Unit-3

Design of Riveted
 Introduction
• A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with head integral to it. The cylindrical
portion of the rivet is called shank or body and lower portion of shank
is known as tail, as shown in Fig.
• The rivets are used to make permanent fastening between the plates
such as in structural work, ship building, bridges, tanks and shells. The
riveted joints are widely used for joining light metal. It’s permanent
joint.
Head

Shank or body

Tail

Fig. Rivet Joint

 Types of
Riveted Joint

Lap Joint Butt Joint

 (a) Lap Joint (b) Butt Joint
• Lap Joint: A lap joint is that in which one plate overlaps the other
and the two plates are then riveted together.
• Butt Joint: A butt joint is that in which the main plates are kept in
alignment butting (i.e. touching) each other and a cover plate (i.e.
strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main
plates. The cover plate is then riveted together with the main plates.
Important Terminology Used in Riveted
Joints
Pitch. It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to
the centre of the next rivet measured parallel to the
seam as shown in Fig. It is usually denoted by p.
Back pitch. It is the perpendicular distance between
the centre lines of the successive rows as shown in
Fig. It is usually denoted by pb.
Diagonal pitch. It is the distance between the centres
of the rivets in adjacent rows of zig-zag riveted joint
as shown in Fig. It is usually denoted by pd.
Margin or marginal pitch. It is the distance between
the centre of rivet hole to the nearest edge of the
plate as shown in Fig. It is usually denoted by m.
 Failures of a Riveted Joint

Tearing of the
plate at an Shearing of
edge. the rivets.

Tearing of the Crushing of

plate across a the plate or
row of rivets. rivets.
Tearing of the plate at an edge.
• A joint may fail due to tearing of the plate at an edge as shown in Fig.
• This can be avoided by keeping the margin, diameter of the rivet hole.
m = 1.5d,
m
where d is the diameter of hole

d
Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets.
• Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets. Due to the tensile stresses
in the main plates, the main plate or cover plates may tear off across
a row of rivets as shown in Fig.
• In such cases, we consider only one pitch length of the plate, since
every rivet is responsible for that much length of the plate only.
• The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as tearing
resistance or tearing strength or tearing value of the plate.
Letp = Pitch of the rivets,
d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
t = Thickness of the plate, and d p

  σt = Permissible tensile stress for the plate material. d

Tearing area per pitch length, At = ( p – d ) t

∴ Tearing resistance or pull required to tear off the plate per pitch
length, Pt = At.σ t = (p – d)t.σ t
Shearing of the rivets.
• The plates which are connected by the rivets exert tensile stress on
the rivets, and if the rivets are unable to resist the stress, they are
sheared off as shown in Fig.
•Letd
  = Diameter of the rivet hole,
τ = Safe permissible shear stress for the rivet material, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length.
Shearing area, As = × d 2 ...(In single shear)
= 1.875 × × d 2 ...(In double shear, IBR)
∴ Shearing resistance or pull required to shear off the rivet per pitch
length,Ps = n × × d 2 × τ ...(In single shear)
= n × 1.875 × × d2 × τ ...(In double shear, IBR)
Crushing of the plate or rivets.
• Sometimes, the rivets do not actually shear off under the tensile
stress, but are crushed as shown in Fig.
• Due to this, the rivet hole becomes of an oval shape and hence the
joint becomes loose. The failure of rivets in such a manner is also
known as bearing failure. The area which resists this action is the
projected area of the hole or rivet on diametric plane.

