Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

Separation Process Principles (Includes Unit Operations)

EVAPORATION
1.

INTRODUCTION
In evaporation the vapor from a boiling liquid solution is removed and a more concentrated
solution remains. In the majority of case the evaporation process called evaporation refers to the removal
of water from an aqueous solution. Typical examples: evaporation solution of sugar, sodium chloride,
glue, milk, and orange juice. In these cases the concentrated solution is desired product and the evaporated
water is normally discarded.
2.

TYPES OF EVAPORATION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION METHODS

2.A

General types of evaporators

In evaporation, heat is added to a solution to vaporize the solvent, which is usually water. The heat is
generally used a vapor such as steam on one side of a metal surface, with the evaporating liquid on the
other side. The general types of equipment are discussed below.
1.Open kettle or pan. The simplest evaporator consists of an open pan or kettle in which the liquid is
boiled. The heat is supplied by condensation of steam in a jacket or in coils immersed in the liquid. In
some cases the kettle is direct-fired. These evaporators are inexpensive and simple to operate, but the
heat economy is poor. In some cases, paddles or scrapers are used for agitation.
2.Horizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator.
The horizontal-tube natural circulation
evaporator is shown in Fig. 8.2-1a. The
horizontal bundle of heating tube is
similar to the bundle of tubes in heat
exchanger. The steam enters the tubes,
where it condenses. The steam condensate
leaves at the other end of the tubes. This
type of evaporator is relatively cheap and
is used for non- viscous liquids with high
heat transfer coefficients and liquids that
do not deposit scale. Since liquid
circulation is poor, they are unsuitable for
viscous liquids.

3.Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator. In this type of evaporator, vertical rather than horizontal
tubes are used; the liquids is inside the tubes and the steam condenses outside the tubes. Because of
boiling and decreases in density, the liquid rises in the tubes by natural circulation, as shown in Fig. 8.21b, and flows downward through a large, central open space or downcomer. The natural circulation
Page 1 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

increase the heat-transfer coefficient. This type is not used with viscous liquids. It is often called the shorttube evaporator. The basket type is widely used in the sugar, salt, and caustic-soda industries.
4.Long-tube vertical-type evaporator. Since the heat-transfer coefficient on the steam side is very high
compared to that on the evaporating-liquid side, high liquid velocities are desirable. In a long-tube
vertical-type evaporator, shown Fig. 8.2-1c, the liquid is inside the tubes. The tubes are 3 to 10 m long and
the formation of vapor bubbles inside the tubes causes a pumping action, which gives quite high liquid
velocities. Generally, the liquid passes through the tubes only once and is not recirculated. This is widely
used for producing condensed milk.
5.Falling-film-type evaporator. A variation on the long-tube-type evaporator is the falling film evaporator,
wherein the liquid is fed to the top of the tubes and flows down the walls as a thin film. Vapor-liquid
separation usually takes place at the bottom. This type is widely used for concentrating heat-sensitive
materials such as orange juice and other fruit juices, because the holdup time is very small (5 to 10 s or
more) and the heat-transfer coefficient are high.
6.Forced-circulation-type evaporator. The liquid-film heat transfer coefficient can be increased by
pumping to cause forced circulation of the liquid inside the tubes. This could be done in the long-tube
vertical type shown in Fig. 8.2-1c by adding a pipe connection shown with a pump between the outlet
concentrate line and the feed line. In the forced-circulation type, however, the vertical tubes are usually
shorter than in the long-tube type, as shown in Fig.8.2-1d. This type useful for viscous liquids.
7.Agitated-film evaporator. The main resistance to heat transfer in an evaporator is on the liquid side. One
way to increase turbulence in this film, this is done in a modified falling-film evaporator with only a
single, large, jacketed tube containing an internal agitator. Liquid enters at the top of the tube and as it
flows downward, it is spread out into a turbulent film by the vertical agitator blades. The concentrated
solution leaves at the bottom and vapor leaves through a separator and out the top. It is used with heatsensitive viscous material such as rubber latex, gelatin, antibiotics, and fruit juices. However, it has a high
cost and small capacity.
8.Open-pan solar evaporator. A very old yet still-used process is solar evaporation in open pans. Saltwater
is put in shallow open pans or troughs and allowed to evaporate slowly in the sun to crystallize the salt.
2B

Methods of Operation of Evaporators

1. Single-effect evaporators. A simplified diagram of a single-stage or single-effect evaporator is given in

Fig. 8.2-2. The feed enters at TF K and saturated steam at TS enters the heat-exchange section.
The concept of an overall heat-transfer coefficient is used in the
calculation of the rate of heat transfer in an evaporator. The general
equation can be written.
q UAT UA(TS T1 )

1)

where q is the rate of heat transfer in W, U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient in W/m 2.K. A is the heattransfer area in m2, TS is the temperatur of the condensing steam in K, and T1 is the boiling point of the
liquid in K.
Single-effect evaporator are often used when the required capacity of operation is relatively small and/or
the cost of steam is relatively cheap compared to the evaporator cost.

