Session: Animal Nutrition

Reviewer: Dr. Ernesto A. Martin

Department of Animal Science
Nutrition
Nutrition is a science that deals with the kind and amo
unt of feeds, their composition of nutrients, the anima
l performance desired, and digestion and metabolism
of nutrients.
Nutrigenomics deals with the study of how foods ma
y interact with specific genes to increase the risk of co
mmon chronic diseases; the goal of this science is the
development of foods that match individual genotypes
for better health.
Nutrition
A good understanding of the principles of nutrition an
d nutrition management or practices are necessary for
the efficient production of meat, milk, wool and eggs a
nd also for the attainment of desired level of performa
nce of working and breeding animals. Supplying feeds
, as source of nutrients, is a major concern in the profit
ability of animal production since feed cost accounts f
or 70 to 80% of the total production cost.
Nutrient
A nutrient is feed constituent that aids in the support
of life (body systems function well – cells, tissue, organ
s function). The nutrient can be a single chemical or a
large, complex chemical compound of many different
units. Of the more than 100 chemical elements (118),
more than 20 (20-24) enter into the make up of the ess
ential nutrients.
Nutritive Elements
 Arsenic (As)  Iodine (I)  Potassium (K)

 Calcium (Ca)  Iron (Fe)  Selenium (Se)

 Carbon (C)  Magnesium (Mg)  Silicon (Si)

 Chlorine (Cl)  Manganese (Mn)  Sulfur (S)

 Chromium (Cr)  Molybdenum (Mo)  Tin (Sn)

 Cobalt (Co)  Nickel (Ni)  Vanadium (V)

 Copper (Cu)  Nitrogen (N)  Zinc (Zn)

 Flourine (F)  Oxygen (O)

 Hydrogen (H)  Phosphorus (P)

Nutritive Elements
Nutritive - found in animal’s body and with known fu
nction(s)
Semi-nutritive
Also found in animal’s body
Some functions have been demonstrated in some animal
s (e.g. Vanadium, Silicon, Tin, Chromium)
Adventitious
Found in animal’s body
Without known function (e.g. Gold)
Gen. Functions of Nutrients
structural material for building and maintaining the b
ody structure (CHON for muscle; Ca, P, Mg for bones);
source of energy for heat production, work and fat dep
osition (C H O – ATP); and
regulating body processes or in the formation of body
regulators (enzymes, coenzymes, hormones)
Basic Nutrient Groups
1. Water
2. Carbohydrates
3. Proteins
4. Fats
5. Vitamins
6. Minerals
Water
Water is made up of two atoms of Hydrogen (H) and one atom of Oxygen (O). I
t is the cheapest and most abundant nutrient. Animals obtain water from drin
king water, feed, and metabolic water. The latter is formed from the oxidatio
n of compounds, such as sugars, as illustrated below:
 
 C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy
 
 Water has the following functions to the animal:
 
as a solvent, it functions in the transport of nutrients to the cell and excretion of
waste products of metabolism;
it is extremely important in temperature regulation;
it cushions the nervous system; and
it lubricates joints and acts as a cerebrospinal fluid.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen, with Hydrogen and Oxyg
en found in the same ratio as in water. In the plant, carbohydrates are formed by photosynthesi
s, chemically illustrated as follows:
 
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 673 kcal (sun)  C6H12O6 + 6 O2
 

Plants, the chief source of animal feeds, contain about 75% carbohydrates (dry matter). The
bulk of nutrients found in the animal’s diet are carbohydrates. However, only less than 1-1.5% is
found in the animals’ body as the nutrient is continuously metabolized by the animal. The uses
of carbohydrates are as follows:
 
Metabolized as a source of energy (Adenosine Triphosphate, ATP)
Converted into glycogen which is sometimes called “animal starch.”
Converted into fat and stored in the body for future use as a source of energy (when intake excee
ds needs and glygogen deposit).
 
Carbohydrates
 The basic unit of carbohydrate structure in livestock and poultry feeds is the hexose unit (6-carbon at
om molecule). Smaller amount of pentose (5-carbon atom molecule) are found in animal feeds; usu
ally, these are less digestible than the hexoses but some animals (especially ruminants) can utilize the
se fairly well. Much smaller amounts of diose, triose, and tetrose (2, 3 and 4 carbon sugars, respective
ly) are present and are generally unimportant.
  
