UNIT-1: AIR POLLUTION

Air Pollution:
“Pollution is an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristic of air, water and soil that may harmfully affect the life or create a
potential life hazard of any living organism especially for man.”

OR

“Pollution is an unwanted alteration to the Earth’s natural resources, usually with

a negative impact on human health or life style.”

Composition of Atmosphere:
 Clean air is made up of nitrogen, oxygen and argon with traces of other
gases such as carbon dioxide.
 But natures try to balance the natural composition of environment which is
disturbed by human being.
 Plants and forests have an important contribution in it because it takes
harmful carbon dioxide in respiration and releases life giving oxygen.
 The nature accepts general exploitation but unusual exploitation harms air
composition badly.

Element Parts per Million (ppm)

Nitrogen 780,800
Oxygen 209,500
Argon 9,300
Carbon dioxide 300
Neon 18.2
Helium 5.2
Krypton 1.1
Hydrogen 0.5
Nitrous oxide 0
 According to WHO (World Health Organization)

“Air pollution results mainly from gaseous emissions of industry, thermal power
stations, automobiles, domestic, combustions, smoke from the fire etc. From the
different sources of air pollution, a variety of pollutants are released into
atmosphere.”

Our atmosphere covers the earth as a blanket in which there is the combination
of various gases which protects living beings from Ultraviolet Radiations. This
atmosphere helps in spreading radio waves as a medium.

Source of Environmental Pollution:

After starting of industrial revolution societies began to produce wastes faster

than the wastes could be disposed of these wastes accumulate in the
environment and cause pollution.

Pollution is an undesired change in air, water, or soil that adversely affects the
health, survival, or activities of humans or other organisms.

Sources of Pollution

1. Natural Pollution
2. Man-made Pollution (Artificial Pollution)

1. Natural Pollution
 Such pollution takes place naturally, they cannot be stopped but they can
help by management at correct time through prediction.
 For example-land slide, volcanic explosion, storm, etc.

According to their nature, they can be divided into three parts:

a) Bio-degradable Pollutants: Such pollutants which are naturally
decomposed easily by temperature, air, humidity, bacteria or animals, as:
the rubbish produced by human being in everyday life, the cardboard taken
from the houses, vegetables, dirty water etc. They come in the series of
bio-degradable pollutants.
b) Slow Bio-degradable Pollutants: Such pollutants which are not naturally
decomposed easily, these pollutants can stay in their original form for a
long time, as: plastic can stay without decomposition up to 1500 year.
c) Non-degradable Pollutants: Such pollutants living in the atmosphere for
centuries spread their harmful effect. Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), and
Aluminum (Al) atomic and nuclear waste come in this series.

2. Man-made Pollution

Such pollution is found in milking more than necessity of natural resources

unnaturally by man, urbanization and industrialization are the chief reason, as:
industrial rubbish, sewage, cutting of forests etc.

Sources of Man-Made Pollution:

1. Transportation:
 Transportation is a major source of air pollutants.
 Vehicles are probably the largest single source of pollutants such
as hydrocarbons, nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide.
 Other harmful emissions include as lead, benzene, arsenic,
aldehydes, sulphates, particulate matter and the secondary
creation of ozone.
 The lead content of petrol is 4 g/ L which is higher than the
permitted levels of other parts of the world.
 The national vehicle population has significantly increased in
recent years.

2. Industrial Processes:
 Major industries in India are located near in the large cities.
 Many industries are situated between residential areas and any
pollutants emitted by the industries are dispersed and eventually
deposited in the residential areas resulting in serious impacts on
the health of the residents.
  Typical examples of industrial emissions include sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), methane
(CH4), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) and particulate
matter.
 Most of emissions originate from industrial processes such as
metallurgical plants and smelters, chemical plants and petroleum
refineries, cement production, fertilizer and synthetic rubber
manufacturing, pulp and paper milling.
 Heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium, etc.) are emitted from
smelters, brass works and secondary lead plants and coal
combustion.

3. Industrial and Non-industrial Fugitive Processes:

 Process fugitive particles are not emitted from a definable point
such as a stack.
 Industrial fugitive dust emissions result from wind erosion of
storage piles and unpaved roads.
 Fugitive emissions result from industry-related operations such as
materials handling, loading and transfer operations.
 The mining, transportation and storage of coal are results in
fugitive emission of pollutants; mainly methane.
 Volatile hydrocarbons vaporize when fuels such as gasoline and
natural gas escape from storage tanks are being transferred from
one tank to another.
 Non-industrial fugitive emissions are caused by traffic
entrainment of dust from public paved and unpaved roads,
agricultural operations, construction and fires.