P P
Let d = Diameter of the rivet hole,
t = Thickness of the plate,
σc = Safe permissible crushing stress for the rivet or plate material
n = Number of rivets per pitch length under crushing.
Crushing area per rivet (i.e. projected area per rivet), Ac = d.t
Crushing resistance or pull required to crush the rivet per pitch length
(for total n no. of rivets),
Pc = n.d.t.σc
Efficiency of a Riveted Joint
•  The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength
of riveted joint to the strength of the un-riveted or solid plate.
η=
Where, p = Pitch of the rivets,
t = Thickness of the plate,
σt = Permissible tensile stress of the plate material.
Design of Longitudinal Butt Joint for a Boiler
• According
  to Indian Boiler Regulations (I.B.R), the following procedure
should be adopted for the design of longitudinal butt joint for a boiler.
1. Thickness of boiler shell. First of all, the thickness of the boiler shell is
determined by using the thin cylindrical formula, i.e.
t = + 1 mm as corrosion allowance
2.Diameter of rivets.
(A) The diameter of the rivet hole (d) may be determined by using Unwin's
empirical formula, i.e.
d = 6√t …(when t is greater than 8 mm)
(B) Otherwise find diameter from relation Ps = Pc …(Refer to slide 8)
3. Pitch of rivets. The pitch of the rivets is obtained by equating the
tearing resistance of the plate to the shearing resistance of the rivets. It
may noted that
(a) The pitch of the rivets should not be less than 2d, which is necessary
for the formation of head.
(b) The maximum value of the pitch of rivets for a longitudinal joint of a
boiler as per I.B.R. is pmax = C × t + 41.28 mm
Use the minimum value from (a) and (b)

Butt Joint
No.of rivet per pitch Lap Joint
Single Double
1 1.31 1.53 1.75
2 2.62 3.06 3.5
3 3.47 4.05 4.63
4 4.17 - 5.52
5 - - 6

Value of C
4. Distance between the rows of rivets. The distance between the rows
of rivets as specified by Indian Boiler Regulations is as follows :
For equal number of rivets in more than one row for lap joint or butt
joint, the distance between the rows of rivets ( pb) should not be less
than
0.33 p + 0.67 d, for zig-zig riveting, and
2 d, for chain riveting.
5. Marginal distance.
m = 1.5 d
6. Thickness of the butt strap t1 / t2
If t1 = t2 then, t1 = 1.125 t (single butt strap)
t1 = 0.625 t (double butt strap)
If t1 ≠ t2 then, t1 = 0.75 t
t2 = 0.625 t
where t is thickness of the boiler shell
Eccentric Loaded Riveted Joint
•LetP
  = Eccentric load on the joint, and
d = Eccentricity of the load i.e. the distance between the line of
action of the load and the centroid of the rivet system i.e. G.
Step 1: First of all, find the centre of gravity G of the rivet
system.
= ; =
Step 2 : Introduce two forces P1 and P2 at the centre of gravity ‘G’ of the
rivet system. These forces are equal and opposite to P as shown in Fig.
•Step
  3 : Assuming that all the rivets are of the same size, the effect of P1
= P is to produce direct shear load on each rivet of equal magnitude.
Therefore, direct shear load on each rivet,
Ps = acting parallel to the load P.
•Step
  4 : Equating the moment then,
P.e = F1.l1 + F2.l2 + F3.l3 + …
=
From the relation,
= = =…
From the above two relation find F1, F2, F3, …
•Step
  5: The primary (or direct) and secondary shear load may be added
vectorially to determine the resultant shear load (R) on each rivet as
shown in Fig.
R=
Where θ = Angle between the primary or direct shear
load (Ps) and secondary shear load (F).
•Then,
  Maximum resultant shear load (R) = × d 2 × τ
From the above relation, we get the value of d in mm.
 Unit-3
Design of welded Joint
1. INTRODUCTION
• The process of permanently joining two or more metal parts by the
fusion of edges of the metals with or without applying pressure and a
filler material is called welding
• If pressure is applied  Forge welding
• Without pressure, with a separate weld metal Fusion welding
• In a fusion welding, heat of melting is obtained by two ways:- a) Gas
heating b) Electric arc
2. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
OF WELDED CONNECTIONS
• Advantages:-
• 1. Comparatively lighter than riveted structures
• 2) Greater strength compared to riveted joints
• 3) Addition and alterations can be done easily
• 4) Better finish than riveted joints. Hence maintenance costs and
painting costs are less
• 5) Lesser time consuming
• 6) Tension members are not weakened in welded joints compared to
riveted joints
2. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
OF WELDED CONNECTIONS
• Disadvantages:-
• 1) Requires skilled labour
• 2) Possibility of additional stress development due to uneven heating
and cooling. Or in other words, the members may get distorted
• 3) Testing is difficult.
• 4) As there is no provision for expansion or contraction of joints,
cracks may develop and propogate
3) TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
4. Types of welded joints
• The two important types of welded joints are:-
• 1. Butt weld
• 2. Lap (Fillet joint)

