Product Testing

CONTENTS
• Introduction
• Pipes & Fittings
• Plastic Films & Laminates.
• Containers
• Woven Sacks
• Plastic Flooring
• Cellular Plastics
• Testing of FRP
• References
Corporate Training & Planning 2

INTRODUCTION
Importance of product testing:

• To evaluate the performance of product.
• To identify criticality of component performance in assembled condition.
• To identify necessary changes in process parameters.
• Modification of product or mould design.
• To prepare instructions to avoid end user’s abuse.
• To establish the reputation of the product.
• Conformity of product to particular specifications.

INTRODUCTION
Factors Responsible for Performance Products
• Materials and its grade
– Additives,modifiers and processing aids.
– Plastic Processing Techniques e.g.Injection olding, Extrusion, Compression

molding etc.
– Processing Parameters (e.g. Pressure,Temperature & Time etc.)
– Pre Molding Operations e.g.Pre-heating,Pre-forming, compounding, Blending

etc.
– Post Molding operations such as Printing, decoration, drilling, trimming,

electroplating, welding etc.
– Mould & Product Design
– End use conditions(e.g.Environmental condition,final assembly etc.)

PLASTIC PRODUCTS COVERED
• Pipes and Fittings
• Plastic Films and Laminates.
• Plastic Containers
• Woven Sacks
• Plastic Flooring
• Cellular Plastics
• Testing of FRP

PLASTIC PIPES AND FITTINGS
Introduction
Definition :
• Pipe is any round self – supporting continuous hollow cylinder with a minimum
inside diameter of 12mm.
• Fittings

PLASTIC PIPES AND FITTINGS
• Advantages of Plastic
• Following are the advantages of plastic pipes
• Low manufacturing cost.
• Lighter in weight and easy to handle.
• Flexibility in design features.
• Easy assembling & installation
• High resistance to corrosion , water & Chemicals
• Good weathering properties.
• Low maintenance cost
• Less chance to microbial growth inside pipe.
• Low friction loss in transportation of water
• More durability ( Life of UPVC pipe is estimated approx 100 years)

APPLICATIONS OF PIPES
• Potable water supply
• Tube-well construction
• Domestic/Industrial Plumbing
• Cable Duct Pipes
• Soil, Waste & Rain water systems
• Underground drainage and sewerage systems
• Lift Irrigation system
• Agriculture irrigation distribution systems
• Subsoil drainage systems
• Piping system for both fresh and salt waters
• Effluent Treatment conveyance pipeline systems
• Chemical conveying pipeline systems in industry
• Centrifugal pump suction and delivery pipes

MATERIALS FOR PIPES
• Commonly used plastic materials for pipes are
• Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
• Chlorinated Polyvinyl chloride(CPVC)
• Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene(ABS)
• Polypropylene(PP)
• Polyethylene(HDPE, LDPE etc)
• Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Epoxy(FRPE)
• Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Polyester (FRPP)
• Material selection
Selection of correct piping material depends on application and environment.
Ex : PP is preferred for chemical resistant & high temperature applications.
ABS is preferred for high impact and crush resistant applications.

PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
OF PLASTIC PIPES
Materials Properties Application
PVC Excellent weather resistance Refrigeration, Sewage & water treatment,
Chemical & food processing industries,
Irrigation and water distribution line,
swimming, drain, waste and vent, conduct for
wiring and vacuum lines
CPVC Stand higher temperature Hot fluid application and water treatment
systems
ABS Good chemical resistance Weather and gas marked, food process plant,
weather resistance. Does not chemical, drainage, sewage treatment, sludge
crack on impact discharge system, electrical conducts irrigation
lines (UHMW-PE)
PP Light weight and good high Low pressure line and Acid waste drainage
temperature and chemical system one and water system
resistance
PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS
OF PLASTIC PIPES
Materials Properties Application
Polyvinylidene -- Lining material in steel pipes and

Chloride fittings
FRP (Epoxy) Resistance to dilute acid, solvents, Chilled and hot water line, Air-
caustics conditioned and refrigerator
FRP (Polyester) Good corresion resistance, good Water line for power plant discharge
weather resistance line, Water faintain service lines
Petroleum, refining installations
COMMONLY MANUFACTURED PIPES
& RECOMMENDED TESTS
Description IS/ASTM Specified Tests on pipe as per standard
No.
Unclassified PVC IS:4985 :  Dimensions( Diameter, Wall thickness, Socket ID, Length, Socket
pipe for potable 2000 dimension)
water supply  Opacity,  Sulphated Ash content
 Reversion  Visual appearance
 Density  Resistance to external blow at 00 C
 Hydraulic test  Effect on water test
 Long term (Analysis of Pb, Sn, Cd & Hg in
 Short term water extracted from pipe)
UPVC Screen IS:12818  Dimensions ( Diameters, Wall thickness, Length)
and casing pipe : 1992  Visual appearance  Specific Gravity
for bore well/  Shore A hardness of Rubber gaskets
Tube well
 Mandrel test  Impact resistance
 Tensile strength  Vicat Softing Temp.
 Effect on water test (Analysis of Pb, Sn, Cd & Hg
in water extracted from pipe)
& RECOMMENDED TESTS
PVC pipe Plastic ASTMD : 1785:04a  Dimension,
pipes, Schedule 40,  Visual appearance, Flattening test
80 and 120  Burst pressure, Sustained press.
 Crush resistance,
 Acetone immersion test
UPVC pipe for soil & IS:13592:1992  Dimensions(Diameter, wall thickness, Length,Socket
waste discharge dimensions)
system  Visual appearance
 Reversion  Stress relief test
 Resistance to H2So4
 Impact resistance at 00 C
 Tensile strength,  Vicat Softing Temp.
 Water tightness of joints
HDPE Pipes for IS: 4984: 1995  Dimensions(Diameter, wall thickness)
potable water supply Grade PE 63  Reversion  Migration,
PE 80  Density  Melt Flow Index(1900C/5kg.)
PE 100  Carbon black content
 Carbon black dispersion
 Hydraulic characteristics
 Long term (165 hrs.)
 Short term (48 hrs)
& RECOMMENDED TESTS
PE Pipes for irrigation IS: 12786 :  Dimensions(Diameter, wall thickness)
laterals 1989  Hydraulic characteristics
 Reversion  Tensile strength
 Environmental stress crack resistance
PE pipes for sprinkler IS: 14151:  Dimensions(Diameter, wall thickness, Ovality)
irrigation system (Pt-I)1999  Visual Appearance
 Tensile strength and elongation
 Fusion compatibility,
 Hydraulic characteristic
 Density  Melt Flow Index
 Carbon black content
 Carbon black dispersion
PE pipes for sprinkler IS: 14151:  Dimensions(Diameter, wall thickness)
irrigation system (Pt-II)1999  Visual Appearance  Leakage test
 Hydraulic proof test  Density
 Melt Flow Index,
 Carbon black content
 Carbon black dispersion,
 Shore hardness
PRODUCT SELECTION
The Selection of correct piping material for specific application depend upon
many factors . These are :
• The selection of correct piping depends as the application and environment.

Example
• For chemical resistant & high temperature applications, Polypropylene pipes

are preferred.
• For high impact and crush resistant applications pipes of ABS material are
suitable.