Page 2 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

2. Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators. A simplified diagram of a forward-feed triple-effect

evaporation system is shown in Fig. 8.2-3.
If the feed to the first effect is near the boiling point
at the pressure in the first effect, 1 kg of steam will
evaporate almost 1 kg of water. As a very rough
approximation, almost 3 kg of water will be
evaporated for 1 kg of steam in a three-effect
evaporator. Hence, the steam economy, which is kg
vapor evaporated/kg steam used, is increased.

In forward-feed operation as shown in Fig 8.2-3, the fresh feed is added to the first effect and flows to
the next in the same direction as the vapor flow. This method of operation is used when the feed is hot.
The boiling temperature decrease from effect to effect. This mean that if the first effect is at P1 = 1 atm abs
pressure, the last effect will be under vacuum at a pressure P3.
3. Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators. In the backward-feed operation shown in Fig. 8.2-4 for a
triple-effect evaporator, the fresh feed enters the last and coldest effect and continues on until the
concentrated product leaves the first effect.

4. Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators. Parallel feed in multiple-effect evaporators involves the

adding of fresh feed and withdrawal of concentrated product from each effect. The vapor from each effect
is still used to heat the next effect. This method of operation is mainly used when the feed is almost
saturated and solid crystals are the product, as in the evaporation of brine to make salt.
3.

CALCULATION METHODS FOR SINGLE-EFFECT EVAPORATOR

3.A

Heat and Material Balance for Evaporator

The basic equation for solving for the capacity of a single-effect evaporator is
q UAT
vapor V
T1, yV, HV
feed F
TF, xF, hF

P1
T1

steam S
TS, HS

condensate S
TS, hS

2)
Latent heat of Steam, where

H S hS
3)
The vapor V is in equilibrium with the liquid L, the
temperatures of vapor and liquid are the same. Also, the
pressure P1 is the saturation vapor pressure of the liquid of
composition xL at its boiling point T1.
Material balance, steady state, the rate of mass in
= rate of mass out. Then, for a total balance,

concentrated liquid L
T1, xL, hL

F=L+V

4)

for a balance on the solute (solids) alone, the vapor V is as pure solvent having a solid content of yV = 0,
Page 3 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

Fx F Lx L

5)

For the heat balance, since the total heat entering = total heat leaving,
heat in feed + heat in steam = heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor + heat in condensed steam 6)
This assumes no heat lost by radiation or convection,
F.hF + S.HS = L.hL + V.HV + S.hS
F.hF + S. = L.hL + V.HV
The heat q transferred in the evaporator is then

7)
8)

q = S(HS hS) = S

9)

Example 8.4-1. Heat-transfer area in Single-Effect Evaporator

A continuous single-effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg/h of 1.0 wt% salt solution entering at 311 K
(37.8 C) to a final concentration of 1.5 wt%. The vapor space of the evaporator is at 101.325 kPa (1.0 atm)
and the steam supplied is saturated at 143.3 kPa. The overall coefficient U = 1704 W/m 2.K. Calculate the
amounts of vapor and liquid product and the heat-transfer area required?
Solution. The flow diagram is the same as in fig. 8.4-1. for the material balance, substituting into Eq. 4)
F=L+V
9072 = L + V
substituting into Eq.5) and solving
F.xF = L.xL

4)
5)

9072(0.01) = L(0.015)
L = 6048 kg/h of liquid
substituting into Eq.4) and solving
V = 3024 kg/h of vapor
The heat capacity of the feed is assumed to be cpF = 4.14 kJ/kg.K. (Often, for feeds of inorganic salts in
water, the cp can be assumed to be approximately that of water alone.). To make a heat balance using Eq.8,
it is convenient to select the boiling point of the dilute solution in the evaporator, which is assumed to be
that of water at 101.32 kPa, T1 = 373.2 K (100oC), as the datum temperature. Then HV is simply the latent
heat of water at 373.2 K, which from the steam tables in Appendix A.2 is 2257 (Hf-hv) kJ/kg (970.3
btu/lbm). The latent heat of the steam at 143.3 kPa [saturation temperature TS = 383.2 K (230oF)] is 2230
kJ/kg (958.8 btu/lbm). (Hf-hv)
The enthalpy of the feed can be calculated from
hF = cpF ( TF T1)

