AS 252

PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL
NUTRITION
DR. (MRS.) VICTORIA ATTOH-
KOTOKU
DR. CHRISTOPHER ANTWI
PROF. ARMSTRONG DONKOH
SYLLABUS/COURSE OUTLINE
•The science of nutrition.
i. Definition of nutrition, nutrients and food.
ii. Composition of the animal body and some animal products.

•Basic nutritional components.

i. Carbohydrates, lipids, protein, water, vitamins and minerals.

3. Energy metabolism, values and

systems.
i. Importance of energy in determining nutritional value.
ii. Gross energy values.
4. Regulation of food intake.
i. Factors that affect food intake.
ii. Mechanisms that control food intake.
iii. Factors that influence food intake.

5. Physiology of Digestion and Absorption.

i. Digestion in the non-ruminant (monogastric), ruminant
and non-ruminant herbivores.

6. Metabolism
•Definition.
•Metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and protein.
7. Feeding Standards.

8. Ration Formulation.

9. Common Food ingredients for Animal

Rations.
BOOKS TO READ
1. McDonald, P., Edwards, R.A., Greenhalgh, J.F.D. and Morgan, C.
A. (1998). Animal Nutrition, 5th Edition.
2. Lassiter, J. W. and Hardy M. Edwards, Jnr. Animal Nutrition.
3. McDonald, P., Edwards, R.A. and Greenhalgh, J.F.D. (1992).
Animal Nutrition, 4th Edition.
THE SCIENCE OF NUTRITION
DEFINITIONS:
NUTRITION – All the processes that
are involved in the consumption
and utilisation of food by the
animal body. Processes of taking in
and assimilating food.
Nutrient: That constituent of food
that is utilised by the body for its
FOOD – Any material that is edible and capable
of being digested, absorbed and utilised by the
animal body.
Food is used for two main
purposes
(a) maintenance
(b) production: milk, eggs, meat
etc.
Maintenance requirements are
satisfied first before production.
Plants on the other hand synthesize the complex
molecules through photosynthesis using energy
from sunlight. Most of the energy is stored as
chemical energy within the plant and this energy
is utilised by the animal for its maintenance.

Thus plants and animals contain

similar array of chemical
compounds but their relative
amounts are variable.
These compounds can be grouped
Water (moisture)
Dry matter: a) Inorganic – Minerals (ash)
b) Organic – Carbohydrates; Lipids;
Proteins; Vitamins; Nucleic acids
and Organic acids.
COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY
The composition of the animal
body changes with age. The water
content decreases with age whilst
the fat content increases. For the
plant the water content decreases
Approximate % composition of some plant,
animal and animal products
WATER CRUDE PROTEIN FAT CARBOHYDRATE ASH
PLANTS
Maize 75 2.0 0.6 21.0 1.4
Cowpea 80 2.5 0.5 15.0 2.0
PLANT BY-PRODUCT
Rice straw 10 3.5 1.5 70.5 14.5
ANIMAL BODY
Calf (newborn) 74 19.0 3.0 - 4.0
Dairy cow 57 17.2 20.6 0.2 5.0
ANIMAL PRODUCTS
Milk 87.6 3.3 3.6 4.7 0.8
Egg 66.7 11.8 10 0.8 10.7
 There are six classes of nutrients required by the animal
body. These are water, protein, fat, carbohydrate ,
minerals and vitamins.

Water is essential in all the physiological /biochemical

reactions. An animal deprived of water dies more quickly
than one without food.
Carbohydrates constitute only 1 % of the animal body
but are essential as sources of energy for the body.
Food is used for two main purposes
(a) maintenance. (b) production: milk, eggs,
meat etc.
Maintenance requirements are satisfied first before
production.
Organic substances
The main component of organic matter in the plant is
carbohydrate, which is quite low in the animal body.
They serve as both structural and reserve material in
plants.
Fats (lipids)
Fats serve as reserve materials in animals.
ENERGY
It is an attribute of all foods and can be found in the
carbohydrate, fat and protein components of all feeds.

Energy from the various nutrients are utilised by the

animal for:-
Building up of body tissues; Synthesis or production of
milk, eggs, meat etc.; Physical work done by the animal,
example – ploughing of a field.
Deficiency of energy in diet
When energy level in the diet is below the animals’
requirement for maintenance of vital body functions,
the animal loses weight.
Energy starvation
When an animal is deprived of food or starved, the
animal still requires energy for its vital functions
(functions that are immediately necessary for life),
examples:
Mechanical work of muscles. Chemical work such as
moving dissolved nutrients against concentration
gradients in the cells. Synthesis of used up body
constituents, like enzymes and hormones.