PRESSURE RATING OF PIPES
• Almost all the pipes are classified by

pressure rating at a given
temperature S.No. Nominal Pressure Class
1. 0.25 MPa Class 1
• As per IS : 4984 : 1995 at300Cand IS : 2. 0.4 MPa Class 2,
4985: 2000 at 27oC pressure ratings
3. 0.6 MPa Class 3,
of pipes are according to their
nominal pressure (PN) as below. 4. 0.8 MPa Class 4
5. 1.0 MPa Class 5
• Other pipes & fittings manufactured 6. 1.25 MPa Class 6
according to IS standards are
classified on similar pressure rating.
• Generally swegger and drainage pipe

are not rated based on the pressure

PRESSURE RATING OF PIPES
In USA standard dimension ratio ( SDR) is used to classify the pressure rating of
thermoplastic pipe.
Standard dimension ratio ( SDR ) = Outside diameter of pipe
Wall thickness of pipe
Thermo sets pipes are normally rating at maximum temperature where as
thermoplastic at ambient temperature ( 740F – 750F )
The most popular ratings are as below.
S.No. SDR of pipes Nominal Pressure SDR of pipes Nominal Pressure

1. 13.5 315psi 32.5 125psi
2. 17 250psi 41 100psi
3. 21 200psi 64 50psi
4. 26 160psi - -
Thermo plastic pipes are designated with four digits and product alphabet prefix
1st digit = Type of resin
2nd digit = Grade of resin according to ASTM
3rd & 4th digit = Hydrostatic design stress divided by 100
Example : CPVC 4120 means the resin is CPVC type 4, Grade 1, with a 2000 psi
hydrostatic design stress
TEST PROCEDURES
Opacity Test : (IS: 4985:2000, 12235-86 (Part-3 )
• This test determines the percentage of visible light transmission through the wall of
PVC pipe. The transmission of the light through the wall of pipe & fitting should not
be more than < 0.2%
Significance : To check the conformity to the pipe & fittings to opacity test as per IS:
4985:2000 of relevant standard.
• The transmission of the light through the wall of the pipe will caused photochemical
reaction inside the pipe in the presence of heat and water
• Such photochemical leads to scaling, algae formation and contaminate the potable
water transported though the pipe and make unsuitable for drinking
• Light transmission is generally high in thin wall pipe & less in thick wall pipes
• When the light transmission is less than 0.2% the effect of Photochemical reaction
and it’s effect will be insignificant
• The additional of small amount of carbon black in PVC compound improves opacity
( reduces light transmission )
Apparatus : Electronic opacity tester is used which consists of light source, photo
electric cell, digital current meter
TEST PROCEDURES
PROCEDURE:
• Cut 2 nos of 50mm x 50mm test pieces from the original thickness of the pipe &
fitting.
• Calibrate the equipment by adjusting the reading to zero by blocking the light from
the light source fully and 100% when the light is switched in absence of test piece.
• Check the precision of reading using standard lens to give absorption of 0.2%
• Place the specimen on the support between the light source and photo detector cell
• The percentage light transmitted is directly read from the opacity indicator
• The percentage of light transmission should not exceed 0.2%
Result : The percentage of light transmission through the wall of the pipes is recorded as
its result
• Factors affecting opacity
• Amount of the carbon black, and other compound in the pipe material
• Wall thickness of the pipe( higher the wall thickness less is the opacity)
REVERSION TEST
Definition : Change in length along the surface of the pipe due to heat and subsequent
cooling is called reversion. This test is recommended for UPVC and PE pipes.
• The test is carried out by emerging a portion of pipe of a given length in the liquid
or air medium for a specified period of time in relation to wall thickness and dia of
the pipe
Significance : To check the conformity to the pipe to reversion test as per relevant
standard.
• During manufacturing of pipe certain degree of moulded in stresses ( residual
stresses) and high degree of molecular orientation are introduced. These molecular
orientation and stresses get relived by reversing on reheating.
• Due to high day & night temperature variation in different environmental
conditions the pipe undergoes expansion, contraction & stress relaxation process
which leads to the change in dimension.
• The pipe expands and contracts with the rise and fall of the temperature which
leads to the failure of assembly particularly joints and water leakage may occur
• The dimensional change in the longitudinal direction is measure on cooling to room
temperature.
• The acceptable limit of dimensional change is specified as per pipe material.
SPECIFIED TEST CONDITION FOR REVERSION
TEST FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF PIPES
S.N IS No. Pipe Sample Sample Test Test Duration Medium
o Details Size Temp. of
heating
A For HDPE pipes
1. IS 4984:1995 HDPE Pipes for 200±20 110+2 60 /120/240 minutes Air
Water Supply mm ( for 8mm/8 to
16mm/16mm and above
thick pipe)
2. IS 14151 : HDPE pipe for 200±20 110+2 60 min Air
(part-I) 1999 Sprinkler mm
irrigation
3. IS 14333 : HDPE pipe for 200±20 110+2 60 /120/240 minutes Air
1996 sewerage mm ( for 8mm/8 to
16mm/16mm and above
thick pipe)
4. IS 12786:1989 Irrigation 200±20 100+2 60 min Air
Equipment-PE mm
Pipes for
Irrigation Laterals
SPECIFIED TEST CONDITION FOR REVERSION
TEST FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF PIPES
S.N IS No. Pipe Sample Sample Test Test Duration Medium

o Details Size Temp. of
heating
5. IS 4985:2000 UPVC Pipes for 200±20 150+2 15min / 30 / 60 minutes Liquid
Potable water mm (8.6 mm / 8.6 to
Supply 14mm/>14mm & above
respectively.
6. IS 13592:1992 UPVC Pipes for 200±20 150+2 60min / 120 / 240 Air
soil & waste mm minutes
discharge systems (8.6 mm / 8.6 to
inside buildings 14mm/>14mm & above
including respectively.
ventilation & rain 15min/30min/60min Liquid
water system (8.6 mm / 8.6 to
14mm/>14mm & above
respectively)
REVERSION TEST
EQUIPMENTS :
 Electrical heated hot air oven (for HDPE pipes) Vernier caliper
 Oil immersion bath ( for UPVC pipes)  Scriber
PROCEDURE :
• Cut the 3 pieces of 200 ± 20mm long piece of pipe in the axial length and scribe
two lines at outside of surface of specimen 100mm apart
• For HDPE pipe >200mm dia test piece from the circumferential arc of length of
200mm is cut from the pipe and scribe two line 100mm apart
• Select the specified test conditions for various types of the pipe as given below in
the table and set the required temperature in the air oven/oil bath as may be
applicable for particular type of pipe
REVERSION TEST FOR HDPE PIPE
• Place the duly marked test sample into the oven for the specified period of time in
the air oven at at the temperature indicated in the table
• Remove the specimen from the oven after specified period and cool in air to
ambient temperature
• The distance between two marked along the surface of the specimen is measured.
REVERSION TEST
• The percentage of Reversion is calculated using the following formula
R (%)= lo – li x 100
lo
where R is the reversion,
lo and li are the lengths before and after test.
Oil Immersion method : ( For UPVC pipes )
• Marked UPVC pipe specimens are immersed in an oil bath at 150 + 2oC for a
specified duration as given in the table according to the wall thickness of the
pipe.
• After expiry of the test duration specimens is removed from oil bath and cooled
in air to ambient temperature.
• The percentage reversion is calculated using the above formula.
• The maximum reversion percentage limits for HDPE pipes is + 3 % while that for
UPVC pipes is + 5 %.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE TEST
( INTERNAL PRESSURE CREEP RUPTURE TEST)
• The most important and commonly used pressure tests are

(i) Acceptance or test Short term test
(ii ) Type test or Quality also known as test Long term test
(iii) Brust pressure
(i) Acceptance (Short term test) :- Short term testing is called instantaneous pressure
test. This test is generally used for quality control test and to check batch to batch
uniformity for acceptance of materials. Under this test pipes are brought to
specified temp and pressure and then instantaneously pressure is increased to
burst or maintained for specified test time.

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE TEST
( INTERNAL PRESSURE CREEP RUPTURE TEST)
(ii) Type test (Long term test) : -

• In this test pipes are held at standard condition of sure and time (between
100 to 1000 hours). The constant temp and pressure is maintained for the
specified period. The failure or bursting of the pipes are observed.
• The long term or Quality test is generally carried out to characterize material
and prove the suitability and performance ( creep resistance ) of new
composition or new size of pipe.
• The test conditions for various pipes is given in table 1
• Brust Pressure :
• Under this test pipe is subjected to Hydrostatic pressure and increased to it’s
maximum brust pressure.

MECHANISM OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
INSIDE THE PIPE

MECHANISM OF FAILURE
• Pipe failed by two mechanism I.e Creep & Creep propagation
CREEP :
• Creep cause a gradual increase internal volume, thinning of the wall and increased in
pipe diameter and length
• The variation in the dimension or in material causes differential creep with HDPE
pipes
• Localized yielding and ruptured leads to the ductile failure
• When the pipes are subjected to internal hydrostatic pressure test, generally two
types of stress component are developed inside the pipe i.e ( shown in figure )
( i) Longitudinal stress
(ii) circumferential stress or hoop stress.
• The amount of hoop stress is generally two times higher than longitudinal stress.
• Thus it is the single largest stress present in pipe system under pressure responsible
for failure of pipe.