4. The Energy Production:

 In India most of the energy is derived from burning carbon-based
fuels such as coal, petroleum products and wood.
  Wood fuel is the main energy source for over 90 % of the rural
population.
 The productive sector accounts for about 31% of energy use, the
residential sector about 52 % and the transport sector about 11%.

5. Waste Management:
 The treatment of noxious wastes is a major source of air pollution.
 Dump burning is done to reduce waste volume and to destroy
harmful organic materials but it can result in emissions of large
quantities of particulate matter, of which consists of unburned
garbage and offensive odours.
 Dump burning may also put significant amounts of harmful
chemicals into the atmosphere, especially if the dump contains
tyres, petroleumbased wastes and industrial chemicals.
 In addition, highly toxic emissions of particulate matter such as
dioxins, hydrochloric acid and heavy metals can result during
poorly managed incineration of domestic, hospital and industrial
waste.
 Burning of wastes in residential areas also contributes to the
emissions.

6. Agricultural Activities:
 Agricultural is a key sector of the economy of India and emission
of pollutants occur from several sources.
 Burning of crop residue is a major source of hydrocarbons and
particulate matter.
 Livestock emit methane and ammonia. Savanna burning emits
large amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and substantial amounts
of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and methane (CH4).
 Manure management and enteric fermentation emit methane.
 The spraying of the fields with pesticides, use of herbicides and
dusting also contribute small amounts of pollutants.
 Causes of Environmental Pollution:

Following are the many causes of environmental pollution:

 Urbanization causes environmental pollution.

 Over-population causes environmental pollution.
 Road transportation causes environmental pollution.
 Engineering activities causes environmental pollution.
 Mining and blasting cause’s environmental pollution.
 Deforestation causes environmental pollution.
 Industrial rubbish causes environmental pollution.
 Over-irrigation causes environmental pollution.

Structure of Atmosphere
Our atmosphere can be divided into five levels. Various situations are found on
various levels. They are:

1. Troposphere :
 The troposphere is the first layer of the Earth’s atmosphere.
 All the events related to seasons take place in this sphere, such
asformation of clouds, lightning.
 Its height is from 8 km to 12 km and 3/4 part of atmosphere is
included in it.

2. Stratosphere:
 The stratosphere is the second major layer of the Earth’s
atmosphere.
 The height of the stratosphere is about 50 km from the surface of
the earth. We also call it protective shield.
 The ozone layer is also available in it which protects from harmful
ultraviolet rays.
 This ozone layer is mostly harmed by chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
3. Mesosphere :
 The mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly
above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere.
 In the mesosphere, the temperature decreases as altitude
increases.
 The height of this sphere is about 80 km from the surface of the
earth.

4. Thermosphere:
 The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth’s atmosphere directly
above the mesosphere and below the exosphere.
 The height of thermosphere is about 600 to 650 km from the
Earth’s surface.
 It checks cosmic rays of the sun and acts to reflect radio waves to
the earth.
 Due to these radio waves we are able to talk without satellite as
used by the soldiers.

5. Exosphere:
 The exosphere is the uppermost layer of Earth’s atmosphere,
where the atmosphere thins out and merges with interplanetary
space.
 It is located directly above the thermosphere.
 The most common molecules within Earth’s exosphere are those
of the lightest atmospheric gases.
 Hydrogen is present throughout the exosphere, with some He,
CO2 and atomic oxygen near its base.
 Structure of Atmosphere

Effects of Air Pollution:

Following are the various effects of air pollution:

1. Effect on Atmosphere:

 It is found increment in the temperature in extreme industries,

motor vehicles, heat and gases emitted from AC and dense
populated urban region.
 Gradually this temperature forms heat island on increasing.
  When smoke and dust covers the sky in plentiful quantity, the heat
obtained from the sun goes back into the space on being reflected by
smoke and dust.
 Due to this there is a fall in temperature and it causes the danger of
snow fall.

2. Depletion of Ozone Layer:

 In the atmosphere, 12 km above from the earth, ozone layer in

stratosphere is disarranged which prevents ultraviolet rays by 99%.
 Generally, refrigerators, fire brigades, CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) gas
used in AC, harm the ozone layer mostly.
 In 1985, British scientists discovered ozone hole.
 They find 2 % shortage in the thickness of Ozone layer; this depletion
is a symbol of danger.
 The depletion is going on, that day is not so far harmful ultraviolet
rays will demolish everything. So it is quite necessary to ban CFC
gases completely.