3.1) Butt weld joint:-

If the edges of the two plates are touching each other and are joined
by welding, then the joint is called butt weld joint
3.1) Butt weld joint:-
If the edges of the two plates are touching each other and are joined by
welding, then the joint is called butt weld joint

• Let l= length of weld

t= Depth of weld
F=Tensile force
σt= Allowable tensile stress

• The tensile force, F= σt x A= σt x l x t

• Types of butt welds are
• A) Single V butt joint
• B) Double V butt joint
• C) Single U butt joint
• D) Double U butt joint
• 3.2) Fillet weld or lap joint
• When the two members are overlapped and joined by welding, then
the joint is called fillet weld joint

• Let l= length of weld

t= Throat thickness
s= Size of weld
F=Tensile force
σt= Allowable tensile stress for weld metal
• Throat thickness= AB sin45=s x 0.707
• Throat area (minimum area of weld)=
Length of weld x throat thickness= l x s x 0.707
• Tensile strength of the joint/ maximum tensile force which the fillet
joint can take P= Allowable tensile stress of the weld x throat area
= σt x0.707 x l x s
Tensile strength of the joint for double fillet weld=
2 x σt x0.707 x l x s= 1.414 x σt xl x s
• 3.3) Strength of parallel fillet joint
• Parallel fillet welds are designed for shear strength
• Consider a double parallel fillet joint as shown below
• If τ is the allowable shear stress of the weld metal, then the weld
strength (shear strength) of the joint is F= Allowable shear stress x
throat area= 2 x 0.707 x s x l x τ
• Consider a combination of transverse fillet weld and parallel fillet
weld
• If τ is the allowable shear stress of the weld metal and σt is the
allowable tensile stress of the weld metal, then the weld strength
(shear strength) of the joint is:
F = σt x l1 x 0.707 x s + τ x l2 x 1.414 x s
• For re-inforced welded joints, the throat dimensions may be taken as
0.85 times the plate thickness
5. STRESSES & STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS OF
WELDED JOINTS
6. ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL WELDED SECTIONS WHICH ARE
AXIALLY LOADED

• Consider an unsymmetrical section (angle) welded on flange edges

subjected to an axial loading

• Let la = length of the weld at the top

• lb = length of weld at the bottom
• L= total length of weld= la+lb
6. ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL WELDED SECTIONS WHICH ARE AXIALLY LOADED

• P= Axial load
• a= Distance of the top weld from an axis passing through the CG of
the angle (known as the gravity axis)
• b= Distance of the bottom weld from gravity axis.
• f= Resistance offered by the weld per unit length.
• Resistance offered by top weld= f x la
6. ANALYSIS OF UNSYMMETRICAL WELDED SECTIONS WHICH ARE AXIALLY
LOADED

• Moment of the resistance offered by top weld about the gravity axis=
f x la x a
• Similarly the moment of resistance offered by the bottom weld about
the gravity axis= f x lb x b
• For equilibrium, sum of these moments should be zero.
• Hence f x la x a= f x lb x b
• => la x a= lb x b; l= la + lb
• Hence la= l x b / (a+ b) and lb = l x a/(a + b)
7. SPECIAL CASES OF FILLET JOINTS
• 6.1) Circular fillet weld subjected to torque/ torsion
• Consider a circular rod connected to a rogid plate by a fillet joint as
shown below.
7. SPECIAL CASES OF FILLET JOINTS
• Let
d= Diameter of the rod
r= Radius of the rod
T= Torque applied
s=Size of weld/ weld leg size
t= Throat thickness