 The classification of carbohydrates is as follows:
  Monosaccharides. It contains one sugar unit; not usually found as such in feedstuffs but serves as a
building unit for more complex carbohydrates.
  
 Pentoses – arabinose, xylose, ribose
 Hexoses - glucose, fructose, galactose
  
 Disaccharides. It is formed by two monosaccharides.
 Sucrose – glucose + fructose; found in cane sugar
 Maltose – two glucose units; obtained from hydrolysis of starch
 Lactose – glucose + galactose; sugar found in milk
  
Carbohydrates
 Polysaccharides. It is composed of long chains of hexose or pentose units.
  
 Starch – long chains of glucose units joined by alpha linkage between glucose units
; cereal grains and tubers are rich sources of starch.
  
 Cellulose – composed of long chains of glucose units that are joined together by bet
a linkage; found in cell walls of plants, especially in mature grasses.
  
 Hemicellulose. It is made up of both 5-carbon and 6-carbon sugar groups; also a pa
rt of plant cell walls but is more digestible than cellulose.
 Lignin – is a compound associated with complex carbohydrates; not a carbohydrate
Carbohydrates

The kind of carbohydrate unit influences the ability of an animal
to digest sugars from a given feedstuff. Generally, starches such a
s those found in cereals and tubers are well utilized by animals.
Some feedstuffs (e.g. barley) containing high amounts of non-sta
rch polysaccharides (arabinoxylans, beta-glucans), however, are
poorly digestible and cause viscous condition in the intestine (m
ost especially non-ruminants). Only ruminant animals could we
ll utilize feedstuffs with high amounts of cellulose and hemicellu
lose (e.g. grasses).
Fats/Oil (Lipids)
Lipids are made up of chemical elements C, H, and O. Oxygen comprises a much smaller proportion of t
heir molecule. For this reason, lipids release more energy upon oxidation than carbohydrates or proteins.
 

Lipids are composed of one molecule of glycerol (a carbohydrate) and three molecules of fatty acids. Fat
ty acids are long chain organic compounds, usually containing an even number of carbon atoms; they m
ay be saturated (only single bond between carbon atoms) or unsaturated (double bond between some
of the carbon atoms).
 
 The functions of fat in the body are the following:
 
Concentrated source of energy (2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates and proteins).
Source of essential fatty acids (vitamin-like role) such as linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid that are
needed in the formation of certain regulatory hormones.
Carrier of fat-soluble vitamins.
Heat, insulation and protection.
Structural component of tissues such as brain and liver.
 
Fats/Oil (Lipids)
 Plants and animal by-products are rich sources of lipids. Animal fats (e
.g. tallow) tend to contain more of the saturated fats, which are solid
at room temperature. Vegetable oils (e.g. coconut, corn oil and soybea
n oil) are high in unsaturated fats, which are liquid at room temperat
ure. This is considered to be the main difference between fat and
oil. In general, oil is more digestible than fat.
Proteins
Proteins are complex group of compounds, which contain the elements C, H,
O, nitrogen (N), sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P). They are made up of long cha
ins of amino acids, which vary in relative amounts and kind (among different
proteins), joined together by a peptide bond. Amino acids are organic acid
s, which contain one or more amino group (NH 2). These are classified, based
on the dietary need of the animal, as dispensable (non-essential) and non-d
ispensable (essential) amino acids. The former (dispensable) is essential to t
he animal but are normally synthesized by them or in sufficient amount in th
e diet. These include alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, cystine
, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, hydroxyproline, praline, and tyrosi
ne. The latter (non-dispensable) cannot be synthesized by the animal and m
ust always be present in adequate amounts in the diet to attain optimum perf
ormance of an animal. The essential amino acids are: phenylalanine, valine
, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, arginine, le
ucine, and lysine (PVT TIM HALL).
Proteins
 Proteins are in highest concentration in muscle tissues of animals. It is the most expensiv
e nutrient to furnish in an animal’s diet.
Functions
 It is the basic structural unit of the body.
 Collagen (cornea and connective tissue)
 Elastin (tendons, arteries and elastic tissues)
 Keratin (hair, horn and wool)
  Body metabolism.
  Enzymes
 Hormones
 Immune bodies
 Hereditary transmission (DNA)
  
 Excess proteins are deaminated and used by the animal as a source of energy.
Proteins
Animals’ diet must satisfy a minimum level of crude protein with ad
equate and well-balanced amino acids. A crude protein is compos
ed of true proteins and nitrogenous products (non-protein nitrogen
) or amides. True protein is made up of amino acids only while no
n-protein nitrogen (NPN) contains N that can be converted to pro
tein by bacterial action.
 