3. Green House Effect:

 In the atmosphere, there are plenty of some gases which are heat
absorber due to these, the temperature of the earth increases.
 In some decades, such a situation will rise, the temperature of the
earth will increase from 5°C to 7°C because of which glaciers will start
melting and the level of water in the sea will increase and the coastal
regions will sink in the water.
 The average temperature of the earth is 15°C which can increase up
to 30°C.
 So, we call these gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC, and SF6) as green house
gases. Green house effect places due to green house gases.

4. Acid Rain:
  Refineries, metals-melting industries, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide produced on burning coal and petrol, SO 2 reacting with H2O
present in atmosphere in the sunlight forms sulphuric acid (H 2 SO4 )
and it rains as acid rain because SO2 cannot stay in gaseous state for
a long time :

2SO2 + 2H2 + O2  2H2 SO4

 Sulphuric acid harms the soil and plants mostly.

 Acid rain has bad effect on rail-lines, buildings, bridges mostly.
 When the value of pH is less than 5, then the rain is called acid rain.

5. Smog:

 Smog is a problem in most large cities.

 It is caused by emissions from industry, motor vehicles, domestic
wood combustion and other sources, accumulating under certain
meteorological conditions.
 Smog is a combination of smoke and fog.
 The infamous London fogs about 4,000 deaths were attributed to the
severe fog of 1952 were smog of this type.

There are mainly two types of smog:

A. Industrial smog.
B. Photo-chemical Smog :

 Light energy (UV).

 Hydrocarbons/VOCs (from fossil fuel combustion).
 NOx (from fossil fuel combustion).
 Often contains ozone (O3).

6. Effect of Air Pollution on Living Organisms and Non-living Organism:

1) Effect on Living Organisms and Plants:

  Sulphur-dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon mono-oxide (SO2,
NO2, CO) present in the atmosphere are very harmful.
 These gases produce (cause) various types of diseases as: diseases
related to lungs, eyes, respiration, heart, bones, teeth etc.
 The smoothness of plants and leaves start ending. It causes the
danger of cold (ice) and worms.

2) Effect on Non-living Organisms :

 Atmospheric pollution equally affects not only living organisms but

also non-living organisms.
 Due to this vehicles, building are destroyed which are in the contact
of atmosphere directly.
 The main reasons for this are acid rain and green house gases.

Measures to Monitoring and Controls of Air Pollution:

To prevent air pollution, adopting following rules, the atmosphere and life can be
protected. It can be prevented by a little awareness and responsibilities:

a) We should encourage people to plant new trees instead of cutting the

forests.
b) Chimneys of industries should be high and purification plants should be
setup.
c) Using vehicles in group, we can get rid of fuel and pollution produced by it.
d) Encouraging people to use public transport system and opposed to private
vehicles.
e) Wastage obtained from industries should be destroyed properly.
f) We should focus on the fuel free from lead and full of sulphur.
g) Industrial plants should be setup away from the populated areas.
h) Walk or use a cycle for short distance or non-urgent work.
i) We should take action against the vehicles which emit smoke and harmful
gases.
j) New technique should be used so that gaseous reflection may be less.
k) To cook food, equipments free from pollution, should be used as electric
heater induction cooker etc.
l) Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons.
m) Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every
industry.
n) Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout
must be made mandatory.
o) Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried
out to know the emission levels.
p) We should plant trees near our houses because they absorb carbon dioxide
and release oxygen (O2) which is necessary to living beings.

Classification of Air Pollutants:

 Today in India, air pollution is a serious problem.

 It is generated due to many causes such as burning of wood, burning of
biotic substance, emission of vehicles and harmful smoke from industrial
workshops.
 The factors which cause air pollution are called air pollutants.

These are of three types:

 1. Physical Air Pollutants: There are many factors under physical air
pollutants :
 Smell of waste substances from homes.
 Heat emitted from radioactive radiation.
 Smoke produced from industrial workshop, domestic chimneys.

2. Biological Air Pollutants: Biological pollutants consist of decomposition of

wastes from crops and the smell generated from decomposing of dead
animals.

