BASICS OF MAGNETISM

• The Shepherd Magnes

• The most popular legend accounting for the discovery of magnets is
that of an elderly Cretan shepherd named Magnes. Legend has it that
Magnes was herding his sheep in an area of Northern Greece called
Magnesia, about 4,000 years ago.
• Suddenly both, the nails in his shoes and the metal tip of his staff
became firmly stuck to the large, black rock on which he was standing.
To find the source of attraction he dug up the Earth to find lodestones
(load = lead or attract). Lodestones contain magnetite, a natural
magnetic material Fe3O4. This type of rock was subsequently named
magnetite, after either Magnesia or Magnes himself.
• The Greek & Chinese
• The earliest discovery of the properties of lodestone was either by the Greeks or
Chinese. Stories of magnetism date back to the first century B.C in the writings of
Lucretius and Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD Roman). Pliny wrote of a hill near the
river Indus that was made entirely of a stone that attracted iron. He mentioned the
magical powers of magnetite in his writings. For many years following its
discovery, magnetite was surrounded in superstition and was considered to
possess magical powers, such as the ability to heal the sick, frighten away evil
spirits and attract and dissolve ships made of iron.

• Peregrinus & Gilbert Peter Peregrinus is credited with the first attempt to separate
fact from superstition in 1269. Peregrinus wrote a letter describing everything that
was known, at that time, about magnetite. It is said that he did this while standing
guard outside the walls of Lucera which was under siege. While people were
starving to death inside the walls, Peter Peregrinus was outside writing one of the
first 'scientific' reports and one that was to have a vast impact on the world.
• The inter-relationships between electricity and magnetism and promulgated a series of
deceptively simple equations that are the basis of electromagnetic theory today. What
is more remarkable is that Maxwell developed his ideas in 1862 more than thirty years
before J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1890.
• In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851 Danish) demonstrated that magnetism
was related to electricity by bringing a wire carrying an electric current close to a
magnetic compass which caused a deflection of the compass needle. It is now known
that whenever current flows there will be an associated magnetic field in the
surrounding space, or more generally that the movement of any charged particle will
produce a magnetic field.
 NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL
MAGNETS:
• Iron ores are encountered in nature that are capable of attracting small iron
objects near to them ,when suspended on a treadmill ,it will arrange itself
along length from north to south . Pieces of such ore are called natural
magnets.