The starving animal obtains its

energy from catabolism of its body
reserves. It utilises the glycogen
stores followed by the fat deposits
and finally falls on the protein.
In the fed animal the energy
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are originally thought to be
hydrates of carbon, that is the ratio of H : O as in
water 2:1. There is one exception, deoxyribose
sugar (C5H10O4) which is a constituent of
deoxy-ribonucleic acid.
Carbohydrates are defined as
polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones
or their derivatives
CHO CH2 OH
| |
HCOH C=O
| |
HCOH HOCH
| |
HCOH HCOH
| |
HCOH HCOH
| |
CH2 OH CH2OH

Glucose Fructose
Functions
They are structural components of plants and
insects.
They are important food reserves in the storage
organs of plants and in the liver and muscles of
animals.
Most of the energy that cells need for their
metabolic activities comes from the oxidation of
carbohydrates.
There are carbohydrates which
contain N, S, in addition to C, H
and O.
Classification
Carbohydrates are divided into two main groups:
1. Sugars and 2. non-sugars.
The sugars are sub-divided into two
groups:
The monosaccharides (C3 – C7) are
the simplest carbohydrates and
cannot be further broken down into
smaller units.
The oligosaccharides consist of (2- 6
The polysaccharides (glycans), which contain 7
or more monosaccharide units. i. Homoglycans:-
contain repeating units of the same simple
sugar. ii. Heteroglycan:- contains more than one
simple sugar.
Complex carbohydrates, which
are formed by the complexing of
carbohydrate units with non-
carbohydrates. Examples are: i.
Glycolipids (galactolipid). ii.
Glycoproteins (mucin – found in
Chitin: A major constituent of the exoskeleton of
insects and crustacea. It is a polysaccharide
closely related to cellulose.
Glycogen: The storage form of
carbohydrate in animals and is
often called animal starch.
Glycogen is stored in the liver and
muscles of animals.
Lignin: A high molecular weight
amorphous polymer containing C,
LIPIDS
They are a group of organic substances that are
not soluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents.
Lipids exist either as fats (solid at
room temperature, e.g., shea
butter) or oils (liquid at room
temperature, e.g., coconut oil).
Classification
Simple lipids:- Are esters of fatty
Compound lipids:- They contain alcohol and fatty
acids in addition to a chemical group by which they
are defined, e.g., glycolipids, which have a
carbohydrate group (galactolipid); phospholipids,
contain phosphoric acid (lecithin, cephalin, etc.)
and lipoprotein.
Derived lipids:- They are steroids and
products of hydrolysis of simple and
compound lipids (fatty acids, glycerol,
cholesterol, etc.).
Fatty acids
carbon atoms attached to a carboxyl group. The
general formula is R-COOH, where R is the
carbon chain and COOH, the carboxyl group. R is
CH3(CH2)2 in butyric acid and in lauric acid it is
CH3 (CH2)10 or 12 carbon atoms.
General reaction to form fats/oils is
as follows:
HOCH2 O
| |
HOCH + RCOOH = RC---OR + H2O
|
HOCH2
(glycerol) (organic acid) (ester) (water)
In nature 3 fatty acid molecules combine with
one molecule of glycerol to form a triglyceride.

Where only one fatty acid is

involved, the ester is called a
monoglyceride; a diglyceride
where two fatty acids are involved.

The triglycerides are termed

simple, when the same fatty acid is
Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
A saturated fatty acid has no double bonds, e.g.,
butyric acid. An unsaturated fatty acid contains
at least one double bond, e.g., oleic acid and
linoleic acid.
Fatty acids containing more than one
double bond are called
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA).

Hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty

acids converts them to saturated
Essential Fatty Acids
These are fatty acids required by animals but
cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts thus
need to be provided in the diet e.g., linoleic,
linolenic and arachidonic.

Fat Constants
Fat constants are used to distinguish
fats and also used to determine the
purity or level of adulteration of fats.
There are chemical constants as well
Chemical constants
Saponification value (number) is the number of
milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to
neutralize or saponify the fatty acids in 1 g of fat.
It is a measure of the molecular weight of fatty
acids present in the fat under test. Fats with high
saponification value will thus contain a high
proportion of low molecular weight acids.

Iodine value (number) is the

number of grams of iodine that is
added to the double bonds in 100 g
Oils containing a high content of unsaturated
fatty acids would have high iodine value.

Reichert-Meissl number refers to

the number of millilitres of 0.1 N
pottasium hydroxide solution
required to neutralize the steam
volatile, water soluble fatty acids in
5 g of fat. The greater the content
of volatiles the greater the value.
Physical constants
a. Melting point:- The longer the chain length or
the higher the molecular weight the higher the
melting point. The greater the number of double
bonds the lower the melting point.
b. Viscosity
c. Specific gravity
Waxes are simple lipids, consisting
of fatty acids combined with high
molecular weight alcohols. They
are found in plants, animals and
micro-organisms: in leaves they act
Waxes contain the same fatty acids as are found
in fats. They are insoluble in water. They do not
give any nutritive value to the animal. They
rather give a higher value to ether extract in
proximate analysis resulting in over estimation
of nutritive value.
Phospholipids
They are the most important of all
lipids as they are present in all
living cells and are essential for
their proper functioning. They are
 Sterols
They are wax like solid alcohols. The sterols occur
in three forms:
The phytosterols of plant origin, e.g., ergosterol
The mycosterols of fungal origin
The zoosterols of animal origin, e.g., cholesterol.