3. Chemical Air Pollutants: It consists of gases produced from chemical

fertilizers, and harmful gases from industrial workshop as (CO 2, CO, SO2)
etc.

Form of Air Pollutants

Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of as gaseous and
particulate contaminants that are present in the Earth’s atmosphere.

A. Gaseous Pollutants:
 They include sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), ozone (O3),
carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), and various gaseous forms of
metals.
 These pollutants are emitted from large stationary sources such as fossil
fuel fired power plants, smelters, industrial boilers, petroleum refineries,
and manufacturing facilities as well as from area and mobile sources.

B. Particulates or Aerosol:
 They come in both large and small solid forms.
 Large particulates include substances such as dust, asbestos fibres,
and lead.
 Fine particulates include sulphates (SO4) and nitrates (NO3).
  Important sources of particulates are power plants, smelters, mining
operations, and automobiles.
 Asbestos and lead affect organisms, while sulphates and nitrates not
only cause health problems, but, also contribute to acid rain or acid
deposition and a reduction in visibility.

C. Toxic Air Pollutants:

 A class of chemicals which may potentially cause health problems in
a significant way.
 The sources of toxic air pollutants include power plants industries,
pesticide application, and contaminated wind-blown dust.
 Persistent toxic pollutants, such as mercury are of particular concern
because of their global mobility and ability to accumulate in the food
chain.

Various air pollutants and their effects

A. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2):
 Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas with a pungent, suffocating odour.
 It is a dangerous air pollutant because it is corrosive to organic
materials and it irritates the eyes, nose and lungs.

Effects of Sulphur Dioxide Emissions:

 Irritates eyes, nose, and throat.

 Damages lungs when inhaled.

B. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx):

 Oxides of nitrogen are produced by combustion of all fossil fuels
including coal and gas fired power stations and motor vehicles.
 The two main nitrogen oxides are nitric oxide (NO), or nitrogen
monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) the sum of which is equal to
NOx .
  Nitric oxide (NO) is a colourless gas. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) is a gas
of reddish-brown colour with a distinct sharp, biting odour.
Combustion of fuels always produces both NO2 and NO.
 But almost 90 % of the NOx combustion product is in the form of NO
which is then oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) in the air.
 Therefore, only a small percentage of NO2 found in the atmosphere
is directly emitted there in this form.
 The rest has been formed as a result of chemical reactions in the
atmosphere itself.

Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) Emissions:

 It causes acid rain which destroying fish and plant life in lakes,
damaging surfaces of buildings etc.
 It also contributes to photochemical smog.

C. Ammonia:
 Ammonia is a colourless, pungent, hazardous caustic gas
composed of nitrogen and hydrogen.
 Ammonia emissions are also grouped as NHy which is a sum of
NH3 and NH4.
 Ammonia produces from agricultural processes and production of
pharmaceuticals.
 It is characterized by a pungent odour.

Effects of Ammonia Emissions:

 Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia in

the air may result in lung damage and even death.
 Ammonia reacts with oxides of sulphur and nitrogen to form
secondary particles in the atmosphere.
 Ammonia is highly corrosive in nature and contaminate of
surface water, negatively impacting marine life.
 D. Carbon Mono-oxide (CO):
 Carbon mono-oxide is a colourless, odourless gas which is highly toxic to
humans.
 The combustion of carbon-based fuels produces carbon dioxide (CO2).
But not all such combustion is complete, and this leads to the
production of carbon mono-oxide.
 Motor vehicles and industry are among the largest anthropogenic
sources of carbon monoxide emissions.

Effects of Carbon Mono-oxide Emissions:

 Carbon mono-oxide is the most common type of fatal poisoning in many

countries around the world.
 Exposures to carbon monoxide may lead to toxicity of the central nervous
system and heart, severe effects on the baby of a pregnant woman,
headaches and dizziness.
 Problems with getting oxygen supplied to some body parts which may be
life-threatening.

E. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):

 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are defined as organic compounds
which easily evaporate and enter the atmosphere.
 VOCs may include a wide range of organic air pollutants, from pure
hydrocarbons to partially oxidized hydrocarbons to organic compounds
containing chlorine, sulfur, or nitrogen.

Effects of Volatile Organic Compounds:

 Some aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene and xylene are

potential carcinogens and may cause leukemia.
 Contribute to sick building syndrome indoors.
 As facilitators in ozone formation, VOCs may indirectly contribute to
respiratory problems and other ozone-related problems.
 F. Ozone (O3):
 Ozone (O3) is a colourless, poisonous gas with a sharp, cold, irritating odor.
 Ozone which is formed in the troposphere as a result of anthropogenic
emissions of primary pollutants has negative effects on humans and the
natural environment, and from this point of view it is an air pollutant.
 The troposphere ozone is the main component of the photochemical smog.

