can be
2.2 Pin on drum
incorporated in the sliding container for the purpose of
Figure 3 illustrates the pin on drum wear test rig. It is
simulating the wear under wet contact conditions.
built based on ASTM A514 standard. The specimen
Application of test involving linear tribo machine
travels linearly with the help of the power screw while
368
replicates the characteristics of linear sliding of constant contact area of interest (Hummel et al., 2004;
window panels, doors, hinges and drawers. Mergler et al., 2004; Bijwe et al., 2002;Bijwe et al.,
2001).

Weights
Specimen
Pivot
Counterface

Counter
weight Load
balancer cell

Specimen holder Shaft

Figure 6: Schematic view of a pin on disc tribo test
machine

2.6 Block on disc

Figure 4: Schematic view of a linear tribo machine Figure 7 illustrates a portable block on disc tribo test
machine which is built on a small scale. It is designed
2.4 Block on ring in accordance with ASTM G99 standard. Specimen
A schematic view of a block on ring tribo test machine with size of 10mm x 10mm x 20mm is subjected
is presented in Figure 5. It is built in accordance with vertically to the counterface where the contact area is
ASTM G77, G137-95 standards. The specimen with constant. A portable infrared thermometer can be
size of 10mm x 20mm x 50mm is in contact parallel to incorporated to the block on disc machine for the
the side of the counterface. Contact area of the test purpose of measuring interfaces temperatures during
specimen subjected to the counterface is variable. A the test. Test can be adhesive and abrasive subjected to
load cell is directly incorporated in the load lever of dry sliding mode. A speed controller unit is connected
the machine to capture frictional forces during the test. to the motor to vary the counterface speed while a
A counter weight balancer is incorporated at the end of digital frictional indicator is connected directly to the
machine’s load lever to balance the lever arm prior load cell to capture frictional forces during the test
testing. This is done when no load is applied. (Hummel et al., 2004; Mergler et al., 2004; Bijwe et
Depending on the nature of the test, counterface can be al., 2002; Bijwe et al., 2001).
of various types (i.e. metal, cast iron, titanium,
aluminum, stainless steel, etc). Generally, this test is Infrared Thermometer Normal Load
Load Cell
simulated for applications such as sliding or rolling
wear behavior of tire treads, pulleys, camshafts and
bearings materials (PihtIlI et al., 2002; Reinicke et
al.,1998)
.
Specimen Friction
Weights Indicator
Pivot
Counterface

Counter Counterface Speed

weight Motor Controller
balancer
Specimen Load Figure 7: Schematic view of a block on disc tribo test
cell machine
Specimen holder
3. PRESENTATION OF DATA / RESULTS
Figure 5: Schematic view of a block on ring tribo test Various methods are adopted to present / display the
machine characteristics behaviour on wear and frictional
performance of a desired material. This section
2.5 Pin on disc summarizes some common methods on data
Its schematic view is presented in Figure 6. Built based presentation as it is mostly preferred by worldwide
on ASTM G99 standard, its working principle is the researchers.
same as block on ring. However, the test specimen
with size of 10mm x 10mm 20mm subjected to the 3.1 Wear performance
counterface exhibits a constant contact area throughout Wear process of a material can be defined as the
the test. The test specimen is set perpendicular and tendency of a material to loose weight from the
horizontal to the counterface. Typical application of removal and deformation process on the material
test includes sliding wear of various materials where surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite

369
surface due to relative motion (Hummel et al., 2004; contacting surfaces are smooth ( 0 ). In regard to
Harsha et al., 2002). Many researchers prefer to this, many reported works used various grades of
express wear performance of a material in terms of abrasive sand papers to achieve a relatively smooth
specific wear rate. Specific wear rate can be defined as surface by the contacting bodies. After due research,
follows: Figure 8 proposes one possible way in achieving
V smooth surfaces between the test specimen and
WS (1)
Fn . D counterface before experiment start-up.
where; Ws = Specific wear rate, mm3/N.m, ∆V = Wear track region
Volume difference, mm3, Fn = Normal applied load, N,
D = Sliding distance, m. Therefore, the wear
performance of a material is said to be superior if the
specific wear rate is low (i.e. material / specimen
exhibits low volume loss). However, there are a lot of
other factors contributing to the wear performance of a Top view
material subjected to tribological test. Naming a few,
the contact condition of the test specimen (i.e. dry /
wet), orientation of the test specimen with respect to
the sliding direction of the counterface and the types of
reinforcements used (i.e. natural fibre / resin) are Counterface
critical factors / parameters in affecting the wear
performance of a material.
Test specimen
3.2 Frictional performance
Friction performance of a material can be defined as
the force resisting the relative motion between two Rotating
sliding interfaces. Generally, higher frictional Fn 10 N direction
performance implies the superiority of a material in
exhibiting low friction coefficient values during
tribological testing. Friction coefficient can be
expressed as follow: Contacting surfaces polished with:
Fr
(2)
Grade 200
Fn
where; = Friction coefficient, Fr = Friction force, N, Grade 400
Fn = Normal force, N. Theoretically, the component of Cleaned with
Grade 600 liquid acetone
Fr is contributed by two main elements such as
adhesion force, Fa , and deformation or ploughing Grade 800
force, Fd (El-Sayed et al., 1995). Their corresponding
Water introduced
relation to friction force is shown in Eq. (3). Grade 1000
when polishing