Cholesterol is a zoosterol and occurs

in all animal cells as a key component
of cell membranes. It forms 17 % of
brain dry matter (DM). Cholesterol is
the precursor of other steroids such
as sex hormones and bile acids.
Prolonged high levels of cholesterol (which is highly
insoluble) in the blood, results in its deposition on
the walls of the blood vessels, which eventually
harden to atherosclerotic plaque. This may block
important blood vessels and result in myocardial
infarction or heart attack.
7-Dehydrocholesterol, which is
derived from cholesterol is
important as the precursor of
vitamin D3 which is produced when
the sterol is exposed to ultraviolet
Functions of Lipids
To supply energy for maintenance and
productive functions.
To serve as a source of essential fatty acids.
They serve as a carrier of fat soluble vitamins
(A,D,E,K)
They reduce dustiness in feeds.
Helps to improve the palatability of
feeds.
Increases ease of pelleting.
PROTEINS
They are complex organic compounds of high
molecular weight. Proteins contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen in common with
carbohydrates and lipids, in addition they
contain nitrogen and generally sulphur.
Amino acids
Amino acids are the building units
of proteins and are required by the
animal body for performing various
physiological functions. They are
Over 200 amino acids have been isolated from
biological materials but only 20 are commonly
found as components of proteins. Amino acids
are characterised by having a basic nitrogenous
group, the amino group (-NH2), and an acidic
carboxyl group (-COOH).
They can be represented by the
general formula:
NH2
|
R—C—H
І
COOH
Essential amino acids
Essential amino acids are those which the animal
body cannot synthesise and are thus required to
be supplied in the diet.
Arginine, histidine, isoleucine,
leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan and valine.
Classification
Classification is based on factors
Globular proteins are soluble in water, dilute
acids or bases, dilute salt solution and in alcohol.
Examples are albumin, globulins and protamines.
Fibrous proteins.
They are insoluble and are very resistant to animal
digestive enzymes.
The group includes collagens, elastins and
keratins (main proteins of connective tissues;
protein found in elastic tissues such as tendons
and arteries; main protein of wool, hair, feathers,
skin, beaks).
Conjugated proteins: They contain in addition to
amino acids a non-protein constituent. Some
examples are glycoproteins, lipoproteins,
phosphoproteins and chromoproteins.
(Components of mucous secretions,
which act as lubricants in many parts
of the body; form in which lipids are
transported in the bloodstream to
tissues either for oxidation or for
storage). They can be classified into 3
main categories in increasing order of
Chromoproteins are proteins combined with
pigments, e.g., haemoglobin (haem, flavin in
flavoprotein).
Functions
Proteins are components of cell
membranes, muscle and in other
supportive capacities as in hair,
hooves etc.
Enzymes, which catalyze chemical
reactions.
Protein metabolism
Dietary proteins are digested through the action
of proteolytic enzymes to produce amino acids.
These are absorbed through the small intestine
and transported to the liver and then to the
systemic blood for synthesis, tissue repairs and
replacement of worn out body parts.
Protein/amino acid requirements of
animals
Requirements for amino acids
depend on the species of animal
Mature ruminants are able to synthesize all their
amino acid needs through the use of NPN
compounds by the microorganisms of the
rumen.

Young ruminants (6-8weeks) need

specific amino acids as the rumen
is not developed.
Amino acid relationships
Antagonism:- When the excess of
one amino acid (causes a growth
Toxicity:- When the deleterious effect of an
excess amino acid cannot be corrected by
adding others. High levels of methionine,
tryptophan, histidine, phenylalanine and
tyrosine are toxic. The antidote is to reduce the
excess amino acid.

Imbalance:- Occurs when there is a

change in the level of a dietary
amino acid leads to adverse effects
in animals. This can be rectified
Deficiency symptoms
Anorexia, reduced growth rate, oedema (in
severe cases), reduced milk production, reduced
egg production, etc.

WATER
Water constitutes about 45-90 % of
the body depending on age. Water
is indispensable to life but
neglected as an essential part of
life due to its relative abundance
 Importance/physiological significance
Essential for all body reactions involving
oxidation (hydrolysis) including digestion and
energy metabolism.
Component of cerebrospinal and
synovial fluids, thus act as cushion for
the nervous system and other body
parts.
Sources of water
Free drinking water, water in feed
and water from oxidation of nutrients
Sources
Streams, ponds and the water given by the stock
man (the most important source for most
animals).

Water can also be imbibed as

water or dew on ingested
vegetation.
Metabolic (oxidation) water:- This
comes about as a consequence of
the metabolic oxidation of protein,
fats and carbohydrates. This plays a
Regulation/water balance
Animals need to maintain a relative constant
level of body water to maintain their well being.
The rate at which body water is lost and replaced
is very high and animals must constantly keep a
balance.