MECHANISM OF FAILURE
• The hoop stress is expressed by following formula.

S = P ( D – t ) / 2t
Where, S = Hoop stress ; P = Internal pressure ; D = Outside diameter of pipe
t = Minimum wall thickness of pipes
TYPES OF FAILURE
• Failure in the pipe may be either brittle or ductile.
• Brittle failure is common in rigid pipe such as PVC where as ductile failure in
tough and elongation material such as P.E

INTERNAL HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
The standard conditions for hydrostatstic pressure test for various types of pipes
according to IS speciation is as below.
Sl. IS No. Tests Length of test Test temp. Test Duration Induced stress
No. sample (0C) (Minimum holding (MPa)
time in hr)
1. IS 4984:1995 Acceptance test X10 of OD of pipe 80 48 3.8 (for PE 63)
but less than 4.9 (for PE 80)
250mm & more than 5.5 (for PE 100)
750mm
Type test -do- 80 165 3.8 (for PE 63)
4.6 (for PE 80)
5.5 (for PE 100)
2. IS 4985:2000 Acceptance test -do- 27 1 4.19XPN
Type test -do- 60 1000 1.16XPN
3. IS 14333-1996 Acceptance test -do- 80 48 4.1
Type test -do- 80 165 3.5
4. IS 12786:1989 Acceptance test -do- 20 1 6.9
Quality test -do- 70 100 2.5
5. IS 14151 Acceptance test -do- 70 70 5.4

(Pt-I):1999
Quality test -do- 70 100 5.0

(Acceptance Test for UPVC pipe as IS : 4985:2000)
Definition : It may be defined as ability of the pipe to withstand a specified
constant hydrostatic pressure for specified period of time at specified
temperature without showing any failure
• It consists of subjecting the specified length of pipe to a constant internal

pressure at constant temperature for a specified period of time
Significance : To check the conformity of the pipe to hydrostatic pressure test

(Acceptance test) for one hour to IS : 4985 : 2000
Apparatus : Hydrostatic pressure machine capable to maintain required test

pressure automatically
• Standard end fittings and other accessories
• Thermostatically controlled water bath
Specimens : The pipe samples shall be cut in the length of equal to 10 times of
Outside Diameter of the pipe but it shall not less than 250mm or greater than
750 mm as free length
(Acceptance Test for UPVC pipe as IS : 4985:2000)
PROCEDURE :
• Attach end plugs at both end of the pipes such that internal pressure is exerted
and transmitted to the pipe.
• Fill the pipe with water at ambient temperature through a closable opening in
end of the pipe
• Immerse the pipe in a water bath maintained at 270C
• Calculate the test pressure by multiplying 4.19 times of working pressure of the
pipe
• Increase the pressure gradually in the test assembly to a test pressure without
sock preferably within 10 to 30 seconds.
• Maintained the test pressure in the pipe for one hour
• At the end of one hour observed the pipe for the any kind of failure
• Record the observation of the test and it’s result
Result :
The pipe should not burst or ruptured or failure with in one hour of the test
(Type Test for UPVC pipe as IS : 4985:2000)
Definition : It may be defined as ability of the pipe to withstand a specified constant
hydrostatic pressure for specified period of time at specified temperature
without showing any failure
• It consists of subjecting the specified length of pipe to a constant internal
pressure at constant temperature for a specified period of time
Significance : To check the conformity of the pipe to hydrostatic pressure test (Type
test) for one hour to IS : 4985 : 2000
Apparatus : Hydrostatic pressure machine capable to maintain required test pressure
automatically
• Standard end fittings and other accessories
• Thermostatically controlled water bath
Specimens : The pipe samples shall be cut in the length of equal to 10 times of
Outside Diameter of the pipe but it shall not less than 250mm or greater than 750
mm as free length

(Type Test for UPVC pipe as IS : 4985:2000)
PROCEDURE • Maintained the test pressure at
constant temperature of 600C in the
• Attach end plugs at both end of the pipe for 1000 hours.
pipes such that internal pressure is
exerted and transmitted to the pipe. • At the end of 1000 hours observed
the pipe for the any kind of failure .
• Fill the pipe with water at ambient
temperature through a closable • Record the observation of the test
opening in end of the pipe. and it’s result .
• Immerse the pipe in a water bath Result : The pipe should not burst or
maintained at 600C . ruptured or failure with in one hour
• Calculate the test pressure by of the test.
multiplying 4.16 times of working
pressure of the pipe. • The hydrostatic pressure test for
remaining other pipes shall be
• Increase the pressure gradually in the
conducted following the above
test assembly to a test pressure
procedure at the pressure,
without sock preferably within 10 to
temperature and duration.
30 seconds.
BURST STRENGTH TEST
Introduction:
• Burst strength test determine the ability of a plastic pressure vessel to resist
rupture when it is pressurized for a short period of time In this test the
plastics pipes are subjected to a very high internal pressure for short period of
time. Time and rupture strength is determined by continuously increasing
internal hydraulic pressure at controlled temperature and environmental
conditional.
Procedure:
• Specimens of 150 mm length are cut from the pipe. Specimens are attached
with end fittings at both the ends and filled with water. Pipes are connected
to hydrostatic pressure testing machine and the pressure is increased
uniformly and continuously until the sample. The pressure at which pipe
bursts and time to failure are recorded.

SULPHATED ASH CONTENT TEST
Introduction: The physical properties , dimensions ,finish and performance of pipes is
influenced by the fillers compound. This also influences the specific gravity of the
pipe specific gravity of the pipe. It provides advantageous effects up to certain limit.
But beyond the recommended limit the quality and performance of the pipe is
affected.
• The test is carried out by calcinations with sulphuric acid and treatment after
combustion by burning the substance and transforming the residue into the
sulphates using concern H2So4 and finally heating the residue at 8500C until constant
mass is reached. The detailed procedure is given below.
Definition: It may defend as the percentage of the ash quantitatively present in the pipe
after heating, paralysis and calcinations with sulphuric acid after combustion.
Significance :
– For the quality control of the pipe
– To check the conformity of the pipe to sulphated ash content as per IS:485:2000
REAGENT : Concentrated Sulphuric Acid (Density 1840 kg/cm2 )

EQUIPMENTS
i. Crucible : Silica or Platinum crucible having upper diameter between 45 – 75mm
and height equal to diameter of crucible
ii. Analytical : Analytical weighting balance capable of weighing sample and crucible to
the accuracy of 01 mg.
iii. Bunsen Burner: Bunsen Burner and tripod stand or other suitable heating device.
iv. Muffle Furnace : Muffle furnace capable of maintaining temp of 850 ± 100 C
v. Pipette : Glass Pipette of appropriate capacity.
vi. Dessicator : Dessicator with Cacl2 as drying agent for cooling the crucible.
vii. Tongue : The tongue of sufficient length for handling crucible in hot condition.
viii. Sample : Small cut pieces of the pipe approximately 10 to 15gm
ix. Conditioning : Wash and clean the crucible and heat in the muffle furnace at 8500C
until the constant mass is achieved.

PROCEDURE :
• Take the mass of crucible and put about • The crucible is allowed to cool in a
2- 5gms samples cut from pipe. desiccator to room temp and the
• The weight of the sample along with the mass is taken
crucible is taken • The mass of the residue is recorded
• Sample is heated on bunsen burner until of as sulphated ash content
evolving of smoke from sample is ceased.
CALCULATION & RESULT
• Then it is allowed to cool.
• After cooling Sulphuric Acid is added to • The sulphated ash content is
the residue drop wise by means of calculated as follows:
pipette until residue is soaked completely.
• Subsequently It is again heated on the % Sulphated Ash Content (By mass)
burner until evolution of smoke ceases. = Mass of residue x 100
Mass of sample
• The crucible is placed in a muffle
furnace maintained at 850+10oC and
heated until the constant mass is • The sulphated ash content should be
reached. within the specified limit.