• A piece of iron or steel near to magnet become magnetised i.e., it acquired

magnetic properties, it will be the stronger the closer it is to the magnet .After
magnet is removed ,the magnetic piece of iron or steel loses a considerable
part of its magnetic properties ,but still remain magnetised .It thus becomes an
artificial magnet having same properties as natural magnet.
• The magnetisation that is observed when a piece of iron is near a magnet is
called temporary magnetization as distinct from permanent or residual
magnetization that remains after the magnet is removed .
• The material types can be divided into several main categories:
Ferromagnetism
Ferrimagnetism
Diamagnetism
Paramagnetism
Antiferromagnetism.
 Ferromagnetism
The most important class of magnetic materials is the ferromagnets:
iron, nickel, cobalt and manganese, or their compounds (and a few
more exotic ones as well). although pure manganese is not
ferromagnetic the name of that element shares a common root with
magnetism: the Greek mágnes lithos - "stone from Magnesia" (now
Manisa in turkey) :
In a magnetized region of a ferromagnetic material such as iron all the
magnetic moments are spontaneously aligned in the same direction
There is a strong magnetization vector M even in the absence of an
applied field.The most important class of magnetic materials is the
ferromagnets: iron, nickel, cobalt.
 Ferrimagnetism:
• Magnetic behavior obtained when ions in a material have their magnetic
moments aligned in an antiparallel arrangement such that the moments do
not completely cancel out and a net magnetization remains even when there
is no applied field (similar to ferromagnetic).
• They are, in general, oxides of iron combined with one or more of the
transition metals such as manganese, nickel or zinc, e.g. MnFe2O4.
• Permanent ferrimagnets often include barium. (BaO.6Fe2O3 )The raw
material is turned into a powder which is then fired in a kiln or sintered to
produce a dark gray, hard, brittle ceramic material having a cubic crystalline
structure.
• produced today contains some ferrimagnetic material: loudspeakers, motors,
deflection yokes, interference suppressors, antenna rods, proximity sensors,
recording.
 Diamagnetism
• A diamagnetic material placed in a non-uniform magnetic field
experiences a force towards smaller fields. This repels the
diamagentic material away from a permanent magnet.
• Diamagnetism results from changes in electron orbital motion that
are induce by an external field. The effect is extremely small and in
opposition to the applied field. All materials show at least a small
diamagnetic effect.
 PARAMAGNETISM:
• In a paramagnetic material the cancellation of magnetic moments
between electron pairs is incomplete and hence magnetic moments
exist without any external magnetic field.
• However, the magnetic moments are randomly aligned and hence no
net magnetization without any external field.
• When a magnetic field is applied all the dipole moments are aligned
in the direction of the field.
• The magnetic susceptibility is small but positive. i.e. Bin a
paramagnetic material is slightly greater than that of vacuum.
• Curie Law in Magnetism:
• The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature.
• χm ∝ 1 / T ⇒ χm T = constant
• where χm = magnetic susceptibility of a para magnetic substance and
T = absolute temperature.
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:
• Superconductivity is disappearance of electrical resistance below a
certain temperature.
• The temperature below which superconductivity is attained is known
as the critical temperature, TC.
Bardeen-Cooper-Schreiffer (BCS) theory:
• The temperature dependence of metals arises out of scattering of
electrons due to atomic vibrations which increase with temperature.
• Cooper pair –Below TC(critical temperature) two electrons can pair
through the lattice phonon which causes a slight increase in the
positive charge around an electron and since thermal energy to
scatter is low, this pair can move through the lattice.
• Thus the charge carrier in a superconductor is a pair of electrons
instead of a single electron.
Superconductivity and Magnetism

• A material in its superconducting state will expell all of an applied

magnetic field . This is Meisnner effect.
• A magnet placed over a superconductor will thus float, a
phenomenon known as magnetic levitation.
Paramagnetism
(a) In a paramagnetic material each individual atom possesses a
permanent magnetic moment but due to thermal agitation there
is no average moment per atom and M=0
(b) In the presence of an applied external field, individual magnetic
moments take alignments along the applied field and it develops a
magnetization in the direction of the external field.
POLES OF MAGNET AND NEUTRAL
ZONE:
• The parts o the surface of a magnet where the attraction of iron
objects is quite appreciable are called it’s poles ,while the part where
forces of attraction are not detected or very wealthy is called the
neutral zone .
• Artificial magnets are usually given the form of bar or horseshoe .such
magnets almost always have two poles at he end and neutral zone
between them. A piece of steel can be so magnetization ,that it will
have not two but more than 2 and 4 poles ,seperated by neutral
zoned.
• But magnet can never have a odd number of poles.
 PROPERTIES OF MAGNET :
• Setting in a north-south direction : As the earth itself gaint magnet,the earth’s
magnetic field will influence a suspended magnet so that one of its poles will
settle in the direction of the earth’s north pole
• Like magnetic poles repel one another: North repels north and south repels
south. Unlike magnetic poles attract one another ,i.e.,north attracts south and
south attracts north.
• Transmission of properties: A magnet can produce properties of magnetism in
suitable material , all the opposite poles of the moleculat magnets are attracted
towards it so that the object is magnetized.
• Attraction of suitable materials: Magnets attracts certain materials.This effect is
produced by magnetic induction.
• A magnetic field : This is the area or zone of influence around a magnet in
which it’s magnetic forces are apparent.This field may be considered as being
made up of magnetic lines of force which which have the following properties.
• When a non-magnetized magnetic material is brought near to (or touches) a
magnet, the material itself will become a weak magnet.This is called induced
magnetism . This is means the material has magnetism induced in it
• Induced magnetism in magnetic materials is the reason that these non-magnetized
objects are able to be attracted to magnets . Notice that magnetic induction, an
opposite pole is always induced ,2 unlike poles facing each other is observed during
magnetic induction. If placed sufficiently near to each other, attraction occurs
between the permanent & induced magnets.
Coulomb’s Law:
The force of interaction acting between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to
the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
F = μo / 4π . m1m2 / r2
where m1, m2 = pole strengths, r = distance between poles and μo = permeability of
free space.
 PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD:
• They travel from north to south ,which is the path a free north pole would
take.