Quality proteins are found in feedstuffs of animal origin. This is bec
ause the amino acid content of these feeds approximates those that
are found in animal tissues. These are usually the best protein sourc
e for non-ruminant animals. Ruminant animals have the capacity to
utilize protein sources containing high amounts of NPN, with the h
elp of the rumen bacteria.
Vitamins
A vitamin is an organic nutrient required in small quantities necessar
y for regulating metabolic processes, but does not become an actual c
omponent of body structures.
 

Vitamins function as accessory nutritional factors with no structur
al or energy-yielding role.
 

Vitamins are generally divided into two groups. These are the fat-sol
uble and water-soluble vitamins. Letters of the alphabet were used
to describe vitamins when their chemical nature was not yet known; t
his nomenclature still exists today.
Vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins
 
Vitamin A – Retinol
Vitamin D – Ergosterol (plants); D3-7 – dehydrocholeste
rol (animals)
Vitamin E – Alpha-tocopherol
Vitamin K – Phyloquinon (K1); Menaquinone-7 (K2); Me
nadione (K3)
Vitamins
The fat-soluble vitamins are found in feedstuffs in ass
ociation with lipids and are absorbed in association wi
th these nutrients (lipids). These usually exist in natur
e as precursor vitamin (inactive form) and must be con
verted into active form, through biochemical processes
, before being useful to the animal. Fat-soluble vitami
ns are involved in the regulation of structural portion
of the body (e.g. vitamin D regulates calcium and phos
phorus metabolism; vitamin A maintains the structura
l integrity of the photoreceptors of the eye).
Vitamins
Water-soluble vitamins
 
Vitamin B1 – Thiamine
Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin
Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine; Pyridoxal; Pyridoxamine
Vitamin B12 – Cobalamine; Cyanocobalamine
Niacinamide – Nicotinamide
Panthothenic acid – Panthothenate
Vitamin H – Biotin
Folic acid (M) – Folacin; Pteryglutamic acid
Vitamin C – Ascorbic acid
Inositol – vitamins of the B-group
Choline
Para-amino benzoic acid (an essential group in folic acid)
Vitamins
The water-soluble vitamins are usually abundant in feeds and these can be readily utilized by the animal since these are al
ready in active form. They are involved in enzyme systems which function in the direct metabolism of fats, proteins and
carbohydrates as well as transfer of energy throughout the body (B-complex), transmission of nerve impulses (choline) a
nd red blood cell formation (B12). Vitamins are involved in the prevention of gross deficiency symptoms such as:
 
Thiamine – beriberi
Nicotinamide – Pellagra (corn-eater disease)
Folic – sprue (a tropical disease)
Cyanocobalamine – anemia (macrocytic)
Vitamin C – scurvy
Vitamin A – night blindness
Vitamin D – Rickets (young animals); Osteomalacia (adult animals)
Vitamin E – white muscle disease
Vitamin K – bleeding disease (sweet clover poisoning)
 

Feedstuffs in their fresh form as well as fermentation by-products contain appreciable quantities of vitamins. However, p
rocessing and improper handling may cause substantial reduction in biopotency (vitamin activity) of these vitamins. Al
though some vitamins may be synthesized by some animals (e.g. B-complex by ruminant animals; ascorbic acid by poultr
y), amounts are not sufficient to meet their requirement when these animals are under stress. Hence, dietary vitamin sup
plements are needed.
Minerals
Minerals represent the inorganic nutrients required by an animal. A number
of mineral elements are found in the animals’ body. However, their mere pre
sence in the body does not necessarily indicate that the mineral is essential.
A nutritionally essential mineral has the following features:
 
an active part of the structure of the body;
plays an important role in some enzymes, hormones or other such compoun
ds; and
its removal from the diet may cause specific deficiency symptom to which co
uld be reversed by the addition of the mineral in question.
 

Minerals are classified into two groups, based primarily on the amounts need
ed by the animals: (1) macro minerals; and (2) micro minerals.
Minerals
Macro minerals. These are minerals needed in large amount; req
uirement is expressed as percentage of the diet.
 