Effects of Ozone as an Air Pollutant:

 Irritation of the respiratory system causing coughing, throat irritation and

an uncomfortable sensation in the chest.
 Compromised lung function harming the breathing process and aggravation
of asthma.
 Interference with photosynthesis and suppression of growth of some plant
species. Reduction in agricultural yields.

G. Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC):
 This gas is most responsible for ozone depletion.
 This gas is produced by refrigerators, AC and evaporators. CFC may
stay in the atmosphere for 15 years approximately.
 Heavily CFC emitting products should be prohibited.
 This emitting CFC mixes with another gas of atmosphere that causes
damage of human health and protective ozone layer.

Effects of Chlorofluorocarbon:

 CFC badly damages the protective layer of ozone which provides safety
from the harmful ultraviolet rays that causes of skin, eye diseases and it
damages the plants also.

Reasons of Automobile Pollution in India

 Continuous increase in means of transportation in India.
 Use of more vehicles in cities due to population growth.
 Dependency on diesel and petrol engine only as fuel.
 Moving old vehicles on the road freely.
 Lack of proper pollution check of vehicles at a regular interval of time and
improper condition of the road.

Measures to Control Automobile Pollution

 Improvement in technology of manufacturing vehicles.

 Proper maintenance of the roads in the cities should be made and flyovers
should be built.
 Petrol should be used only for petrol engine.
 Oil should be changed time to time.
 Lubricant of high quality should be used.
 Vehicles should be got service at definite interval of time.
 Vehicles should be driven at a constant speed.
 Quality of fuel should be improved and vehicles that run with the help of
CNG and batteries should be enhanced.

Effects of air pollution on human health

1. Suspended Particular Matter:

 Effects on breathing and respiratory systems, aggravation of existing
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, alteration of body’s defense
systems against foreign materials, damage to lung tissues, carcinogenic
effects, and premature mortality (still births).
 Elderly people and children are most sensitive.

2. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2):

 Effects on breathing, respiratory illness, breakdown of lung defenses,
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and death.
 Asthmatics and those suffering from chronic lung and cardiovascular
diseases are sensitive to SO2 exposure.

3. Carbon Mono-oxide (CO):

  The health threat of CO is maximum to those having cardiovascular
disease, because it reduces oxygen delivery to organs and tissues.
 At elevated concentrations, CO impairs visual perception, manual
dexterity, and mental ability.

4. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx):

 NO plays a major role in tropospheric ozone formation.
 NO2 irritates the lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, and lowers
resistance to respiratory infections. iii. Asthmatics are most
susceptible, and increases susceptibility to viral attacks.

5. Lead:
 High lead exposures can cause seizures, mental retardation, and
behavioral disorders.
 Foetuses, infants and children are especially susceptible to low
doses, resulting in disorders of central nervous system. Lead uptakes
may be a factor in high blood pressure and heart disease.

6. Ozone (O3):
 Ozone reduces lung function, and is associated with coughing,
sneezing, chest pain, and pulmonary congestion. ii. It may affect all
healthy people as well as the people with impaired respiratory
systems.

7. Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

 Increasing concentrations over the years cause green house effect,
leading to global warming and climate changes.
 Causes radioactivity contaminations of areas, cancers, mutations,
deaths.
 Effects of Air-pollution on Plants
a. The adverse impacts of air pollution are not limited to human health alone,
but plants and animals are also detrimentally affected by air pollutants.
b. The most prominent air pollutant, which causes severe damage to the
plants, is fluorine.
c. Fluorine is emitted from factories manufacturing aluminium, glass,
phosphate fertilizers, etc; and in some clay baking operations.
d. The concentrations of fluorine in excess of about 0.3 µg/m3 cause
phytotoxicological effects on plants.
e. Frequently, the plant damage is observed on the fruit or on the flower
either of which significantly lowers the value of the crop.
f. The most obvious damage caused by the general air pollutants like SO2 ,
HF, HCl, CI2 , O3 , NO3 , NH3 , Hg, H2 S, H2N, PAN, herbicides, smog, etc., to
the plants and vegetation occurs in the leaf structure ; as the pollutants
clog the stomata of the leaf, thereby reducing the intake of CO2 , which
adversely affects the photosynthesis.
g. These adverse impacts may range from reduction in growth rate to the
total death of the plant.
h. Plants also absorb low concentrations of pollutants like fluorine, and heavy
metals like arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, etc; which prove very harmful
to cattle and animals grazing on these vegetations, even when the plants
may not even show any signs of damage.