• They attempt to take the shortest route possible but repel one another so
that they in fact become curved.

• They travel more easily through some materials,e.g.metals,than through

others.
 MAGNETIC ACTION OF ELECTRIC
FIELD:
• According to Hans Christian Oersted experiment, which shows the forces act in space
surrounding current carrying conductor which cause magnetic needle to move ,I.e., forces
similiar to the ones act near natural and artificial magents.Such forces are called magnetic
forces, in the same way as forces acting on electric charges are called electric forces.

• Like electric field ,which is a special state of space that manifests itself in the action of electric
forces . In a similar manner ,a magnetic field will be the state of space distinguished by the
action of magnetic forces.

• Thus the experiment shows that magnetic forces appear i.e., a magnetic field is created in the
space and appears around any electric current.

• The heat liberated by a current may be greater or smaller selecting on the resistance of the
conductor.
• But a magnetic field is an unseperable companion of any electric current.and is only
determined by the intensity and direction of current.

• According to experiments conducted by Andre ampere ,they wound a wire into a coil
with many turns and inserted a steel into it.a strong electric current was passed through
the wire after the needle was removed ,it was found to be strongly magnetized.

• Note that the turns ,attraction and repulsion of two solenoids have the same character
as the motions of the two magnetized bars.

• In all its magnetic properties a solenoid with current is similar in every respect to
magnetic needle.

• Hence from experiments of ampere ,it can be concluded that the magnetic actions of
magnets are quite the same as the magnetic actions of currents with the corresponding
selection of current and the shape of the conductor.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
• It is the means by which electricity is produced from magnetism (vice-versa). It is the result
of interaction between a conductor and magentic lines of force an EMF is produced in the
conductor by the magnetic lines of force surrounding a magnet,without contact between
the magnet and the conductor. The factors essential to electromagnetic induction are:
• 1. A conductor
• 2. Magnetic lines if force
• 3. Relative movement of 1 and 2.

• If conductor is closed circuit,the magntic lines of force produce an EMF which causes
movement of the electrons in the conductor.

• When a magnet is moved into the coil,the magnetic lines of force cut across the
conducting wire of the coil and cause movement of electrons in the coil.
• An electrical conductor in a static magnetic field (derived from a static magnet -
not pulsed, not moving) will not exhibit any response. Conversely, a static electric
field will not induce magnetic responses in a material - one or the other has to be
moving in order for the effect to be achieved. The 'movement achieved need not
be physical - in that turning the electric current on-off, or reversing its polarity
would constitute movement.
• By using a 'pulsed magnetic field', relative movement will be the polarity of the
newly formed magnet for conventional current flow can be determined using the
Right-hand Rule. Wrap the fingers around the coil form in the direction of the
current flow in the solenoid the thumb will point in a direction indicating the end
which becomes the N-pole.
• These electrons repel adjacent electrons and current is set up in the circuit.
Movement of the ammeter needle, indicating current flow,will be seen only when
either the magnet Or the coil is moving .

• If the magnetic lines of force are stationary relative to the coil of wire,there is no
induction.

• Electro magnetic induction also occurs if the magnetic field used is that
surrounding coil of wire. The principles are the same ;there must be movement of
the magnetic field relative to the conductor. This may be acheived by using an
alternative current in the primary coil which causes the magnetic field to build up,
fall,then build in the opposite direction,then fall,etc.
• The current builds up to a maximum positive value before returning to zero. It then
drops to maximum negative value before returning to zero. This rise and fall of
current produces movement of the magnetic lines of force.
• Usually , the conductor in which EMF is induced is coil of wire while magnetic
field used to induce the EMF is that of a permanent magnet or a current carrying
coil of wire.

• Movement of these relative to the other is acheived either by spinning the

conductor in the magnetic field,as in a dynamo,or by varying the intensity of
current in the coil of wire, as in a transformer.