10)

Substituting into with hL = 0, since it is at the datum of 373.2 K,

F.hF + S. = L.hL + V.HV
9072(4.14)(311.0 373.2) + S(2230) = 6048(0) + 3024(2257)
S = 4108 kg steam/h
The heat q transferred through the heating surface area A is, from
q = S(

q = 4108(2230)(1000/3600) = 2 544 000 W

Substituting into, where T = Ts-T1,
Page 4 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

q = 2 544 000 = UA= 1704(A)(383.2 373.2)

Solving,
3. B

A = 149.3 m2.

Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation

1. Effect of feed temperature. If the feed is under pressure and enters the evaporator at a temperature above
the boiling point in the evaporator, additional vaporization is obtained by flashing part of the entering hot
feed. Preheating the feed can reduce the size of evaporator heat-transfer area needed.
2. Effect of pressure. In many cases a large T is desirable, since, as T increase, the heating-surface area
A and cost of evaporator decrease. To reduce the pressure below to be vacuum, a condenser and vacuum
pump can be used. For example, if th pressure were reduced to 41.4 kPa, the boiling point of water would
be 349,9 K and the new T would be 383.2 349,9, or 33,3 K. A large decrease in heating-surface area
would be obtained.
3. Effect of steam pressure. Using higher-pressure, saturated steam increase T, which decrease the size
and cost of the evaporator. However, high-pressure steam is more costly as well as often being more
valuable as a source of power elsewhere. Hence, overall economic balances are really needed to determine
the optimum steam pressures.
3.C

Boiling-Point Rise of Solution

In the majority of cases in evaporation, the solution are not dilute solutions such as those considered in
Example 8.4-1. For strong solution of dissolved solutes the boiling-point rise due to solutes in the solution
usually cannot be predicted. However, a useful empirical law known as Duhrings rule can be applied. In
Fig 8.4-2 such as Duhrings-line chart is given for solutions of NaOH in water. It is to know the boiling
point of a given solution at only two pressures to determine a line.
EXAMPLE. Use of Diihring Chart for
Boiling-Point Rise
As an example of use of the chart, the pressure
in an evaporator is given as 25.6 kPa (3.72 psia)
and a solution of 30% NaOH is being boiled.
Determine the boiling temperature of the NaOH
solution and the boiling-point rise BPR of the
solution over that of water at the same pressure.
Solution: From the steam tables in Appendix
A.2, the boiling point of water at 25.6 kPa is
65.6oC. from fig. 84-2 for 65.6 oC(150oF) and
30% NaOH, the boiling point of the NaOH
solution is 79.5oC (175oF). the boiling-point rise
is 79.5 65.6 = 13.9oC (25oF)

Page 5 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

EXAMPLE, Evaporation of an NaOH Solution

An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/h (10 000 lb m/h) of a 20% solution of NaOH in water
entering at 60oC (140oF) to a product of 50% solids. the pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4
kPa(25 psia) and the pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is 11.7 kPa (1.7 psia). the overall heattransfer coefficient is 1560 W/m2. calculate the stem used, the steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam
used, and the heating surface area in m2.
Solution: The process flow diagram and nomenclature are the same as in fig 8.4-1. The given variables
are F = 4536 kg/h, xF = 0.20 wt fraction, TF = 60oC, P1 = 11.7 kPa, steam pressure = 172.4 kPa, and x L =
0.50 wt fraction. For tho overall material balance, substituting into
F = 4536 = L + V
Substituting into and solving and simultaneously,

4)

F.xF = L.xL

5)