Effects of Air-Pollutants on Live-Stock Animals:

a. The adverse health effects of air-pollutants on farm animals occur, when
animals eat the plants, grasses, fodder, and other vegetation, which has
been contaminated by the air pollutants.
b. Contaminates that affect the live-stock are Fluorine, Arsenic and Lead.
c. These pollutants originate either from the industries situated nearby or
from dusting and spraying.
d. Out of these contaminants, fluorine proves to be the worst pollutant, since
cattle and sheep are found to be more susceptible to consumption of
fluorine.
e. The cattle grazing on vegetation that has been contaminated with fluorine
may develop fluorosis, even when the contaminated plants do not show
signs of damage.
f. Arsenic from dusts and insecticide sprays falling on the plants can similarly
be accumulated by the plants, and when such contaminated vegetation is
eaten by cattle, they may suffer from arsenic poisoning, with leading
symptoms like salivation, thirst, vomiting, uneasiness, feeble and regular
pulse and respiration.
g. Lead contamination of the atmosphere occurs on account of various
industries, such as smelters, coke ovens, and other coal-based industries.
h. The lead fumes absorbed by the vegetation from the atmospheric air,
contaminates the vegetation, which accumulates lead within itself.
i. The lead-contaminated vegetation when eaten by live-stock animals may
cause lead poisoning, which may cause symptoms like inability to stand and
staggering, prostration, etc; besides complete loss of appetite, paralysis of
digestive tract, and diarrhoea.

Effects of Air-Pollutants on Materials and Services:

a. Air pollutants cause deteriorating effects on metallic surfaces, glass
surfaces, painted surfaces, building stones, rubber surfaces, etc. along with
damaging the paper and fabric.
b. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen react in the atmosphere with water vapour
to form acidic fumes, which attack and damage the metal surfaces, a
problem that has been particularly acute for the computer, switch gear,
and communications industries.
c. Fluorine is highly reactive, and at high atmospheric concentrations, may
even cause etching of glass on windows, etc.
d. Hydrogen sulphide (H2 S) in the ambient air reacts with lead oxide in white
paint, to form lead sulphate, due to which white painted surfaces in doors,
windows, walls in buildings tend to acquire brownish tint overnight.
e. Another peculiar impact of air pollution was noticed on electric cables and
electricity poles, resulting in power leakage from high voltage electric
cables.
f. This was caused due to deposition of particles, which are good conductors
of electricity, on insulators on electrical poles, resulting in leakage from
high tension lines.
g. It is extremely difficult to estimate the financial loss caused by air pollution
due to accelerated deterioration of materials and aesthetic items, such as
the exteriors of the buildings, statues, monuments, or horticulture
plantings; or the cost of materials or service loss.
UNIT-2: CHEMISTRY OF AIR POLLUTION
 Some air pollutants that are released into the atmosphere by man-made
activities pose environmental and health risks directly.
 These primary pollutants include carbon monoxide, particulate matter,
nitrogen oxides and lead, emitted from exhausts of road vehicles.
 Additional impacts, however, result from the conversion of primary
pollutants by a complex series of chemical reactions in the atmosphere, to
secondary pollutants, many of which are potentially more harmful than
their precursors.
 Since much of the pollutant chemistry is driven by the presence of sunlight,
the secondary products are commonly referred to as photochemical
pollutants.
 A well-known secondary photochemical pollutant is ozone (O 3). Its
formation results from the sunlight-initiated oxidation (reaction with
oxygen) of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene (C6H6) in the
presence of nitrogen oxides (NOx), mostly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2).
 Once formed, ozone is scavenged by NO, and in the absence of other
competing reactions, a “photostationary state” is formed where
concentrations of NO, NO2 and O3 are all inter-related.
 In rural areas away from major sources of NO, such as urban road
transport, ozone scavenging by NO is lower, and consequently ozone
concentrations in the atmosphere are higher.