• The direction in which the magnetic lines of force,in relation to the conductor
affects the direction in which the induced current flows.
 DIRECTION OF THE INDUCED EMF:
• As the magnet is moved into the coil,the ammeter needle is deflected in one
direction. As it is withdrawn deflection occurs in the opposite direction,thus
demonstrating that the direction of current flow changes with a reversal of
movement of the magnetic field.

• LENZ ‘s LAW:
It states that the direction of the induced EMF is such that it tends to oppose the
force producing it.
 THE STRENGTH OF INDUCED
EMF:
• It mainly depends upon two factors:
1. The rate of change of magnetic field.
2. Inductance of the conductor.

3. The more rapid the movement of permanent magnet ,the stronger the magnet
used,the greater the rate at which the magnetic lines of force cut the conductor
and greater the induced EMF.
4. Inductance is the ability of a conductor to have a current induced in it. It is
constant for any particular conductor.
 INDUCTION:
• MUTUAL INDUCTION:
When an EMF is induced in an adjacent conductor by the magnetic field set up around
a coil of wire carrying a varying current.

•SELF INDUCTION:
Self induction occurs within the coil carrying a varying current.
A magnetic lines of force move out, cutting adjacent turns of wire and thus inducing
EMF.
The induces EMF is opposite in direction to the main current and so opposes its rise.
self induced EMFs of this type are therefore called back EMF.
When the induced EMF is also opposite in direction from before and flows forward , it is
known as forward EMF.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:
• The spectrum contains the kinds of radiation which are distinguished by
their different wavelengths.
• The electromagnetic wave is propagated by the interaction of circular
magnetic and electric fields in right angles to one another.
WAVELENGTH:
Wavelength is the distance between one point on one electromagnetic wave
and exactly on the same point on the next wave.
 VELOCITY:
• Velocity is constant for all forms of electromagnetic waves ,being 300
000km per second i.e; the speed of light.
FREQUENCY:
• It is the number of complete waves passing any fixed point in one second.
• There is inverse relationship between wavelength and frequency of
electromagnetic waves.

LAWS GOVERNING RADIATION:

• Infrared ,visible and ultraviolet waves travel in straight lines until they
encounter a different medium ,when they may be transmitted ,reflected or
absorbed.
REFLECTION:
• It occurs when electromagnetic waves encounters a medium which will
not transmit it and reflects back in the same plane such that the angle
between the incident ray and normal equals the angle between the
reflected ray and normal.
• A normal line is drawn perpendicular to the surface of a medium at the
point where electromagnetic wave strikes. Angles of reflection or
refractions are measured between electromagnetic ray and the normal.
INTERNAL REFLECTION:
• It occurs when the angle of incidence of ray as it strikes an interface
between two media is such that instead of being transmitted it is
reflected.
• This happens at angles of incidence above a certain critical angle.
REFRACTION:
• It occurs when electromagnetic rays are transmitted from medium to
another with an angle of incidence greater than zero.
• If the angle of incidence is zero then the rays strike the surface at right
angles in the same line of direction.
• It causes rays to be deflected from its original course, the deflection depends
on the media involved and angle of incidence.
• When passing through denser medium the rays refracted towards the
normal while into a less denser medium refracted away from normal.
•Refraction is important when using hydrotherapy as a form of treatment, as
the refraction of rays passing from water to air makes the position of objects
in the water difficult to assess.
 ABSORPTION:
• When electromagnetic rays strike a new medium they maybe absorbed and thus produce an
effect.
• The proportion of rays absorbed depends on :
1. Wave length of the rays.
2. Nature of the medium. (Any medium will absorb some electromagnetic ways allows others to
pass.)
3. The angle of incidence. ( The way in which the angle affects intensity of radiation is quoted as
cosine law. It states that intensity of rays at a surface varies with the cosine of the angle
between the incident ray and normal ray.

• Absorption involves interaction between magnetic an d electric fields of the electromagnetic

radiation and the orbital electron field around the atoms of the medium.
• Electromagnetic waves being produced from a point source also obey the law inverse square
law this states that the intensity of rays from a point source varies inversely with the square of
the distance from that point source.
 FARADAY’S LAWS:

• FIRST LAW: Induced EMF is produced when magnetic flux changes and
Induced EMF continues so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.