IMPACT TEST
(RESISTANCE TO EXTERNAL BLOW AT 0o C)
INTRODUCTION :
• Impact resistance property of pipe has considerable importance. The ability of pipe
to withstand socking load is a decisive factor. Therefore in order to ensure
satisfactory field performance of unplasticized PVC pipe, the measurement of
impact resistance at low temperature is important.
• SCOPE : This test method covers to the determination of resistance of external blow
at 00 C for UPVC pipe as IS:4985: 2000
DEFINITION :
• TRUE IMPACT RATE : The total number of failure divided by total number of blows
as a percentage as if whole both had been testes
• Failure : Shattering or any crack or spilt on inside of the pipe that was caused by the
impact and that can be seen by naked eye (lightning devices may be used to assist is
examining the specimen

IMPACT TEST
SIGNIFICANCE : Impact strength signifies EQUIPMENTS
the toughness of the pipe and hence • Free falling the impact tester which
that the ability withstand socking load mainly consists of a rigidly fixed main
frame
• The test is used for quality control of
• A striker of standard mass with free
the pipe
movement on a guide
• To check the conformity of the pipe to • A specimen support comprising of
resistance to the external blow at 00 C 120o steel V block at least 250 mm
as per IS:4985:2000 long
• A release mechanism for the striker
FACTORS AFFECTING: The impact • Suitable deep freezer/ liquid bath
resistance of plastic not only depends capable of maintaining temperature
basis properties of materials, but also 0 ± 10 C
on many factors such as environmental
condition, nature of blow frequency of
sock etc.
IMPACT TEST
SPECIMEN : Sufficient no. of cut pieces of
pipe of 200± 10mm long to achieve
minimum 40 strike Wall Conditioning period
thickness minutes
• The no. of test pieces may be more in
case of failure. (mm) Liquid bath Air
• marked on circumference at Up to 8.6 15 60
equidistance of 50mm to take one
8.6 to 14.1 30 120
strike. The pipes
• Pipes below 40mm size are tested for Above 14.1 60 240
only one strike
CONDITIONING : Pipe samples are
conditioning in deep freezer/ liquid
bath according to their wall thickness
as given below

IMPACT TEST
PROCEDURE PROCEDURE
• The type and mass of the striker and • The process is continued until all
height of free fall from is selected marked lines have been tested or until a
according to the nominal diameter of failure as a result of cracking of splitting
the pipe from Table – 9 of is recorded
IS:4985:2000 • Pipes their shall be no failure at the
• The test height is measured in the pipe upto 39 strikes. However, test and
equipment and marked for test it’s conformity can be made according
• Condition the specimen at 00C ± 1 for table-11 of IS:4985:2000
the specified period is taken out FACTORS AFFECTING :
from the liquid bath/ deep freezer • The composition of the material and
and is placed on “V-Block” filler content in the compound
• The specified mass of the striker is • Fusion& Homogeneity of the compound
allowed fall freely on the test
specimen at different marked points • Processing conditions and parameters
on its outer surface by rotating the • Amount of impact modifier in the
specimen about it’s axis compound
EFFECT ON WATER TEST
( FOR RPVC PIPES & FITTINGS)
INTRODUCTION: SIGNIFICANCE :
• In the process of the UPVC pipe some • This test is carried out to check that
additives, such as organo –metallic UPVC pipes manufactured pipe are
salts are used as stabilizers. These safe for transportation of drinking
stabilizers are based on heavy metal water or not
compounds of Pb, Sn, Cd & Hg. etc
• To develop PVC compound and
• At a time one are more than one of verify manufacturing process
these stabilizers in the compound
may be used. As such a portion of
these compounds gets consumed
during the processing of pipe but
remaining portion present in pipe
may leach in when coming in contact
of water and produced a toxic effect
to potable water. This affects the
quality of water as well as causes
health hazard.

EQUIPMENT : SPECIMEN :
• Pre-washing arrangement of pipes • A cut pieces of the pipe of one meter
before test, locking with length
arrangements PE stopper,
• Extraction of water sample : Test
• Arrangement for Extraction and sample for this test is obtained by
collection of water sample flowing water continuously through
the pipe for six hours. Subsequently
• UV visible spectrophotometer/
pipes are filled with carbonized water
atomic absorption
by closing it’s one end. The extracts
spectrophotometer with graphite
of water are collected at specified
furnace and hydradide generator and
time interval.
lamp for detection of Pb, Sn, Cd & Hg.

PROCEDURE :
• The quantitative analysis of substances present in the extracted water sample like
Lead, Tin, Cadmium, Mercury etc is carried out by analytical or instrumental
method, using UV visible spectrophotometer or atomic absorption
spectrophotometer.
• The quantitative analysis of these toxic substances in water sample by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer is very fast and accurate.
RESULT
The toxic substance shall not exceed the following concentration
• Lead (I ext) 1.0mg/I (1.0 ppm)
• Lead (III ext) 0.3mg/I (1.3 ppm)
• Sn (III ext) 0.02mg/I (0.02 ppm)
• Cd (All III ext) 0.01mg/I (0.01 ppm)
• Hg ( All IIII ext) 0.01mg/I (0.01 ppm)

STRESS RELIEF TEST
( FOR UPVC PIPES & FITTINGS )
INTRODUCTION :
• During manufacturing or fabrication of sockets some degree of moulded in stress

are introduced in the socket particularly in the expanded portion. These moulded in
stress weaken the pipes and fittings this leads to localized failure.
• Test is conducted by subjecting bell ended/ socketed portion of UPVC pipes and
fittings in hot air oven at 150 ± 20C temperature for one hour then cooled slowly to
the room temperature and visually examined for a verity of attributes
DEFINITION :
• It may defined as the process of heating the test portion and subsequently cooling
and examining for the any warpage, blistering, wall separation, fish scaling and
distortion in the component

STRESS RELIEF TEST
SIGNIFICANCE :
• This test indicates the label of moulded in stress at expanded portion of the
socket/ Bell end portion by observing/ checking of the severity of the war page ,
blistering, wall separation & distortion etc.
• The stress indicates level of weaken of the product
• Test is used for quality control and R&D purpose
• The test is carried out to very the conformity of UPVC pipes and fittings to relevant
IS specification.
EQUIPMENT :
• Hot air oven capable of maintaining 150 ± 20C temperature
• Profile projector, Micrometer etc.
TEST SAMPLE :
• Bell ended/ expanded portion of UPVC pipe & fittings

STRESS RELIEF TEST
PROCEDURE :
RESULT:
• Socket end of pipes & fittings is • Observation of visual examination is
taken marked two parallel lines both recorded
side is taken about 25mm apart from
the stress prone area. FACTORS EFFECTING :
• Test temperature of 150 ± 20C is • Design and wall thickness of the
maintained in air oven and marked pipes and fittings.
pipes/ fittings are placed in the oven
for one hour. • Process temperature and rate of
cooling during moulding in
• After one hour the samples are fabrication
removed from oven and cooled room
temperature • Material and it’s composition
• Socketed portion is visually examined

for any blister, excessive delaminating
or cracking sign of weld line splitting
by sectioning the marked line.

DENSITY
FOR HDPE PIPES
SIGNIFICANCE:
• Density of the polyethylene material is important because properties of pipe
such as rigidity, it’s hydraulic characteristics, creep and other performance of
pipe depends upon the density of base polymer & compounds. Butyl acetate
is for determination of density by displacement method.
PROCEDURE:
• Butyl acetate is taken in suitable container and its density is measured by

hydrometer. Test piece of suitable size is cut from the pipe and is attached
with fine Nylon wire for hanging in weighing balance.
• Mass of specimen in air is taken accurately to 0.1 mg. Beaker filled with butyl
acetate is placed under the sample hanging with wire and mass of sample is
taken in butyl acetate.

DENSITY
The Density is calculated as below:

Density of Polyethylene Kg/m3 = a x ρBAC x 1000
a1 - a2
Where, a1 = mass in g of specimen in air
a2 = mass in g of specimen in butyl acetate
ρBAC = Density of butyl acetate.
FOR UPVC PIPES :
SIGNIFICANCE :
• Similarly density of RPVC pipe is used for quality control test.
• This test may be the indicator of compound and batch uniformity and hence
quality consistency of the pipe.

DENSITY
PROCEDURE:
• Test is carried out by cutting test piece of suitable size having mass in the range
of 2-5 gms
• Edges of specimens are cleaned so that there are no fibers.
• Tie specimen is with wire/Nylon fiber. and mass of specimen is taken in air and
recorded as ‘a’.
• Specimen is immersed in distilled water and the mass of specimen is taken in
immersion liquid as ‘b’.
CALCULATION :
The density is calculated as: Density = a xd
a–b
Where, d = Density of medium
a = mass in grams of specimen in air and
b = mass in grams of specimen in water.