Dehydration is fatal in severe cases.

The ½ life of body water of
ruminants is 3.5 days. This is
probably less in non-ruminants as
they have less water in their GIT.
Channels through which water is lost
Through urine, this is high in mammals and less
in birds which produce more concentrated
almost solid urine.
Faeces
Sweat
Evaporation
Water requirements
Water intake increases
proportionately with dry matter
intake under normal conditions.
•High protein intake is accompanied with high
water intake, which is needed to excrete excess
protein as urea.
Physiological state of the animal
Level of productivity: - A very high
producing dairy cow requires a lot
of water to be effective.
State of health:- Diseases which
cause a rise in body temperature
stimulate water intake e.g.,
•Accessibility to water:- The greater the distance
that must be travelled between water source
and feed, the less frequently the animal drinks
and the less it consumes.
Effect of water restriction
In moderate water restriction there
is reduction in feed intake leading to
reduced productivity.
Severe water restriction leads to
rapid weight loss, dehydration,
difficulty in muscular movement as
VITAMINS
Vitamins are generally defined as organic
compounds, which are required in small quantities
for normal growth and maintenance of animal life.
They are required in very small
quantities compared to other
nutrients e.g., B1 (thiamin) 3
mg/day for a 50 kg pig. However
continuous deficiency in diet leads
to metabolic disorders and other
diseases.
Classification
Vitamins are divided into 2 broad groups.
1. Those that are soluble in water :-
Examples B-complex vitamins,
B1,B2,B3,B6,B12, folic acid
2. Those that are soluble in fat :-
e.g., vitamins A, D, E and K.
Water soluble vitamins
Most vitamins of this group are
components of co-enzymes and
synthesised are inadequate to meet their
nutritional requirements.
There are a few exceptions like
niacin which can be obtained from
tryptophan and choline also from
serine.
With the exception of vitamin B12
(cyanocobalamin) they are not
stored in the tissues in appreciable
amounts.
However in the pre –ruminant calf (6 – 9
months), vitamins of the B-group should be
supplied in the diet.
*The deficiency effects occur when
the co-enzymes are not available
to catalyze the reactions.
*Under certain conditions
thiamine (bacterial thiaminases
can be produced in the rumen,
which destroys the vitamin) and
B1 – Thiamin
B2 – Riboflavin
B6 – Pyridoxine
B12 – Cyanocobalamin
Nicotinic acid (niacin)
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Choline
Folic acid
Vitamin C - Ascorbic acid
Thiamin (B1)
Occurs in the co-enzyme form as thiamine
pyrophosphate (TPP) and involved in the
conversion of pyruvate the end product of
glucose metabolism to Acetyl Co A.
Sources
Outer layers of seeds, growing
areas of roots, leaves and shoots.
Also found in egg yolk, liver, kidney
and pork muscle.
Deficiency signs
Riboflavin (B2)
Involved in carbohydrate and amino acid
metabolism. The co-enzyme forms are flavin
mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD).
Sources
Yeast, liver, milk and green leafy
crops.
Deficiency signs
In pigs include poor apetite leading to
retardation in growth, vomiting etc.
Niacin (Nicotinamide)
The co-enzyme form is nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADP).
Sources
Liver, yeast, groundnut and
sunflower meals.
Deficiency signs
Poor growth, anorexia, enteritis in
pigs and bone disorders, feathering
abnormalities and inflammation of
Pyridoxine (B6)
The co-enzyme form is pyridoxal phosphate.
It is found in reactions involved in
the transformation of cell amino
acids into mixtures of amino acids
and other nitrogenous compounds
required by the cell for its
metabolism.
Involved in absorption of amino
acids from the intestine.
Deficiency signs
Convulsion, reduced appetite, anaemia and
reduction in egg production.
Pantothenic acid
Involved in fat synthesis in the
cytoplasm.
Sources
Liver, egg yolk, groundnut.
Deficiency signs
Diarrhoea, loss of hair, scaly skin.
Source
Green leafy vegetables, cereals and oilseed
meals.
Deficiency signs
Poor growth, anaemia and
hatchability in chicks.
Read on Biotin, choline, Vitamins
C (ascorbic acid) and B12
(cyanocobalamin).
Fat soluble vitamins
The fat soluble vitamins are vitamin A, D, E and K.
The fat soluble vitamins are stored in appreciable
amounts in the animal body and are not excreted
in the urine.
Vitamin A
The vitamin is required for normal
night vision and it is also involved in
the formation and protection of
epithelial tissues and mucous
membranes.
Vitamin A occurs as precursors or provitamins in
the form of certain carotenoids which can be
converted.
Deficiency signs
Night blindness, roughened hair,
ruffled plumage and scaly skin.
Vitamin D
There are 2 main forms of the
vitamin; D2 (ergocalciferol) from
ergosterol and D3 (cholecalciferol)
from7-dehydrocholesterol. Most
Functions
It helps in the absorption of Ca and Phosphorous
from the intestine.
Source
Sundried leaves (roughages) and dead leaves of
growing plants, fish liver oils (halibut and cod),
egg yolk and colostrum. Thus the precursor or
provitamin forms of vitamin D are ergosterol and
7-dehydrocholesterol.