 Calcium (Ca) – required for bone formation; needed for muscle and
nerve function.
 Phosphorus (P) – required for bone formation and for proper energy
utilization.
 Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), and Potassium (K) – required for mai
ntenance of osmotic pressure and maintenance of acid-base balance (
pH).
 Magnesium (Mg) – required for bone formation and activation of cer
tain enzymes.
 Sulfur (S) – a component of amino acids methionine and cystine.
Minerals
 Micro minerals. These are minerals needed small amounts; requirement is expressed in parts per mi
llion or parts per billion.
 
 Cobalt (Co) – component of the molecule of vitamin B12.
 Iron (Fe) – component of the hemoglobin molecule which is involved in oxygen transport in the
blood.
 Copper (Cu) – required for absorption of iron from the intestine.
 Iodine (I) – component of thyroxine which controls metabolic rate.
 Manganese (Mn) – involved in bone and cartilage formation.
 Molybdenum (Mo) – involved in uric acid formation in poultry.
 Selenium (Se) – involved in proper absorption and retention of vitamin E.
 Zinc (Zn) – component of carbonic anhydrase which is involved in the transport of carbon dioxi
de from the cell to the lungs.
 Flourine (Fl) – it increases hardness of bones and teeth.
 Nickel (Ni) and Chromium (Cr) – involved in glucose metabolism.
 
For some minerals, the borderline between safety and toxicity is very small. Toxicity does not necessa
rily mean death but can also mean greatly reduced performance. Cu, Se, and F are toxic at relatively l
ow dietary levels.
  
Terms used in Animal Nutrition
Feed is a term given to a particular product that provides nutrient. Specifically, these are materials consisting of g
rains; fodder or by-products of animal or plant origin which when properly used have nutritional value to the anim
als. They are edible materials which are consumed by animals and contribute energy and/or nutrients to the anim
al’s diet.
 
Food is an article used for food or drink for man or other animals. It is a substance that provides taste, flavor or nu
tritive value.
 
Feedstuff is commonly used when a group or list of feeds is being referred to. It is a term similar to feed or food b
ut is broader covering all materials in the diet. It may consist of products that are of natural or artificial in origin.

Meal is processed nutritive materials that are intended for feeding.

 
Diet is composed of a number of individual feeds selected to make a balance ration for feeding to stocks; sometim
es known as mixed feed or formula feed.
 
Ration is the quantity of feed being offered (daily) to an animal (e.g 100 g/layer/day, 2% body weight for dry matt
er requirement)
 
Composition of Diets
Ingredients Booster Starter Finihser
Yellow corn 625.0 630.0 635.0
US Soya (GMC Hi-pro) 300.0 285.0 289.0
Fishmeal 25.0 ____ ___
Copra meal ___ 7.0 ___
Coco-oil 6.70 29.80 35.60
MDCP 10.0 11.60 10.60
Limestone 6.0 11.30 9.00
Salt 4.0 5.0 4.70
Lysine 3.60 2.40 2.50
Methionine 3.30 2.40 2.55
Threonine 1.00 0.60 0.60
Choline chloride 60 % 2.10 1.90 1.70
Vitamin (Miavit) 0.75 0.800 0.800
Mineral (Miavit) 0.80 0.750 0.750
Nopcozyme (multi-enzyme) 0.500 0.500 0.500
Capsozyme SB (b-galactosidase) 0.500 0.500 ___
Capsozyme P (phytase) 0.150 0.150 0.150
Fugicap (mold inhibitor) 1.00 1.00 ___
Ethoxyquin powder 0.150 0.150 0.150
Cobind Regular (toxin binder) 2.50 2.50 2.00
Zinc bacitracin 0.300 0.300 ___
Salinomycin 0.500 0.500 ___
Carrier corn 7.50 5.90 5.00
Total 1000.65 1000.10 1000.45
Nutrient Content of Diets
Ingredients Booster Starter Finisher
Yellow corn 625.0 630.0 635.0
US Soya (GMC Hi-pro) 300.0 285.0 289.0
Fishmeal 25.0 ____ ___
Copra meal ___ 7.0 ___
Coco-oil 6.70 29.80 35.60
MDCP 10.0 11.60 10.60
Limestone 6.0 11.30 9.00
Salt 4.0 5.0 4.70
Lysine 3.60 2.40 2.50
Methionine 3.30 2.40 2.55
Threonine 1.00 0.60 0.60
Choline chloride 60 % 2.10 1.90 1.70
Vitamin (Miavit) 0.75 0.800 0.800
Mineral (Miavit) 0.80 0.750 0.750
Nopcozyme (multi-enzyme) 0.500 0.500 0.500
Capsozyme SB (b-galactosidase) 0.500 0.500 ___
Capsozyme P (phytase) 0.150 0.150 0.150
Fugicap (mold inhibitor) 1.00 1.00 ___
Ethoxyquin powder 0.150 0.150 0.150
Cobind Regular (toxin binder) 2.50 2.50 2.00
Zinc bacitracin 0.300 0.300 ___
Salinomycin 0.500 0.500 ___
Carrier corn 7.50 5.90 5.00
Total 1000.65 1000.10 1000.45
Classification of Feeds
Concentrates. These are feeds low in fiber (<20%) and high in total digestible nutrients (TDN, >60%) on an air dry basis.
Also, a concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to enhance the nutritional adequacy of a supplement mix. The fo
llowing are examples of concentrates:
  