Fr Fa Fd (3) Grade 2000

Fa can be determined from the shear strength ( s ) End

multiply with area of material contact ( A ); Eq. (4) Figure 8: Proposed flow chart in achieving smooth
(Rabinowicz 1995) while Fd is expressed in Eq. (5) interacting surface before experimental start-up
(Rabinowicz 1995; Stolarski 2003; Bhushan 1999).
3.3 Temperature performance
Fa s A (4)
It is important to relate/include temperature
2 Fn tan characteristics of a material when conducting tribology
Fd (5) tests. This is because under dry adhesive wear, surface
temperature of the interacting surfaces increases over
where; θ is the attack angle / roughness angle of the
time. Hence, effects of thermo-mechanical loading will
asperity. In summary, it can be said that from Eq. (3), be more significant on the softer phase (Bhushan
(4) and (5), there are multiple factors affecting the 2001). This affects the wear and frictional performance
frictional coefficient of a material. Factors such as the of a material over long duration of experimental
roughness angle of the asperity with respect to the testing. Following to this, few techniques have been
contacting surface can be minimized when the
370
adopted in measuring temperatures during tribological However, the main limitation here is due to the design
test. One of the most convenient ways is by using an of the machine itself which limits the placement of the
infrared thermometer (Bhushan 2001). From Figure 9, infrared thermometer close to the test specimen. To
an infrared thermometer is placed at a fix horizontal minimize the measurement error of interfaces
distance ‘x’ away from the test specimen. Accordingly, temperature, El-Tayeb et al., (2005) incorporated a
interfaces temperatures can be measured during the thermocouple in an un-through hole of 2 mm in
test. However, it is to be highlighted here that the diameter which was pre-drilled on the test specimens
accuracy of temperature measurement varies with the (i.e. hole located approximately 0.75 mm above the
distance ‘x’. For example, a temperature measurement test specimen contacting surface with counterface)
at x = 1 m will differ with x = 2 m for the same test during composite fabrication. Following to this, an
conditions. In other words, temperature measurements external heat source was supplied to the counterface by
will be more accurate when the infrared thermometer means of a Bunsen burner. Concurrently, two
is placed closer to the test specimen. temperature readings were recorded, i.e. from infrared
thermometer and thermocouple device (c.f. Figure
0.747 10a). Based on the results obtained, a calibration graph
was generated where the calibrated linear equation (c.f.
Infra red
thermometer Figure 10b) was used to determine the real interface
x
temperatures. This method was reported to be more
accurate (i.e. up to 90% accuracy in temperature
Tripod stand
Counterface
recordings) (Yousif, et al., 2010; El-Tayeb et al., 2005;
Nirmal, 2008) as compared to other measurement
techniques (Chang 1983; Hanmin et al.,1987; Malay et
al., 1982; Zaidi et al.,1999).
Figure 9: Incorporation of an infrared thermometer to
measure interfaces temperatures (Nirmal, 2008) Table 1: Methods in expressing roughness property
Symbol Brief description
Rq Root mean square average
Rsk Skewness average
Rku Kurtosis average
Rt P-V distance average
(P-V: highest asperity to the lowest valley
found anywhere along the profile length)

Rp Maximum P-M distance average

(P-M: height of the highest asperity and
the mean line within one sampling length)

Rv Maximum valley depth average

a) Temperature calibration process Rz Average peak to valley height
(Yousif et al., 2010) Rpm Average peak to mean height
100 Rmr Material ratio average
Rk Core roughness depth average
90
C

Rpk Reduced peak height average

o

80 Rvk Reduced valley depth average

Thermocouple temperature,

70

60
Asperity (peak) Center datum line
50

40 g h i j k l q r
A a c m n o p s t B
b d e f
30
Equation: y = 9.6875x + 25.323
20 Valley
30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Infinitesimal area
Infrared temperature, oC
b) Profile length, n
b)Corresponding calibration graph (Nirmal, 2008)
Figure 10: Temperature calibration process with Figure 11: Graphical illustration in determining
corresponding calibration graph roughness average, Ra (Nirmal, 2008)

371
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