Deficiency signs
Rickets, osteomalacia, reduction in
Vitamin E
This vitamin functions only as a biological
antioxidant in association with selenium containing
enzyme glutathione peroxidase. The vitamin is
stored for short periods in small amounts thus
should be supplied regularly.

Functions
It is an antioxidant:-which means it
protects cells (cell membranes,
enzymes and cell nuclear material)
Source
Can be found in green forage/fodder and also in
young grass/herbage (ie, higher in young than
mature).
Deficiency signs
Muscle myopathy and dystrophy.
Vitamin K
The vitamin is required for the
synthesis of prothrombin in the
liver.
Functions
Sources
Green leafy materials, egg yolk, liver and fish
meal.
Deficiency signs: Anaemia and delayed blood
clotting time.
Hypervitaminosis
This is a pathological condition resulting from
vitamin overdose. Vitamin D overdose can lead to
death.
MINERALS
They are the inorganic component
of the dry matter of feeds.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS
They serve as structural components
of the body.
They are involved in the
maintenance of acid/base balance.
Involved in the maintenance of
proper vision (sodium involved in
nerve impulse transmission).

CLASSIFICATION
Those required in large amounts are termed
macro and those required in trace amounts are
termed micro.
MACRO
Calcium
Functions:
Regulates nerve excitability
Required for muscle relaxation
Involved in the synthesis of muscle
protein and neuro transmitters.
deformed due to failure in calcification of cartilage
matrix), osteoporosis, lameness and bone fracture
(effects complicated by the interrelationship with
phosphorous and vitamin D; excess phosphorous
leads to depressed intestinal absorption of
calcium).

Phosphorus
Functions:
Protein synthesis
Component of phospho-proteins
and nucleic acids.
 .
It is involved in the transport and
metabolism of lipids.
Involved in maintenance of the
integrity (quality) of biological
membranes.
Component of phosphor lipids, P
involved in lipid transport and
metabolism. Has an important role
in energy metabolism, ATP.
80 % in bones.
Phosphorus deficiency is more common in cattle
than sheep, which prefer growing foliage richer
in phosphorus.
Magnesium
- 50 % in bones
Functions
Involved in muscle contraction
Required for synthesis of protein,
nucleic acid, fats and co-enzymes.
Required for glucose utilization.
Enzyme activator (pyruvate
Deficiency
Weak and crooked legs in pigs.
Calcification and necrosis of kidney (localised death
of tissue).
K: Na and Cl and bicarbonate ions.
They are considered together
because of their functional
relationship in the maintenance of
osmotic pressure and their buffering
effects in the intra and extra-cellular
fluids.
Sodium (Na)
Chief cation of blood plasma
Has a role in nerve impulse transmission.

Involved in the absorption of sugars

and amino acids.
Chlorine (Cl)
Component of HCl in gastric juice.
Deficiency symptoms
Potassium
Growth retardation.
Sodium
Weight loss.
Reduced milk production.

Chlorine
Growth retardation.
Alkalosis (abnormal increase of alkali
reserve of blood).
Sulphur
Most of the sulphur in the animal
body occurs in proteins containing
Toxicity
Excess dietary sulphur is converted to H2S a toxic
substance, which reduces rumen motility and
causes nervous and respiratory distress.
MICRO
Iron
Most of the iron in the body is
combined with proteins, the most
important being haemoglobin (3.4
g/kg). It also occurs in blood serum
in a protein called transferrin,
contains up to 200 g/kg of the element and
provides a form of storage for iron.
Iron deficiency anaemia occurs
mostly in rapidly growing suckling
animals, since the iron content of
milk is very low.
The piglet after parturition has very
limited iron reserves and the sow’s
milk provides only about 1 mg/day.
The rapidly growing piglet requires
Deficiency symptoms
Poor appetite.
Poor growth.
Laboured breathing.