ACETONE IMMERSION TEST
INTRODUCTION:
• This test is used for evaluation of quality of extrusion of UPVC pipes. Due to
some improper fusion and processing defects pipe may exhibit some residual
stress which may cause product failure.
PROCEDURE:
• A specimen is cut from complete circumferential section of the pipe. The
acetone is dried by anhydrous calcium sulphate, which is removed from
acetone by filtering. The specimen is immersed into reagent grade acetone
for 20 minutes at 23 + 2oC.
• After the immersion, the specimen is removed and examined for any failure.

DETERMINATION OF WATER TIGHTNESS
OF JOINTS (AS PER IS 13592)
PROCEDURE:
• A piece of plane ended pipe and a piece of socket end pipe & sealing device are
taken and assembled properly. End plug is attached at both free ends of specimen
and is filled with water at ambient temperature through a closable opening at one
end.
• Pressure is increased gradually to 0.5 MPa without sock. The leakage of water is
observed at the joint of fitting & sealing device under pressure.
• Joints of pipe shall not show any leakage at the socket end

CRUSH RESISTANCE :
( FOR PVC PIPE AS PER ASTM : 1785 )
DEFINITION : It is defined s the ability of pipe and moulded product to resist
compressive load.
SIGNIFICANCE : To characterized the load defection characteristics of the moulded and

extruded products under parallel plate loading
• For quality control and development of product & material
• To verify conformity of the product to relevant standard and specifications
EQUIPMENT : Crush resistance tester fitted with rigid parallel plate and capable of
apply compressive load and measure the compressive load and resulting deflection
• Vernier caliper & measuring scale for measurement of diameter before or after test
Specimen : Three cut pieces of pipe each of 50mm long

CRUSH RESISTANCE :
( FOR PVC PIPE AS PER ASTM : 1785 )
PROCEDURE
• Internal/ external diameter and wall thickness of cut pipe piece of measure
and place between two parallel plates of cross tester
• Machine is brought just in contact of test sample and compressive load is
applied at uniform rate on the sample until the distance between the to plate
is reduced to 50 % of the diameter
• Compression process should be completed preferably within 2 to 5 minutes
• Test sample is relived from compressive load and observed for any splitting,
cracking, fracture or breaking
RESULT : Any splitting, cracking or braking is noted as a failure

• Factors affecting
• Material and it’s composition affect the result
• Design of moulded and fabricated product
• Residual Stress/ moulded in stress in the product

CARBON BLACK CONTENT
INTRODUCTION:
• Addition of carbon black in Polythene for pipes and other products for
outdoor application acts as UV radiation screening agent. About 2.0 to
3.0% carbon black gives optimum life and performance to product
• Determination of Carbon black content is based on heating of polymer at
about 5000C in inert atmosphere. At this temp. polymer molecules
volatilize break down into a gas , and leaves the residue as carbon black
and other fillers.
• Further heating of residue in the air i.e in muffle furnace at about 4500C
separates carbon from fillers
EQUIPMENT:
• Carbon black content tester, analytical weighing balance, Muffle furnace,
test boat etc is used.
TEST SAMPLE:
• About 1 gm of sample cut into small pieces are used

CARBON BLACK CONTENT
PROCEDURE:
• About 1g of sample is taken and weighed in analytical balance. Test
temperature of 500 + 50oC is set .Sample is placed in the combustion tube.
• A stopper carrying thermocouple and tube for admission of nitrogen gas is
inserted from one end of combustion tube.
• Nitrogen gas is passed in combustion tube at the specified rate. The furnace
is maintained at 500+50oC temperature for about 10 minutes. During this
period polymer voilatise.
• The boat is removed from tube and placed in a desiccators and cooled for 20
- 30 minutes.
• The content is weighed accurately. Subsequently, the residue is heated in
air/muffle furnace at about 450oC. It is then cooled until to room temp.
Weight is taken recorded as W2 .

CARBON BLACK DISPERSION
CALCULATION :
The Carbon Black Content is calculated as : % By mass = Weight of Carbon Black

Weight of material
CARBON BLACK DISPERSION :
• Carbon black added to the Polyethylene material for protecting polythene from
UV radiation and improves the performance provided the distribution of Carbon
black in the material is uniform .
• Carbon black is a brittle material so its non uniform distribution can cause
localized brittleness, weakening & inadequate protection UV radiation to material.
• Carbon black dispersion test can reveal whether distribution is satisfactory or not
EQUIPMENT:
• Hot plate, microscope with adequate magnification, glass slide etc

CARBON BLACK DISPERSION
PROCEDURE:
• Carbon black dispersion is determined as following:

• First test slide is prepare by heating of few gm of materials on hot plate
• A hot plate is heated at about 170oC to 210oC, two clean glass slides are placed
on the hot Plate.
• About 5 mg is placed over the slides and heated. A piece of metal shim is
placed on hot micro slide. Uniform pressure is applied for about 2 minutes.
• The micro slides are removed from hot plate and allowed to cool to room
temperature.
• Slides are examined in microscope at magnification of 200 + 10.
• Image obtained microscope is compared with the reference photo micrograph
in respect of number and size of agglomerate.
• The uniformity of background is recorded.
• The dispersion of carbon black shall be satisfactory in comparison to
photomicrograph.

ACETIC ACID IMMERSION TEST
INTRODUCTION:
• ABS is highly susceptible to residual stress. During processing of ABS pipes

and other product residual stress is commonly introduced. This test is carried
out for evaluation of the residual stresses in ABS pipes as these stresses can
cause localized weakening of the product and failure during its end use
application
PROCEDURE:
• Specimen from pipe is cut in any suitable size and immersed into reagent
grade glacial acetic acid for 30 seconds.
• Immediately after the immersion, the sample is removed, rinsed in running
water and dried. The specimen is examined for cracking.
• The above procedure is repeated for specimen for 2 minutes or for the same
specimen for an additional 90 seconds. Again, the specimen is examined for
cracks.
• The time taken to develop cracks and the degree of cracking indicate the
magnitude of residual stress in the specimen.

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CRACKING RESISTANCE TEST
( IRRIGATION LATERAL AS IS : 12786 : 1989)
INTRODUCTION :
 Environmental stress cracking resistance is a particular kind of chemical attack

which must be avoided with polyethylene pipes. Certain chemical causes of
premature failure of some polyethylene under the stress in the accelerated
environmental
• ESCR of polyethylene lateral is important when pipes are used in the filled under
pressure they undergo various compressive bending stress and possibility of
premature failure is increased in accelerated environment of heats and chemicals .
• Thus ESCR is determining factor in these applications.

Fig. Test specimen for ESCR test

PROCEDURE:
• Take test piece of approximately length of 20 times of the diameter of pipe,
• Bend sharply at both ends to form two U – bends, in two different planes
perpendicular to each other as shown in figure.
• Secured bend tightly to maintain in deformed shape throughout the test.
• Coat each bend with surface – active agent (Igepal CO630) by dipping and
place in an oven for 30 minutes at 50 ± 3oC
• Inspect each bend for any visible crack on both sides.

VICAT SOFTENING TEMPERATURE
Objective : Determination of Vicat softening temperature of thermoplastic material using
method A or method B. Method A uses a load of 1.0 kg. and method B uses a load of
5.0 kg.
Principle : Determination of temperature at which a standard indentor penetrates 1mm in
to the surface of plastic test specimen under one of the load as given above. During
the test temperature is raised at uniform rate either at 50  50C / hrs. or 1200C  120
C/hrs. The temperature at 1 mm penetration is quoted as Vicat softening temperature
(VST) in 0C
Definition : Vicat softening temperature is the temperature at which a flat ended needle
of 1 mm2 circular section will penetrate a thermoplastic specimen to a depth of 2 mm
under a specified load using a selected uniform rate of temperature rise. The two
standard permissible rate of rise of temperature are 50  500C/hr. and 120  120C/hrs.
Significance : This test is useful for quality control of development and characterisation of
material. Vicat softening data obtained from this test is used for comparing heat
softening qualities of thermoplastic materials.
Safety : Safety gloves should be used.
APPARATUS
• Heat distortion and vicat softening apparatus consisting.
• Immersion bath.
• Heat transfer liquid (such as silicon oils, glycerine ethylene glycol etc.)
• Support or stand for specimen and dial range.
• Dial gange (0-25mm) for measuring of 1 mm depth of penetration to accuracy of
0.01mm.
• Temperature indication device (such as thermometer)
• Weight : (1.0 k.g. or 5.0 k.g.) depending on test method.
• Flat ended needle of 1 mm2 circular cross section.
TEST SPECIMEN : Specimen of minimum 12 mm wide and 3.0 to 6 mm thick shall be
used. It is surfaces shall be flat parallel and free form flash.
• Place the specimen on specimen support.
• Position the flat needle in such a way that needle rest in the sample in centre.
• Immerge the specimen support assembly with sample in immersion bath.
• Set the micrometer to zero.