 Energy sources – feedstuffs used primarily as a source of energy.
  
 Examples:
Cereal grains (corn, rice, wheat, and barley), liquid energy sources (oil and molasses), by-products (rice bran, rice mid
dling, wheat pollard).
  
 Protein sources – feedstuffs used primarily as a source of protein/amino acids.
  
 Examples:
Protein of plant origin (soybean meal, copra meal, ipil-ipil leaf meal, mungbean meal, peanut meal, sunflower meal,
corn gluten meal), distiller’s dried grain solubles from ethanol production using cereal grains; protein of animal origi
n (fish meal, meat meal, poultry by-product meal, blood meal, feather meal, skim milk), non-protein nitrogen (urea, b
iuret).
  
 Mineral supplements – used as a source of macro or micro minerals.
  
 Examples: Monocalcium phosphate and bone meal (sources of calcium and phosphorus); limestone and oyster shell
(source of calcium); salt (source of sodium and chlorine); cobalt sulfate (source of cobalt).
  
 Vitamin supplements – used as a source of specific vitamins.
  
 Examples:
Choline chloride (source of choline); tocopheryl acetate (source of vitamin E); menadione sodium bisulphate (source o
f vitamin K).
Classification of Feeds
Roughages. These are feeds containing more than 20% crude fiber and less than 60% TDN on an air dry
basis. Roughages are needed to promote bulk in ruminants’ diet. The following are examples of roughag
es:
 
 Proteinaceous roughages – it contains more 10% crude protein on a dry matter basis.
 
 Examples:
Centrocema (Centrocema pubescens), Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), Stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis
), and Siratro (Macrophilium antropurpureum)
 
 Carbonaceous roughages – it contains less than 10% crude protein on a dry matter basis.
 
 Examples:
Improved grasses such as Napier/Elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum), Guinea grass (Panicum m
aximum), Paragrass (Brachiaria mutica), African stargrass (Cynodon plectostachyus); native grasses s
uch as Cogon (Imperata cylindrica), Bagokbok (Themeda triandra), Amorseco (Chrysopugun aciculatos
); farm waste and by-products such as rice straw, corn cobs, sugarcage bagasse, and banana rejects.
 
Feed Additives
Feed additives refer to the drugs or other compounds added to feeds of non-nutritive nature (does not supply nut
rients such as protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals) but elicit positive effect on animal performance.
 