Sources
Green leafy materials.
Leguminous plants.
Seed coats.
Meat, blood and fish meals.
Cobalt
Occurs mainly in the liver, kidney
Functions
It is required by microorganisms in the rumen for
the synthesis of vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin).
It is an activating ion in certain enzyme reactions.
Deficiency signs/symptoms
As for vitamin B12
Iodine
It is concentrated in the thyroid
gland. Considerable amounts can also
be found in the stomach, small
intestine, salivary glands and in the
active thyroid compounds. It is responsible for
regulation of basal metabolism (accelerates
reactions).
Sources
Foods of marine origin, e.g., fish
meal.
Deficiency signs/symptoms
Reduced basal metabolic rate.
Reduced growth rate.
Dry thick skin.
Goitre (thyroid enlargement).
Reduced hatchability.
*Triiodothyronine; tetraiodothyronine
(hormones).
Copper
Functions
It is necessary for haemoglobin
formation (copper helps animals to
absorb iron, mobilise it from the
tissues and utilize it in
haemoglobin synthesis).
ENERGY METABOLISM
Energy is defined as the ability (capacity) for
doing work. The body needs energy for the
performance of all its functions and biochemical
processes.
In considering the energy
requirement of the animal body, the
proteins, fats and carbohydrates are
grouped together.
In producing milk; work; growth
considerable energy is utilized.
 In animal nutrition energy may be considered
under the following: a) Gross energy. b) Digestible
energy. c) Metabolizable energy and d) Net energy.
Gross energy (GE) (Heat of combustion)
Energy is given out in the form of heat when a unit
weight is completely burnt down to its ultimate
oxidation products; CO2 and H2O.
When food as a whole burns, the heat is due to the sum
total effect of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
It does not give us the contributions of the specific
nutrients.
The heat given out can be measured with a bomb
calorimeter.
 Heat is measured in units known as calories.
A calorie is the heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water to 1 ⁰C.
Kilocalorie, megacalorie.
GE in one gram of the nutrient
Pure nutrients Feeding
stuffs
Carbs. Glucose 3.76 Oats
4.68
Sucrose 3.96 Wheat
bran 4.54
It can be seen that butter contains twice as
much heat as the same quantity of
carbohydrates.
The primary determinant of the G.E.
values (content) of any organic
substance is its degree of oxidation
expressed as the ratio of C + H2 :
O2. All carbohydrates have similar
ratios, thus have about the same
G.E. content (value).
The value for proteins is higher than those for
carbohydrates as they have additional oxidizable
elements (nitrogen and sulphur).
CH4 has a very high G.E. value (13.26 kcal/g) as it has
no oxygen in the molecule.
Not all the G.E. of foods is available and useful to the
animal. Some of the energy is lost from the animal in
the form of solid, liquid and gaseous excretions;
another fraction is lost as heat. The deduction of
these sources of energy loss from the G.E. leads to
further categories of food energy. Example
G.E. less the energy content of the faeces gives the
category called D. E. of the food.
The undigested faeces, when perfectly dried can
be burnt and utilized as fuel (dried cow-dung is
utilized as fuel in India).
Bacterial breakdown of fibre causes
combustible gases like CH4 and CO2
to be produced in the rumen and
excreted. When urine is dried to a
solid mass, it catches fire easily
(meaning some heat is lost in the
urine).
Metabolisable energy (ME).
Net energy. There is some heat lost during the
process of mastication, digestion and assimilation of
food etc.
The sum of all these heat losses is
termed heat increment.
Thus Net energy = ME – heat
increment.
The NE is that energy, which is
available to the animal for useful
purpose, i.e. for maintenance and
various forms of production.
Methods for measuring heat production and energy
retention. Heat can be measured directly by physical
means. (a). Direct calorimetry
•Animal calorimeter: It is an airtight
and insulated chamber.
•Gradient layer calorimeter: The
quantity of heat is measured
electrically as it passes through the
wall of the chamber. It is determined
automatically.
b. Indirect calorimetry.
Energy Systems
They are a set of rules, which relates energy intake to
the animals’ performance or productivity.
They can be used to predict the
animals’ performance from a
particular level of energy intake.
They can also be used to calculate the
energy intake required for a particular
level of performance.
*N.E. value of food varies according to
the function for which it is required by
Early energy systems
Amsby expressed net energy (NE) in terms of
calories.
Kellner expressed NE in terms of
starch equivalent (SE).
Protein Evaluation
The animal needs both essential and
non-essential amino acids as they
serve as a source of nitrogen for
protein synthesis.
Foods are evaluated on their crude
In order to rectify this shortfall, the following methods of
evaluation based on the growth response of experimental
animals on protein intake were evolved.
Protein efficiency ratio (PER).
Net protein ratio (NPR)
Gross protein value (GPV)
They seek to relate gain to protein intake. It was however, realised that there are still shortfalls
with these methods; that is weight gain is not always due to stored protein, it could be due to
stored fat or water.
Nitrogen balance methods
To correct the above anomaly of defining the true component of increased weight gain,
nitrogen balance methods were used. In this method nitrogen that is consumed is measured
with that, which is voided in faeces, urine and any other nitrogen containing products such as
milk, eggs, wool etc.
When intake = output → Animal is said to be in
nitrogen equilibrium.
When intake exceeds output → Animal is said to be
in positive nitrogen balance.
When output exceeds intake →
Animal is said to be in negative
nitrogen balance.