Dispersion of Air Pollutants into the Atmosp here:

 When once a pocket of smoke, containing air pollutants, is released into

the atmosphere from a source like an automobile or a factory chimney, it
gets dispersed into the atmosphere into various directions depending upon
the prevailing winds and temperature and pressure conditions in the
environment.
 From our knowledge of meteorology and hydrology, we know that the
temperature conditions of the environment are defined by a technical
term, called lapse rate. For easier understanding, we will discuss lapse rate
here before discussing its effects on the dispersion of the pocket of
polluted smoke (called plume).

Atmospheric Temperature Lapse Rate:

 When the air has minimum velocity or more or less motionless, the
accumulation of the pollution will be Maximum.
 When the air is in turbulence, the pollution will be low.
 The turbulence is not measured by the observatories but is calculated on
the basis of vertical temperature profile.
 It has been noted that the stability of the atmosphere is its tendency to
resist or enhance the vertical motion, in other words to suppress or
augment existing turbulence.
 As the atmosphere is cooler at higher altitudes, normally the temperature
reduces at a rate of 1°C per 100 m height.
 This decrease in temperature is known as adiabatic lapse rate.
 But in most of the cases, there is decrease in temperature, but is less than
adiabatic lapse rate.
 Such change is known as sub adiabatic rate and the atmosphere is known
to be under stable.
 Under such conditions, the mixing of the pollutants and their dilution takes
place slowly.
 When the rate of decrease of temperature with height is more than the
adiabatic rate, is known as super-adiabatic lapse rate and the atmosphere
is under unstable condition.
 Such conditions are very good for mixing and dilution of the pollutants.
 The adiabatic lapse rate known as neutral condition is characterized by
winds, cloudy days and night.
 Sometimes the temperature increases with height, which is known as
inversion.
 Under condition the diffusion of the pollutants cannot take place and it
forms a blanket layer at the tops.
 The emission of pollutants occurs at or near surface of the earth. But the
depth of the layer into which they made turbulent or diffused varies both
in space and time.
 The height above the surface of the atmosphere, where the adiabatic lapse
rate intersects the observed vertical temperature profile is known as
maximum mixing depth (MMD).
 When the mixing height is low, but still above plume height, ground level
concentration will be relatively high, because in this state the pollutants
are prevented from dispersing in the upward atmosphere.

Effect of wind velocity on air pollution

A. Wind Velocity:
 Wind carries air contaminants away from their source, causing them to
disperse.
 In general, the higher the wind speed, the more contaminants are
dispersed and the lower their concentration.
 However, high wind can also generate dust - a problem in dry windy
rural areas.
B. Direct Effects of Weather on Air Quality:
 Sunshine: Makes some pollutants undergo chemical reactions,
producing smog.
 Rain: Washes out water-soluble pollutants and particulate matter.
 Higher Air Temperatures: Speed up chemical reactions in the air.
 Wind speed, atmospheric turbulence/stability, and mixing depth -
affect the dispersal and dilution of pollutants.

Turbulence effects on air pollutions

 There are basically two different causes of turbulent eddies:

I. Mechanical turbulence. ii. Convective turbulence.

  While both of them are usually present in any given atmospheric condition,
either mechanical or convective turbulence prevails over the other.

A. Mechanical Turbulence:
 It is caused by physical obstructions to normal flow such as mountains,
building, trees, etc.
 The degree of mechanical turbulence depends on wind speed and
roughness of the obstructions.

B. Convective Turbulence:
 It results from different heating-cooling of surfaces and air masses.
 Higher the atmospheric temperature difference makes the greater
turbulence in air pollution.
 Atmospheric eddies causes a breaking apart of atmospheric parcels
polluted air at lower and lowers concentrations to occupy successively
larger volumes of air.
 Thus the level of turbulence in the atmosphere determines its dispersive
ability.

Plume Behavior on Air Pollutions

The manner in which the emitted plume behaves under each of these seven
conditions are also shown in figures, and explained below:

A. Looping Plume:
 Looping plume Fig. (a) Has a wavy character and occurs in super adiabatic
environment; which produces highly unstable atmosphere, because of
rapid mixing.
 During the high degree of turbulence, the dispersion of plume would be
rapid, yet higher concentrations near the ground may occur due to
turbulence, before the dispersion is finally completed.
 Hence, in areas where environment is generally super-adiabatic, higher
stacks may be needed to prevent premature contact of pollutants with the
ground.
 Such conditions will then ensure a very good dispersion of pollutants; but
automobile exhausts cannot be dispersed well, because they are released
at lower levels.