Antibiotics. These are chemicals produced by microbial fermentation or chemical synthesis, which possess bact
eriostatic or bacteriocidal properties and are added to the feed at sub-therapeutic and therapeutic levels (e.g. ba
citracin, penicillin, aureomycin and terramycin).
Probiotics. These are beneficial bacterial species are introduced into the intestine so as to enhance production of
desirable by-products and consequently improve performance.
Arsenical. This is a mineral which has been found to be effective against certain diseases.
Hormones. These are natural or synthetic hormone preparation which increases nitrogen retention (e.g. progest
erone and estradiol).
Antioxidants. It protects feed components (fats and oil and fat soluble vitamins) that are susceptible to oxidation
(e.g. ethoxyquin and BHT).
Feed Enzymes. It enhances digestion by augmenting endogenous enzymes (especially at young age) and facilitat
ing digestion of poorly digestible feed components such as fiber and phytic acid (mostly for non-ruminant animals
). The feed enzyme can be used as single preparation (e.g phytase for phytic acid; cellulase for cellulose) or combi
nation of many enzymes or enzyme cocktail (e.g. cellulase + beta-glucanase + amylase + lipase + protease).
Acidifying agents (Acidifiers). These are chemical products added to the feed to decrease the pH in the gut, thu
s, improving digestion in the stomach.
Feed Additives
Flavoring Agents. It conceals unattractive natural smells, tastes or structures of feed to enhance feed intake.
Pigmenters. It is added to the feed to improve color of products (e.g. egg yolk; broiler skin).
Prebiotics. It is composed of small fragments of carbohydrates (oligosaccharides) which are used to manipulat
e the gut ecosystem. It can selectively stimulate some of all of the beneficial organisms in the gut, bringing abou
t balance which in turn affects the host in a beneficial way.
Antitoxins (Toxin Binders). These usually are inert chemical compounds with large internal surfaces, which c
an absorb or fix toxins in feeds.
Pellet Binders. Additives that are used to improve pellet quality.
Surfactants. These are chemical agents that facilitate uniform dispersion of molecules in feeds or feed mixtures
.
Anthelmintics (Dewormers). These are drugs used in controlling or eliminating intestinal parasites.
Anti-molds. These are chemical preservatives added to the feeds to prevent mold development.
Anti-malarials. These are chemical products used in the prevention and treatment of malaria.
Anti-caking Agents. These are chemical products used to prevent formation of lumps in feeds.
Coccidiostats. These are chemical products added to the feed to prevent and control coccidiosis.
Nutraceuticals/Phytogenic Additives. These are preparations obtained usually from herbs that contain impo
rtant phytochemicals (e.g phenols, thymol, menthol, allicin, capsaicin, gingerol, carvacrol, eugeno, linalool li
monene) which enhance performance and health of animals. Examples of phytochemical plant sources include
capsicum (pepper), ginger, onion, and oregano.
Problem Solving
1. A feed was analyzed to contain 3% nitrogen. How much crude protein does
the feed contains?
 
Solution ► 3 x 6.25 (conversion factor; 100/16 N) = 18.75% CP
 
2. The recommended inclusion rate of a feed enzyme is 2 kg per ton of diet. H
ow much enzyme is needed for 200 kg diet?
 
Solution ► 2 kg ÷ 1,000 kg = x ÷ 200 kg
x = (2 x 200 kg) ÷ 1,000 kg
x = 0.40 kg or 400 g
 
 
Problem Solving
3. A diet is deficient in protein. How much fish meal (65
% CP) is needed to correct 2.0% crude protein deficien
cy?
 
Solution ► Fish meal = (0.02 ÷ 0.65) x 100
= 3.08% or 3.08 kg per 100 kg
Problem Solving
4. A goat weighing 30 kg needs a daily ration equivalent to 2% of its body weight (DM re
quirement). How much roughage should be offered to the animal if such constitutes 70
% of the ration?
 
Solution ► Roughage = (30 kg x 0.02) x 0.70
= 0.42 kg or 420 g (on DM basis)
 
5 . A hen that consumes 0.10 kg (per day) of diet containing 18% protein gets this amoun
t protein for maintenance and production.
 
Solution ► Protein = 0.10 kg x 0.18
= 0.018 kg or 18 g
 
 
 
 
Problem Solving
6. A feed containing 18% crude protein on as “as fed basis” (90% dry
matter). How much crude protein does the feed contains on dry mat
ter basis?
 
Solution ► Crude Protein (Dry matter basis) = (0.18 ÷ 0.90) x 100
= 20%
7. A feed contains 10% moisture. How much is the dry matter content
of 200 kg of such feed?
 
Solution ► Dry matter = 200 kg x [(100% - 10%) ÷ 100]
= 200 kg x 0.90
= 180 kg
Problem Solving
 
8. A 100 kg ration is deficient in metabolizable energy of 100 kcal. How much coco
nut oil (8,600 kcal/kg) is needed to supplement the deficiency?
 
Solution ► Oil supplement = (100 kcal ÷ 8,600 kcal) x 100
= 1.163% or 1.163 kg per 100 kg
 
9. The total roughage requirement of a buffalo is 6 kg on a dry matter basis. How
much Napier grass soilage (25% dry matter) is needed to satisfy the roughage re
quirement of the animal.
 
Solution ► Napier soilage = 6 kg DM ÷ 0.25
= 24 kg
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