Chemical score
This evaluation method seeks to use
the amino acid whose concentration is
Biological value of proteins
Defined as the % of the absorbed protein, which is
utilized by the animal body.
In this case losses in digestion and
metabolism are taken into
consideration.
Thomas-Mitchell gave the following
equation for the calculation of the
biological value of proteins.
N intake – (Faecal N – MFN) –
(Urinary N – EUN)
In this formula the denominator gives true
digestible nitrogen absorbed by the animal and the
numerator gives the nitrogen retained by the animal

from the diet. The endogenous faecal

and urinary losses represent the
fraction not utilized by the animal.
REGULATION OF FOOD INTAKE
The quantity of food an animal can
consume in a given period is very
important. The more food an animal
*There are exceptions. - Excessive intake of feed lead
to very fat carcasses of some breeds of bacon pigs,
which is unacceptable to the consumer, therefore,
economically undesirable.
- Parent stock poultry.
- Bred sows.
- Finishing beef stock.
Factors affecting food intake
The senses play a less important role
in food intake in farm animals than in
man.
Smell – Most domestic animals exhibit sniffing
behaviour, but the extent to which the senses of smell
leads them to locate and select food is difficult to
measure.
Taste – Most animals have preferences
for certain foods when presented with
a choice. Pigs prefer sweet, chicken
and goats are indifferent.
Sight
Texture
Feeding is controlled by centres in the
- These controls (feeding and satiety) involve two
mechanisms.
(a) Short and (b) long term regulation.
Short term regulation
Chemostatic theory
• This theory works on the premise that the rise in concentration of certain critical
nutrients at specific sites sends signals to the brain to cause animal to stop eating and
a fall in concentration causes the animal to start eating.
• Communication between the gut and the brain. Cholecystokinin (peptide hormone);
released into the gut when amino acids and fatty acids reach the duodenum and acts
on the hypothalamus.
In the liver glucose and other nutrients which are
oxidised are believed to send signals through the
vagus nerve which eventually reaches the
hypothalamus.

Thermostatic theory
This theory works on the premise that
animals eat to keep warm and stop
eating to prevent hyperthermia. The
heat increment caused by the heat
produced during digestion and
*The support for this theory comes from the observation
that food intake increases in cold weather and decreases in
hot environments for most species.
Long term regulation
Lipostatic theory
This theory works on the premise that
an animals desire to keep a relatively
constant body weight (x kg) and to
return to that weight after the animal
has been starved or forced fed (forced
feeding), implies that an agent
 carcass fat was not considered. Today it is an
undesirable characteristic.

Factors influencing food intake

Nutrient deficiencies – Severe amino
acid deficiencies inhibit feed
consumption in chicken.
Physiological factors:
Intake varies with metabolic live weight (W0.75)
Lactation is associated with marked increase in feed intake.
The increase in intake in the early part of gestation and reduction in the later stage of gestation
as the foetus reduces the effective volume of abdominal cavity.
Feed intake increases in the draught animal (those
used for ploughing).
Food bulkiness:
Rumination and fermentation are slow processes and fibrous foods will stay longer and
thus reducing feed intake.
Animal factors:

Environmental factors:
Temperature
Photoperiod (day length)

Digestibility:
Food processing:
DIGESTION
Many of the organic components of food are in the
form of large insoluble molecules, which have to be
broken down into simpler compounds before they can
pass through the mucous membrane of the gastro
intestinal tract (GIT).
*The breaking down is the Digestion
and the passage of digested nutrients
through the mucous membrane is the
absorption.
Digestion process
2. Chemical which involves enzymes secreted by the
animal in the various digestive juices.
3. Microbial, this is by the action of micro-organisms
(bacteria, protozoa and fungi). These are of special
significance in ruminant digestion.
*In monogastrics some microbial
activity occurs in the large intestine.
Monogastric digestion
The digestive tract can be considered
as a tube extending from the mouth to
the anus and lined with mucous
Digestion in the mouth
It is mainly mechanical by mastication, where food
particles are mixed with saliva which acts as a
lubricant and a medium for taste perception. Saliva is
secreted into the mouth by 3 pairs of salivary glands.
Saliva is 99 % water and the 1 % has mucin, inorganic salts
and enzymes (α-amylase and lysozyme).
Digestion in the stomach
The stomach is a simple compartment and functions as an
organ for digestion and storage. From the exterior the
stomach can be divided into the cardia (entrance) the fundus
(the main body)
The inner surface is increased by infolding of the
epithelium into 4 distinct areas.
Oesophageal area: there are no glands, no enzymes
and contains active microbial populations
(lactobacilli and streptococci).

-Cardiac area: secretes alkaline enzyme-free viscous

mucus (from a gel-forming glycoprotein which
protects the epithelium from acid attack).
-Gastric gland region: Secretes glucoprotein and
fucolipid mucus. Contains oxyntic cells which
produce hydrochloric acid (HCL). Produces
pepsinogen.
• Pyloric region: has glands and secrete protective mucus.
Gastric juice
Contains water, pepsinogen, inorganic salts, mucus,
HCL and intrinsic factor, which is required for the
efficient absorption of vitamin B12. The stomach has a
pH of 2.
Digestion in the small intestine
Partially digested food from the
stomach enters the small intestine
where secretions from the duodenum,
liver and pancreas mix with it. A
greater part of the digestion and
*The small intestine consists of the duodenum,
jejunum and ileum. A number of secretions flow into
the GIT, most of which contain enzymes which bring
about the hydrolysis of the various food components
(carbohydrates, lipid and proteins).
Some of the proteolytic enzymes
found in the secretions are in the
form of inactive precursors
(zymogens) initially and are activated
after being secreted into the tract.
Digestion in the large intestine
The large intestine plays an important role by
retrieving them. There is re-absorption of water,
electrolytes and nutrients. The indigestible portions
of the diet pass down the tract as faecal matter.