• J= Polar moment of inertia of the weld section= ∏d³t/4

7. SPECIAL CASES OF FILLET JOINTS
• According to torsion equation, Maximum shear stress generated due
to torsion τ=T.r/J
• τ= T x 2/∏d²t.
• Throat thickness, t=s x 0.707
• Hence τ= 2T/(∏d² x s x0.707)
• => τ= 2.83T/∏d²s
• 6.2) Circular fillet weld subjected to bending moment
• Consider a circular rod connected to a rigid plate by a fillet weld as
shown below
7. SPECIAL CASES OF FILLET JOINTS

• Let M be the bending moment to which the weld/rod is subjected to and Z be

the section modulus.
• Z= ∏d²t/4
• Bending stress σb= M/Z= (4 x M)/ ∏d²t
• t=s x 0.707
• Hence b=5.66M/ ∏d²s
8. Solved examples
• 1) Two steel plates 10cm wide and 1.25cm thick are to be joined by
double lap weld joint. Find the length of the weld if the maximum
tensile stress is not to exceed 75 N/mm² and maximum tensile load
carried by the plates is 100kN.
• Soln) Given:-
• Width of the plate= 0.1m
• Thickness of the plate, s= weld leg size=(1.25/100) m
• Length of weld, l= ?
8. Solved examples
• σt= Maximum tensile stress= 75 x 10^6 N/m²
• Maximum tensile load, F= 10^6 N
• l= F/ (1.414 x σt x t)
• => l= 0.7544m= 75.44cm
• 2) Two plates of width 15cm and thickness 1.25cm are welded by a
single V butt joint. If the safe stress in the weld is 135MPa, find the
permissible load carried by the plates.
• Soln) Given:
• s= 1.25/100 m
• σt= 135 x10^6 N/m²
8. Solved examples
• P= (σt x s x l)= 135 x10^6 x 1.25/100 x 0.15 (Length of weld= width of plate)=
253125N= 253.125kN
• 3) A plate 10cm wide and 1.15cm thick is joined with another plate by
a single fillet weld and a double parallel fillet weld as shown below.
The maximum tensile and shear stresses are 75N/mm² and 55N/mm²
respectively. Find the length of each parallel fillet if the joint is
subjected to a load of 80kN.
8. Solved examples

• Given:-
• σt= 75MPa
• τ= 55MPa
• Width of plate, b= 100mm
• Length of single fillet weld, l1= width of plate=100mm
8. Solved examples
• Thickness of plate= weld leg size= 1.15/100 m
• l2= Length of each parallel fillet weld.
• F1= Force carried by single fillet weld= 0.707 x σt x l1 x s= 60978.75N
• F2= Load carried by double parallel fillet weld= 1.414 x l2 x s x τ= 894355 x l2
• F= F1+F2
• => 80000=60978.75 + F2
• => l2= 0.02127m= 2.13cm
8. Solved examples
• 4) A 200mm x 150mm x 10mm angle carrying a load of 250kN, is to be welded to a steel plate by
fillet welds as shown below. Find the length of the weld at the top and bottom if the allowable
shear stress in the weld is 102.5kPa. The distance between the neutral axis and the edges of the
angle section are 144.7mm and 55.3mm respectively
8. Solved examples
• Soln)
• Given:
• a= 144.7mm
• b= 55.3mm
• F= 250kN= F1 + F2
• l=l1+ l2
• F= τ x (l1 + l2) x 0.707 x s
• => (l1+ l2)= 0.345m
• l1= l x b/(a+b)= 0.345 x 55.3/200 =0.0954=9.54cm
• l2= l – l1= 24.96cm
 Unit-3
Design of Screwed fasteners
Introduction
• A screw thread is formed by cutting a continuous helical groove on a
cylindrical surface.
• A screw made by cutting a single helical groove on the cylinder is known as
single threaded (or single-start) screw and if a second thread is cut in the
space between the grooves of the first, a double threaded (or double-start)
screw is formed. Similarly, triple and quadruple (i.e. multiple-start) threads
may be formed.
• The helical grooves may be cut either right hand or left hand.
• A screwed joint is mainly composed of two elements i.e. a bolt and nut.
• The screwed joints are widely used where the machine parts are required to
be readily connected or disconnected without damage to the machine or
the fastening.
Important Terms Used in Screw Threads
• The following terms used in screw threads, as shown in Fig., are
important from the subject point of view :

Figure: Terms used in screw threads.