• SECOND LAW : Magnitude of the EMF Induced varies directly as the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.
 EDDY CURRENTS :
• These are basically the currents induced in the body of a conductor due to
change in magnetic flux linked with the conductor.

• APPLICATION OF EDDY CURRENTS:

• Electromagnetic damping: used in designing dead beat galvanometers.
• When steady current is passed through the coil of a galvanometer ,it is
deflected. The coil oscillates about its equilibrium position for sometime
before coming to rest. To avoid delay due to oscillation,the coil is wound
oovea metallic frame. As coil is deflected,eddy currents set up in the
metallic frame oppose it’s motion.
• Therefore ,the coil attains it’s equilibrium position instantly.
• INDUCTION FURANCE: It makes use of heating effect of eddy currents.the substance or
metal to be heated is placed in a high frequency magnetic field. The large eddy currents
developed in the substance produces so much heat that it melts. Such an arrangement
is called induction furnace. It is used for extracting a metal from its ore and also in the
preparation of certain alloys.

• They are also used in diathermy,i.e. In deep heat treatment of the human body.
• Some undesirable effects of eddy currents are:
1. They oppose the relative motion.
2. They involve loss of energy in the form of heat.
3. The excessive heating may break the insulation in the appliance and reduce their life.
To minimise the eddy currents, the metal ore to be used in an appliance like dynamo
transformer is taken in the form of thin sheets.Each sheet is electrically insulated from
the other insulating varnish. Such a core is called laminated core.
Large resistance between thin sheets confines the eddy currents to the individual sheets.
 MAGNETRON:
• The magnetron is called a "crossed-field" device in the because
both magneticand electric fields are employed in its operation,
and they are produced in perpendicular directions so that they
cross. The applied magnetic field is constant and applied along
the axis of the circular device illustrated. The power to the
device is applied to the center cathode which is heated to
supply energetic electrons which would, in the absence of the
magnetic field, tend to move radially outward to the ring anode
which surrounds it.
Magento therapy:
By the beginning of nineteen eighties specialists draw from the fact that 80% of the
population visit a physician with problems regarding their motoric apparatus. The rest
of the 20% have problems with the eyes, ORL, heart, lungs and internal troubles.
Consequently, the scientists were looking for a cheaper alternative method without
chemistry and pharmaceuticals. It should have been implemented especially to the
group of patients suffering from failure of motoric apparatus where the treatment was
financially overwhelming. This research was given to the former Czechoslovakia.
• Magnetotherapy is a physical therapy consisting of the artificial magnetic field’s
activity of certain parameters influencing human organism. There is a large area
of a low frequency pulsing magnetic field generated during this therapy. Electric
currents invoked by the pulsing magnetic field slightly enhance the temperature
of an exposed tissue about 0,5 up to 1 degree Celsius.
• Magnetotherapy, if correctly applied, opens damaged ways to auto regulation
and auto reparation of the organism because human body is a genius mechanism
and any illness means a disturbance. Except from a local implementation on
tissues, magnetic field activates a whole range of defensive mechanisms, such as
immune system, increases effect of bacteriophage, affects the vegetation system.
• we produce an energy increase with magnetic fields in damaged cells,
therefore activating the
• systems of nutrition, respiration and reproduction of cells
•Magnetic fields are always the result of a macro or micro electric current. One
procedure to generate a magnetic field is making circulate an electrical current
through a wire adequate placed in a space. The easiest procedure is rolling this
wire on a support. This constitutes a solenoid. The process that an electric
current follows from the charge's circulation in the wire to the appearance of
magnetic fields in the space around the solenoid is the following:
•First, an electric potential energy is established with the circulation of an electric
current. Ampere’s laws, enunciated at the past century, said that electric current
circulation causes the appearance of a physical parameter: the magnetic intensity
called H.
•When we define an electric circuit with a number of turns, length, and electric
intensity parameters, we obtain a concrete H value (the magnetic induction).
Another parameter that influence on this value is the circuit environment.
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