RUMINANT DIGESTION
Foods of ruminants are forages and
fibrous roughages, which are mainly
β-linked polysaccharides (eg.
cellulose) which cannot be broken
down by the digestive enzymes of
mammals. The ruminant has evolved
Stomach
The ruminant stomach has 4 chambers, the
reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasums. *In the
suckling ruminant the milk is diverted directly into
the omasum by the reticular or oesophageal groove
as the reticulum and the rumen are
poorly developed. The 2 chambers
develop very fast when the suckling
ruminant start feeding on solid food. 8
weeks for lambs and kids, 6-9 months
for calves.
Breakdown of food is both physical and chemical.
Rumination
Food particles at the anterior end of the reticulo-
rumen and drawn back into the oesophagus and
returned by a wave of contraction to
the mouth (regurgitation/chewing the
cud). Coarser particles are thoroughly
chewed before returning to the rumen.
Rumen provides continuous culture of
anaerobic microbes and food that is
partially fermented after entering the
where digestion by enzymes from the host animal and
the products of digestion are then absorbed.

Large intestine
The second phase of microbial
digestion occurs in the large intestine.
VFAs are absorbed but microbial cells
and undigested food components are
excreted.
*Note the pH of the rumen.
Carbohydrate digestion
by the micro-organisms. Some of the amino acids are
further degraded to organic acids, ammonia and
carbon dioxide.
Valine converted to isobutyric acid.
The NH3 together with some of the
peptides and some amino acids are
utilised by rumen microbes to produce
their own microbial protein.
When the microbes are carried
through to the abomasums and the
small intestine they are digested and absorbed.
The rumen microorganisms as well as those found in
the large intestine cannot digest lipids. Lipid content
of the animal diet should not exceed 5 %. In
ruminants more than 10 % content of lipids decrease
the activity of the rumen microbes.
ABSORPTION
- The main organ for absorption is the
small intestine, which is specially
adapted as its inner surface is
increased by folding and the presence
of villi.
Absorption from the lumen can take place by:
Passive transport – by simple diffusion, provided
there is a high concentration of nutrients outside the
cell• and low concentration inside the cell.
Facilitative transport – here absorption is aided by specific carrier transport systems.
Molecules are transported by reversibly binding to carrier proteins down the
concentration gradient.
• Active transport – This involves carriers with 2 binding sites, one for nutrients
(monosaccharides and amino acids) and one for sodium ion. The carriers travel
down chemical gradients across the intestinal membrane and deposit the nutrients
in the cell.

*Na+ ion is pumped back by

transporting ATPase.
Pinocytosis – Here cells have the capacity to engulf
large molecules (in solution or suspension). *This
process is important in newborn suckled mammals
where immunoglobulins in colostrums are absorbed
intact (gives them immunity against diseases).
METABOLISM
It is the name given to the sequence
of chemical processes that take place
in the living organism.
The process that involves degrading
That, which synthesises complex compounds from
simpler ones, is ANABOLISM.
- Waste products arise which are chemically
transformed and excreted.
- NH3 → Urea and excreted.
The materials for metabolism are the
end products of food digestion.
The end product of carbohydrate
digestion in the monogastric is glucose
with very small amounts of galactose
and fructose. In ruminants the end
Major pathways for carbohydrate metabolism
Embden-Meyerhof pathway (glycolytic pathway)
Tri-carboxylic Acid pathway (Krebs cycle; Citric Acid
cycle).
Pentose phosphate pathway.
Lipid metabolism
β – oxidation – which entails the
removal of 2 – C – atoms at a time to
give acetyl Co-enzyme A which enters
the Citric acid cycle.
Protein metabolism
Decarboxylation.

(a) NH2 (b) NH2

| |
R—C—H R—C—H

| |
COOH COOH
 THE EQUINES

Examples: Horses, ponies, mules,

donkeys etc.
HORSES
Horses are non-ruminant
herbivores (hind-gut fermenters);
meaning they have only one
stomach as monogastric animals.
Note: They are unlike ruminant animals, that digest fibre
through a pre-gastric fermentation in the rumen.

Horses are unable to regurgitate

food, so if they overeat or take in
something poisonous vomiting is
not an option.
The digestive system of the horse is
delicate. It has a very small
stomach (a 450 kg horse has a
stomach capacity of 15 l).
The small intestine

Most of the nutrients are digested

(bile from the liver, enzymes from
the pancreas and small intestine)
and absorbed into the bloodstream
from the small intestine.
The Cecum is where the
fermentation takes place. It
contains some bacteria and