B. Neutral Plume:
 Neutral plume is the upward vertical rise of the plume from the stack, as
shown in Fig. (b), which occurs when the environmental lapse rate is equal
to or very near to the adiabatic lapse rate.
 The upward lifting of the plume will continue till it reaches an air of density
similar to that of the plume itself.
C. Conical Plume
 The neutral plume tends to cone as shown in Fig. (c), when the wind
velocity is greater than 32 km/hr, and when cloud cover blocks the solar
radiation by day and terrestrial radiation by night.
 Coning plume also occurs under sub adiabatic conditions (i.e., when
environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate).
 Under such conditions, the environment is slightly stable, and there is a
limited vertical mixing, thereby increasing the probability of air pollution in
the area.
 The plume dispersion is known as coning, because the plume makes a cone
like shape about the plume line, as shown in Fig. (c).

D. Fanning Plume:
 Under extreme inversion conditions, caused by negative environmental
lapse rate, from the ground and up to a considerable height, extending
even above the top of the stack, the emission will spread only horizontally,
as it cannot lift due to extremely stable environment.
 In such a case, there will be no vertical mixing, and the plume will simply
extend horizontally over large distances, as shown in Fig. 2(d). Such a
plume pattern is called a fanning plume.
E. Lofting Plume:
 When there exists a strong super adiabatic lapse rate above a surface
inversion, then the plume is said to be lofting.
 Such a plume has minimum downward mixing, as its downward motion is
prevented by inversion, but the upward mixing will be quite turbulent and
rapid.
 The dispersion of pollutants wills therefore, is rapid, and no concentrations
will touch the ground.
 Hence, this would be the most ideal case for dispersion of emissions.

F. Fumigating Plume:
 When an inversion layer occurs at a short distance above the top of the
stack, and super adiabatic conditions prevail below the stack, then the
plume is said to be fumigating Fig. (f).
 In such a case, the pollutants cannot escape above the top of the stack
because of inversion layer, and they will be brought down near the ground
due to turbulence in the region above the ground and below the inversion,
caused by strong lapse rate.
 This represents quite a bad case of atmospheric conditions for dispersion.

G. Trapping Plume:
 When inversion layers exist above the emission source, as well as below the
source, then naturally, the emitted plume will neither go up, nor will it go
down, and would remain confined between the two inversions, as shown in
Fig.(g).
 Such a plume is called a trapping plume, and is considered a bad condition
for dispersion, as the dispersion cannot go above a certain height.
IMPACT OF ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE ON DISPERSION OF
AIR POLLUTANTS
 While the formation of high pressure system over an area, if continues for
several days, could buildup serious air pollution problems, due to formation
of inversion conditions.
 Hence, high pressure systems (anticyclones), which are accompanied by
clear skies, light winds, and atmospheric stability, may prove to be bad for
dispersion of pollutants.
 On the other hand, low pressure systems (cyclones), which are associated
with highly unstable atmospheric conditions, generally lead to good mixing
and rapid dispersion of pollutants.
 Hence, such cyclonic atmospheric conditions, which are usually
accompanied by rains and storms, prove to be better for dispersion of
pollutants.
 However when a warm front overtakes a low pressure cell, conflicting
influences are produced.
 Initially, warm front will reduce the pollutant load mainly due to storm
activity along its leading edge; but as the warm front develops, more stable
conditions will form with an accompanying increase in the air pollution
potential.

IMPACT OF MOISTURE AND PRECIPITATION ON DISPERSION OF

AIR POLLUTANTS:

 The moisture content, and the form in which it is present in the

atmosphere, may considerably affect the quality of air at a particular
region.
 The presence of water vapour (humidity) in the air affects the air quality,
primarily by blocking and obstructing the solar radiation reaching the
ground, and also the heat radiation reflected from the surface.
 Humidity also leads to formation of fogs, and increases the Earth's
corrosive action of air pollutants.
 Excessive moisture in the atmosphere will finally lead to rains, which are
helpful in improving the quality of the ambient air, because they wash
down the pollutants to the Earth, to be ultimately drained out with rain-run
off.
 The process of removal of atmospheric SO2 through rain, may, however,
cause problems due to reaction of SO2 with water, forming H2 SO3 or H2
SO4 leading to fall of acid rain, which increases the rate of corrosion where
air pollutants are present and in addition, decreases the pH of rivers and
streams, adversely influencing the algae and plant life of such water bodies.