PROCEDURE
• Place the weight to load carrying plate on the spindle which is fitted with flat
needle so that total load on test specimen is 1.0 k.g. for method A of and 5.0 kg. for
method B.
• Increase temperature of oil bath at the rate of 500  50C/hr (Rat A) or 1200 120C/hr
• Observe the dial gange for penetration of needle in the specimen.
• Note the temperature of oil bath at which indenting tip has penetrated into test
specimen by 1.0 mm and record it as vicat softening temperature (VST).
• Line diagram to be drawn.

PLASTIC FILMS & LAMINATES

PLASTIC FILMS AND LAMINATES
INTRODUCTION:
• Plastic films are used for packaging, construction and other industrial
applications. It has to perform various functions of package, fabrications,
product protections, containment & appearance. Hence it require a set of
properties.
• Properties of films are broadly classified as : Physical , Mechanical , Chemical,

Optical and Thermal and other such as mach inability ,printability etc.

FACTORS INFLUENCING
Following factors influence the properties of Plastic films :
– Chemical Composition of base polymers
– Compounding ingredients such as additives, colourants.
– Method of manufacturing of film(e.g. Blown Film,Cast Film, TQP processes etc.)
– Post treatments, coating and lamination
Commonly used materials for film are :-

– Polyolefin (LDPE,LLDPE,HDPE & PP)
– EVA
– PVC, PVDC & PVA
– PS
– Polyamide, Polyester &Polycarbonate
– Cellophane etc.

PROPERTIES OF FILMS
• The properties of plastic films can be classified as

• Physical Properties
• Mechanical Properties
• Chemical Properties
• Optical Properties
• Thermal Properties
• Printability
• Sealability

TESTS ON PLASTIC FILMS
• Broadly tests on plastic films and laminates can be classified as
Properties Concerned with :
– Strength: Tensile strength, Stiffness, Burst strength, Tear strength , Impact
strength, Flex Resistance
– Transmission: Water vapour Permeability Odour Permeability
Light Transmission –
• See-through Clarity or Transparency
• Gloss
• Haze
• Surface: Friction, Mar Resistance ,Blocking ,Electrostatic Charge. Heat
Salability Printability & Print Adhesion etc.

Other Properties are :
• Density
• Thickness
• Dimensional Stability
• Orientation and Shrinkage
• Melt Flow Index
• Light Resistance
• Chemical Resistance
• Solvent Resistance
• Toxicity

TENSILE STRENGTH:
• Tensile strength is an important property for the quality control of plastic films.
• Used for differentiating different types of film based on strength.
• Used to ascertain the anisotropicity in a film i.e. Different strength in different
direction (Transverse & Machine direction)
• Elongation is useful as a measure of film’s ability to stretch.

SIGNIFICANCE OF TENSILE STRENGTH
• Film should have enough tensile strength to withstand the load.
• Yield strength is important in handling on printing & lamination equipment.
• To identify the elongation of film with respect to tensile strength.

BURST STRENGTH
DEFINITION
• Resistance offered by film to a steady increasing pressure applied at right angle to
its surface.
• Pressure at the moment of failure of film is taken as the Burst strength.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BURST STRENGTH
• Measures the capacity of the film to absorb energy at the time of failure.
• Indicates the energy absorbing capacity of film.
• Brittle film which can absorb small amount of energy before breaking have low
burst strength.
EQUIPMENT :
• A film burst strength tester is used. It consists of sample clamping device, pressure
gauge and pressure releasing device, air compressor etc.

BURST STRENGTH
PROCEDURE:
• Test pressure is normally applied by compressed air. The liquid medium may
also be used. When liquid medium is used, the pressure is transmitted via a
rubber diaphragm. The film to be tested is clamp in form of disc.
• The compressed air or liquid pressure is released through pressure releasing
device.
• The pressure at the moment of failure of film of noted from the pressure
gauge.
Factors affecting burst strength: Following factor affect the burst strength of film.
Speed at which pressure is applied : At low rate of pressure application burst

strength is high.
Diameter of sample in clamp disc: Smaller the diameter of clamp disc, higher is
the burst pressure.

TEAR STRENGTH
Definition
• Tear strength is defined as the energy required to propagate a tear through a
specified length of film that has already been initiated in sample by small nick with
a razor blade. Tear resistance measures the tear initiation and tear propagation
energy.
• Generally tear of brittle film is measured as the maximum tear initiation force
whereas for tear propagation is important in tough film. Tear strength is measured
as Tear initiation and Tear propagation.
Significance
• Tear strength measures the resistance to tearing and it may also used to illustrate
the anisotropy of the film.
• Tear resistance measures the tear initiation and tear propagation energy of the
plastics film.
• Tear of brittle film is measured as the maximum tear initiation force
• Tear propagation is important in tough film.

TEAR STRENGTH
Test Methods of Tear Test : Following methods are commonly used for measuring
tear strength:
– Elemendorf of tear test
– Trouser tear
– Tongue Tear
– Initial tear resistance film and sheeting
Elemendorf of tear test

• This method measures the energy required to propagate through a specified
length of film.
Equipment
• Elemendorf tear tester consisting of two grips set side by side with small
separation, Test sample template, Razor blade, Thickness measuring devices.
• One grip is stationary and fixed with base of m/c whereas another is movable grip
and it is mounted on the pendulum of m/c.

TEAR STRENGTH
PROCEDURE
• Sample from the film is cut using sample template and Razor blade and measure
the thickness of specimen by micrometer.
• Sample is clamped between two grips and a slit of standard dimension is

introduced centrally into the film using a razor blade.
• Pendulum is released to swings down and tears the samples along a continuation
of the slit.
• The energy required to complete the tear is measured on a scale attached with
pendulum by means of a pointer carried by the pendulum on it’s return swing.

TEAR STRENGTH
Trouser & tongue tear test
• Trouser & tongue tear test is determined by using the tensile testing machine.
In this tear propagation is measured as the force necessary to keep the
moving at a fixed speed. The stress – strain curves obtained is analyzed in
different ways depending upon their shape.
• The geometry of the test piece is such that a concentration is produced in the
region of the right and the tear initiates at this point, The maximum stress
during the tearing process is recorded as the tear initiation strengths.
• The various types of samples and methods used for tear tests are as under.

TEAR STRENGTH
(a) Trouser Tear test

Test specimen as per ASTM D 1938
(b) Torque tear test

TEAR STRENGTH
FACTORS AFFECTING TEAR STRENGTH
• Generally films are anisotropy so the strength properties of film are not same
in all the direction.
• Therefore tear strength of anisotropy film depends upon the direction of

orientation. Therefore tear strength widely vary according to direction of
orientation of film. Tear strength in the direction of orientation is less than to
transverse direction.

IMPACT STRENGTH
INTRODUCTION:
• It is the ability of film to withstand sudden sock loading. This property
measures the ability of a material to absorb energy in a very short period of
time and it is closely related to toughness of the film.
• Impact resistance is also related to brittleness of film. Brittleness denotes the
lack of ductility, poor flexing properties etc.
DEFINITION:
• Impact strength of the film is defined as the amount of dart weight for a given
height of fall at which 50% of the specimen will fail.
• It is calculated by weight at which it causes 50% failure of film multiplied with
drop height
• Impact strength is measured by various methods such as Dart impact test,
Pendulum impact etc. The most commonly used method for measurement of
Impact strength is falling dart impact test.