Major diameter. It is the largest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. The screw is specified by
this diameter. It is also known as outside or nominal diameter.
Minor diameter. It is the smallest diameter of an external or internal screw thread. It is also known as core
or root diameter.
Pitch. It is the distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the next.
This is measured in an axial direction between corresponding points in the same axial plane.

Lead. It is the distance between two corresponding points on the same helix. It may also
be defined as the distance which a screw thread advances axially in one rotation of the nut. Lead is
equal to the pitch in case of single start threads, it is twice the pitch in double start, thrice the pitch in triple
start and so on.
Crest. It is the top surface of the thread.
Root. It is the bottom surface created by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.
Depth of thread. It is the perpendicular distance between the crest and root.
Flank. It is the surface joining the crest and root.
Angle of thread. It is the angle included by the flanks of the thread.
Slope. It is half the pitch of the thread.
Set screws
• The set screws are shown in Fig. These are used to prevent
relative motion between the two parts.
• A set screw is screwed through a threaded hole in one part so
that its
• point (i.e. end of the screw) presses against the other part.
• This resists the relative motion between the two parts by means
of friction between the point of the screw and one of the parts.
• They may be used instead of key to prevent relative motion
between a hub and a shaft in light power transmission
members.
• They may also be used in connection with a key, where they Fig. Set screws.
prevent relative axial motion of the shaft, key and hub assembly.
Stresses in Screwed Fastening due to Static Loading
The following stresses in screwed fastening due to static loading are
important from the subject point of view :
1. Initial stresses due to screwing up forces,
2. Stresses due to external forces, and
3. Stress due to combination of stresses at (1) and (2).
Initial Stresses due to Screwing up Forces
1. Tensile stress due to stretching of bolt.
• The initial tension in a bolt, based on experiments, may be found by the
relation
2. Torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the
threads during its tightening.
• The torsional shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the
threads during its tightening may be obtained by using the torsion
equation. We know that
3. Shear stress across the threads.
The average thread shearing stress for the screw (τs) is obtained by using
the relation :

4. Compression or crushing stress on threads.

• The compression or crushing stress between the threads (σc) may be
obtained by using the relation :
5. Bending stress if the surfaces under the head or nut are not perfectly
parallel to the bolt axis.
• When the outside surfaces of the parts to be connected are not parallel
to each other, then the bolt will be subjected to bending action.
• The bending stress (σb) induced in the shank of the bolt is given by
Example Two machine parts are fastened together tightly by means of a 24
mm tap bolt. If the load tending to separate these parts is neglected, find the
stress that is set up in the bolt by the initial tightening.
Stresses due to External Forces
1. Tensile stress.
• The bolts, studs and screws usually carry a load in the direction of the
bolt axis which induces a tensile stress in the bolt.
2. Shear stress
• When a number of bolts are used to share the shearing load, the finished
bolts should be fitted to the reamed holes.
3. Combined tension and shear stress.
• When the bolt is subjected to both tension and shear loads, as in case of
coupling bolts or bearing, then the diameter of the shank of the bolt is
obtained from the shear load and that of threaded part from the tensile
load. A diameter slightly larger than that required for either shear or
tension may be assumed and stresses due to combined load should be
checked for the following principal stresses.
• Example 11.4. Two shafts are connected by means of a flange coupling to
transmit torque of 25 N-m. The flanges of the coupling are fastened by
four bolts of the same material aterial is 30 MPa.
Stress due to Combined Forces
The resultant axial load on a bolt depends upon the following factors :
1. The initial tension due to tightening of the bolt,
2. The extenal load, and
3. The relative elastic yielding (springiness) of the bolt and the
connected members.
• In order to determine the resultant axial load (P) on the bolt, the
following equation may be used :