4536(0.20) = L(0.50)
L = 1814 kg/h dan

V = 2722kg/h

To determine the boiling point T1 of 50% concentrated solution, we first obtain the boiling point of pure
water at 11.7 kPa from the steam tables, App. A.2, as 48.9 oC(120oF). From the Duhring chart, Fig. 8.4-2,
for a boiling point of water of 48.9 oC and 50% NaOH, the boiling point of the solution is T 1 = 89,5oC
(193oF). Hence
boiling-point rise = T1 48.9 = 89.5 48.9 = 40.6oC (73oF)
From the enthalpy-concentration chart (Fig.8.4-3),
for 20% NaOH at 60oC(140oF), hf = 214 kJ/kg (92
btu/lbm). For 50% NaOH at 89.5oC(193oF), hL = 505
kJ/kg (193 btu/lbm).
For the superheated vapor V at 89.5 oC(193oF) and
11.7 kPa [superheated 40.6oC(73oF) since the boiling
point of water is 48.9oC(120oF) at 11.7 kPa], from
the steam table, HV = 2667 kJ/kg (1147 btu/lbm). An
alternative method for calculating the H V is first to
obtain the enthalpy of saturated vapor at 48.9 oC
(120oF) and 11.7 kPa of 2590 kJ/kg (1113.5 btu/lbm).
Then, using a heat capacity of 1.884 kJ/kg.K for
superheated steam with the superheat of (89.5
48.9)oC = (89.5 48.9) K.
HV = 2590 + 1.884(89.5 48.9) = 2667 kJ/kg
For the saturated steam at 172.4 kPa, the saturation temperature from the steam tables is 115.6 oC (240oF)
and the latent heat is = 2214 kJ/kg (952 btu/lbm).
Substituting into Eq.8) and so;ving for S.
F.hF + S. = L.hL + V.HV
4535(214) + (S (2214) = 1814 (505) + 2722 (2667)
S = 3255 kg steam/h
Substituting into Eq 9)
Substituting into Eq. 1)

q = S= 3255(2214)(1/3600) = 2002 kW
2002(1000) = 1560(A)(115.6 89.5)
Page 6 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

Hence, A = 49.2 m2. Also, steam economy = 2722/3255 = 0.836

4.
CALCULATION METHODS FOR MULTIPLE-EFFECT EVAPORATORS
In evaporation of solutions in a single-effect evaporator, a major cost is the cost of the steam used to
evaporate the water. To reduce this cost, multiple-effect evaporators are used, which recover the latent heat
of the vapor leaving and reuse it. A three-effect evaporator is shown Fig.8.2-3. In this system each effect in
itself acts as a single-effect evaporator.
4.1 Temperature drops in multiple-effect evaporator. The amount of heat transferred per hour in the first
effect of a triple-effect evaporator with forward feed as in Fig. 8.2-3 will be
q1 = U1A1T1
This vapor then condenses in the second effect, giving up approximately the same mount of heat:
q2 = U2A2T2
This same reasoning holds for q3. Since q1 = q2 = q3, then, approximately,
U1A1T1 = U2A2T2 = U3A3T3
T = T1 + T2 + T3 = TS T3
Since T1 is proportional to 1/U1, then

T1 T

1/ U1
1/ U1 1/ U 2 1/ U 3

Similar equations can be written for T2 and T3

4.2. Capacity of multiple-effect evaporator, A rough estimate of the capacity of a three-effect evaporator
compared to a single-effect can be obtained by adding the value of q for each evaporator
q = q1 + q2 + q3 = U1A1T1 + U2A2T2 + U3A3T3
q = U A T
4.3. Calculations for Multiple-Effect Evaporators
In doing calculations for a multiple-effect evaporator system, the value to be obtained are usually the area
of the heating surface in each effect, the kg of steam per hour to be supplied, and the amount of vapor
leaving each effect, especially the last one. The given or known values are usually as follows: (1) steam
pressure to the first effect, (2) final pressure in the vapor space of the last effect, (3) feed conditions and
flow to the first effect, (4) the final concentration in the liquid leaving the last effect, (5) physical
properties such as enthalpies and/or heat capacities of the liquid and vapors, and (6) overall heat-transfer
coefficients in effect. Usually, the areas of each effect are assumed equal.
The calculation are done using material balances, heat balances, and the capacity equations q =
UAT for each effect. A convenient way to solve these equations is by trial and error.

Page 7 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

Page 8 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

Page 9 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

10

Page 10 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

11

Page 11 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

12

Effect 3:

Page 12 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

13

Page 13 of 14

3/15/2015

Operasi Teknik Kimia 2)

14

The average area to use in each effect is Am = 105.0 m2. Note that this values of 105.0 m2 is quite close to
the average value of 104.4 m2 from the first trial.
steam economy =

V1 V2 V3 5675 6053 6416

2.025
S
8960

Page 14 of 14

3/15/2015