IMPACT TEST
FALLING DART IMPACT TEST:
• Impact strength of the film is defined as the amount of dart weight for a
given height of fall at which 50 % of the specimen will fail. It is calculated by
weight at which it causes 50 % failure of film multiplied with drop height
EQUIPMENT:
• Dart impact tester consisting of hemispherical striking head fitted with a shaft
to which removable weight can be added / removed, to obtain required
range of test energy. Circular section of film is clamped horizontally at it’s
periphery and dart is dropped from a specified constant height on film
sample at the center.
• Following two methods are employed in Dart impact testing.
( a ) Stair case method
( b ) Probit method

IMPACT TEST
PROCEDURE:
• Clamp the specimen horizontally at it’s periphery and take the dart
• Initially few specimens are taken in trial run to obtain indication of impact
energy at which about 50 % failure will occur.
• The first specimen is tested at arbitrary level of dart weight at a given height
of fall and subsequent specimens are tested at half or double of this dart
weight till some specimens fracture and some withstand the impact

IMPACT TEST

IMPACT TEST
STAIR CASE METHOD
• In this method further 20 specimens are tested using same height as used in trial run
• Weight of dart is increased or decreased about one tenth of dart weight found in
trial run.
• When a specimen fractures, next specimen is tested at lower dart and when does
not fracture the next specimen is tested at higher dart weight
• The Impact strength is defined as the level of dart weight for a given height of fall at
which 50 % of specimen will fail.
• It is the mean of weight of all the values used in the test run.
ALTERNATE METHOD
• In this method impact tester is additionally fitted with two photoelectric cells just
below the test sample and the dart impact energy is adjusted in such a way that all
the test sample rupture. Original potential energy of dart is above the sample is
obtained from it’s mass and height i.e. by mgh. While residual kinetic energy after
impact is calculated using formula of ½ mv2 . The Impact energy absorbed is found as
Impact strength = Potential energy - Residual kinetic energy of film.

IMPACT TEST
PROBIT METHOD
• This method assesses impact strength of film by determining the percentage
failures in a given number of specimens with different dart weights.
• Dart weight is selected which will fracture at least one of a group of ten
specimens. The actual number of failures in ten trials is recorded.
• The dart weight is then changed by uniform increments and ten samples are
tested at each dart weight. The number of failure at each weight is recorded.
• The data are plotted on probability graph paper, the dart weights on the
linear scale and the percentage of failures on the probability scale. The
Impact strength is read as the dart weight at which 50% of specimen fails. The
impact failure weight or impact resistance expressed in grams.
• The Impact strength is read as the dart weight at which 50% if the specimen
will fail.

IMPACT TEST
PENDULUM METHOD
• In this method impact strength of film is measured by pendulum instead of falling

dart.
• Film is clamped vertically and struck by a pendulum swung from a known height.
• The residual energy of the pendulum after it has ruptured the film, is measured by
a pointer on calibrated scale of by an electric timer activated by a pair of
photoelectric cells.
• The loss in energy is a measure of impact strength of the film.

IMPACT TEST
IMPACT TEST OF FINISHED BAG
• The impact test of finished bag is done by bag drop test.
• The bags to be tested are filled with specified weight of sand or other suitable
material and sealed.
• Thus filled and sealed bags are dropped from a test height on to a right angle at
smooth surface.
• The bags is examined to see if the failure was in the seal or in the film.
FACTORS AFFECTING IMPACT STRENGTH OF FILM
• Rate of Impact load applied :
• Impact strength reduces at height rate of impact.
• Size of hemispherical head /striking head :
• Smaller hemispherical diameter of dart lower is the impact strength.
TEST TEMPERATURE :
• At higher test temp the Impact strength shown by film are higher as the molecular
mobility of polymer at higher temperature gets increased.
FLEX RESISTANCE (FOLDING ENDURANCE)
INTRODUCTION:
• Various properties of the film are seriously affected by repeated folding . For
example tensile properties are reduced, permeability to gases, water vapor
may be increased, optical properties may be affect.
DEFINITION:
• Flex resistance is defined is the Resistance to repeated flexure or creasing

measured by repeatedly folding the film backward and forward at a given rate.
The number of cycles to cause the failure is called as flex resistance.
• Higher the number of cycle of failure higher is the flex resistance.

FLEX RESISTANCE(FOLDING ENDURANCE)
TEST PROCEDURE
• Flex resistance is measured by Schopper folding endurance tester.
• The step by step procedure is as below:
• Film strip of 15 mm x 100 mm are cut.
• Strip ends are clamped between the clamps in such a way that constant
tension in the film is maintained.
• Scotted metal strip is fitted over mid point of sample.
• Sample folded by electric driven motor is back and forward at the rate of
120 double fold per minutes.
• The number of double fold at the time of failure of film is recorded as flex
resistances

• The tough and flexible film may not fail even after large number of repeated
flexing so higher thickness of film has to be taken till the failure is observed.
• Alternatively flex resistance of tough and flexible film is also measured by

subjecting the film to a number of cycles in test equipment and relevant test
results are compared with unceased film.
FACTOR AFFECTING :
• Folding endurance of film depend upon the material of the film because the
cheval difference in composition of materials.
• The thickness of film and rate of folding of film per minutes affect the result.


TROUSER TEAR TEST

PROPERTIES CONCERNED WITH TRANSMISSION
GAS PERMEABILITY
INTRODUCTION
• One of the prime functions of a packaging film is to act as a barrier to gases and
vapors. Biscuits, for example, need to be kept in dry, while conversely; cigarettes
and tobacco need to be protected from moisture loss. Fresh produce needs to
be able to lose carbon dioxide and pick up oxygen, while fatty food may go
rancid if oxygen is not kept out. Many foods are packed in a vacuum and a good
barrier is essential.
NEED OF PERMEABILITY TEST
• To maintain the film as a good barrier to gases & vapors.
• To distinguish the packaging film as per the application
(e.g. Biscuits need to be kept dry, while conversely, cigarettes and tobacco need to
be protected from moisture loss).

PERMEABILITY CO – EFFICIENT
DEFINITION
(i) Gas Transmission Rate
• The Gas Transmission Rate (GTR) is defined as the volume of gas that passes
through a sample of unit area under unit pressure differential. The rate being
determined after the slope of the transmitted volume – time curve has become
constant. The temperature and specimen thickness must also be given as an
integral part of the GTR.
(ii) Permeability Co – efficient
• The permeability Co – efficient represents the fundamental property and is
independent of the geometry of the test sample. It is the product of the solubility
of the gas in the film and the diffusion rate of the gas though the film. Gas
transmission rate is usually expression in cc(at 0C and 76 mm Hg) per sq.m 24 hr.
atm.

TRANSMISSION PROPERTIES
PERMEATION
• The mechanism by which a gas or vapor can pass from one side of a plastic film to
another by a process of solution (or absorption ) and diffusion is known as
permeation. It is a compound process.
• In very thin (i.e. porous) films the gas or vapor can flow through the holes.
• The quantity of gas(Q) passing through the film is
• Directly proportional to:
» The difference in gas pressure on either side of the film ( P1 – P2 )
» The time during which the permeation has been occurring (t)
» The exposed area A)
• Inversely proportional to: The thickness of the film(X)
• The Mathematical expression is define as:Q=[PAt(p1-p2)/X]
Where ‘P’ is the permeability constant.

• Thus it may be written as
Q = At ( P1 – P2 )
X
Where : Q = quantity of gas which passes through the film;
A = The surface area in contact with the gas;
t = time;
( P1 – P2 ) = partial pressure differential;
X = thickness of plastic
• This expression can also be put in the form of an equation, thus Q = PA t ( P1 – P2 )
X
Where P is a constant for a specific combination of gas and plastic at a given temperature.
The factor P is known as the permeability factor ( or ‘P – factor’) permeability Co –
efficient or permeability constant.

SIGNIFICANCE OF GAS PERMEABILITY
• Permeability of plastics films by gases is described as the volumetric rate of

transmission of the gas
• It is dependent on, both the nature of the plastics material and of the gas.
• Physical nature of the film, its density, degree of crystallinity thickness of the
film etc affect the transmission rate.
• Size and mobility of the gas molecules, play an important role in the rate of
transmission of gas.
• Interaction of gas and polymer film may have significant complex interaction
which affect transmission rate.


SIGNIFICANCE OF GAS PERMEABILITY
• Permeability of plastics films by gases is described as the volumetric rate of

transmission of the gas
• It is dependent on, both the nature of the plastics material and of the gas.
• Physical nature of the film, its density, degree of crystallinity thickness of the
film etc affect the transmission rate.
• Size and mobility of the gas molecules, play an important role in the rate of
transmission of gas.
• Interaction of gas and polymer film may have significant complex interaction
which affect transmission rate.

EQUIPMENT
• Gas Permeability Tester, Consisting of Vacuum pump, Micro Meter and Stop
Watch, Desiccators, The typical Equipment is shown in figure
MATERIAL : Dry and pure test gas , Mercury, Desiccators, Cacl2
TEST SPECIMEN :
• Sample, free from wrinkles, creases, pinholes and other imperfections having
uniform Thickness shall be used.
PROCEDURE:
• Equipment is prepared by filling the required quantity of mercury
• Specimens from the film is cut in the size to fit the test cell.
• Thickness of the film sample is measured and conditioned in the desiccators.
• The test specimen is placed in the test cell between filter papers for ensuring
the uniform gas distribution

• The manometer of the permeability tester is evacuated with the help of
vacuum pump,
• Equipment is connected with the test gas from the upper half of the
specimen where as lower half is maintained at vacuum.
• The transmission of the gas through the film w.r.t the time is recorded in the
terms of the fall of mercury in the manometer due to increasing of the
pressure .
• The reading is taken and suitable graph is plotted.
• GTR is calculated by using following formula T.R = (237 x PV) (24 x 104)
AxTxP
Where T.R is ml per m2 / 24 hrs per atmosphere pressure difference
P= rate of pressure changes in capillary in an Hg per hour.

ODOUR PERMEABILITY
• Odour permeability is used to compare the efficiency of several films as odour
barriers, to manufacture pouches with each film.
• Odiferous material filled with pouches and then placed in separate clean glass
bottles and sealed by clamping with aluminum foil.
• Minimum time for an odour appeared in the bottle measured.
• Test depends upon the type of odiferous material used.
• There is no standard tests for the measurement of odour permeability.

WATER VAPOUR PERMEABILITY
DEFINITION
• The water vapor transmission rate, WVTR or MVTR, is the flow rate of water
through a unit area of film after the steady state has been reached(unit- gm /
24 sq u.m).
• Film used for packing foodstuffs usually have a low water vapor permeability.
• The permeability is measured by method in which the test film is fastened
over the month of a cup containing either a desiccant or water.
EQUIPMENT
• Environmental chamber with temp. and humidity control, Desiccant, Petridis,
Cacl2, Analytical weighing balance. The apparatus is shown in figure.
PROCEDURE:
• Take a circular mouth cup, and fill water or desiccant in the cup. Cut the film
sample approximately equal to the internal diameter of the cup and seal at its
mouth

• Set the test temperature and humidity in the chamber
• Take the initial weight of the cup with sample with the desiccant on the
analytical balance.
• Place the sealed cup containing desiccant or water in the controlled
atmosphere for specified temperature and humidity.
• After a specified period the sample is removed from the chamber and again
it’s weight is taken on the balance.
• The weight gain or loss measured as a rate of water vapor transmission
through the film can be calculated.
ALTERNATE METHOD
• Another method is of measuring water vapor transmission rate is Dish
method as per BS – 2782. The equipment set-up of the same is shown in the
fig.
• The water vapor permeability may also be measured by enclosing the
desiccant in a sachet made from the film itself instead of using a dish

Fig. Apparatus for Water Vapor

Transmission

LIGHT TRANSMISSION
DEFINITION:
• Light transmission through the film is one of the important properties on the
packaging application. It allows to view the object through the packaging
material.
• It is the ratio of the light intensity measured with the film to that obtained
without it.
• Light transmission is measured by means of a photoelectric cell.
• The intensity of a light source is measured by the cell, both with and without
the inter position of the film samples.
• Other important optical properties of films are: Haze, Gloss and clarity.
– Detail about the equipment and test procedure of measurement is

described in the Optical Properties

SEE-THROUGH CLARITY OR TRANSPARENCY
DEFINITION :
• The ratio of the intensity of light to the intensity of the incident beam is a measure
of see – through clarity.
• It refers to the capability of seeing objects through a film without loss of detail
caused by blurring or distortion.
• Narrow angle scatter correlates with see – through clarity.
• The test measures the light transmitted by a film within a cone of semi – angle of
three minutes about the normal to the specimen.
– Detail about the equipment and test procedure of measurement is described
in the Optical Properties

HAZE
DEFINITION
• Haze is the property often referred to as cloudy appearance.
• Haze is defined as the percentage of light which is passing through a specimen,

deviates by more than 2.5 on average from an incident parallel beam.
• It is caused by random scatter of incident light upon film.
• This is measured using a haze – meter.
• The ratio of the scattered light (T2) of the photo cell to the incident light (T1) is a
measure of haze. i.e
% Haze = (T2/T1) x 100
 Detail about the equipment and test procedure of measurement is described in

the Optical Properties

GLOSS
DEFINITION
• Gloss refers to the shining appearance of a plastic film
• It is defined as the ability of a surface to reflect light regularly.
• Secular surfaces gloss of the film is measured as the portion of light reflected from
the film at an angle of 45o. This is compared with a perfect mirror which is given a
value of 100.
• The maximum value of gloss for low density polyethylene is about 9.9 %.
– Detail about the equipment and test procedure of measurement is described

in the Optical Properties

CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
FRICTION: The resisting force that arises when a surface of one substance slides over
an adjoining surface of it-self or another substance.
SLIP : Lubricity of two surfaces sliding in contact with each other is called slip.
• High co – efficient of friction denotes low slip and low co – efficient of friction
denotes high slip.
Co – efficient of friction :- It is defined as the ratio of frictional force to the force
( usually gravitational ) acting perpendicular to the two surfaces in contact.
• Two types of Co – efficient of friction i.e
– Static Co – efficient of friction ( μs )
– Kinetic or dynamic or sliding Co – efficient of friction ( μ k )

STATIC CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
• It is related to the force measured to begin the movement of the surface relative
to each other.
• It is defined as the ratio of force required to just begin the movement to the force
acting perpendicular to the surface.
μs = Force required to begin movement

Force acting perpendicular to surface

KINETIC CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
• It is related to the force measured for sustaining the movement .
• It is defined as the ratio of the force required to sustain or maintain

movement to the force acting perpendicular to surface.
μk = Average force required to sustain movement

Force acting perpendicular to surface
• Generally the force required to begin movement is more than force required
for sustaining movement. Therefore static Co – efficient of friction is generally
higher of friction than Kinetic Co – efficient of frictions

SIGNIFICANCE OF CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION
• The frictional properties of films are important in winding while

manufacturing of film, during it’s printing,wrapping and in the form of
finished bags, sacks or over wraps etc.
• Good roll formation depends upon correct level of friction of film.
• Too much slip may cause telescoping during of rolling,handing and

transportation.
• Too little can cause buckling on roll.
• The inadequate slip may cause seizure of film during printing.

TEST PROCEDURE FOR CO-EFFICIENT
OF FRICTION
• Co – efficient of friction is measured by following two methods.

– Inclined plane method.
– Method based on ASTMD 1894

(A) INCLINED PLANE METHOD
STATIC CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION:
• The inclined plane method is simplest method of measuring Co – efficient of
friction. Under this method surface of inclined plane is covered by a sample
of film and weight is placed on the plane The angle of the plane is increased
slowly until weight just start to move. The angle at which it starts moving is
noted. This angle is called repose angle. It is denoted by Q1.
DYNAMIC CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION:
• For measuring dynamic Co – efficient of friction the angle of plane at which
weight moves easily is gradually reduced until weight comes to rest. The
angle of the plane at this stage is noted as Q2. The Tan Q1 and Tan Q2 are the
static and dynamic Co – efficient of friction

(B) METHOD BASED ON ASTM D 1894

• The apparatus based on this method consist of metal block ( sled ) of about
63.5 , square and 6mm thick . Sled is wrapped with rubber sheet to provide
wrinkle free surface. The total weight of sled is 200 ± 5g. It is wrapped and
tape of with film.
• A table of wood / plastics / metal sheet of Apex 150 mm X 300 mm x 1 mm is
fitted with smooth and flat covering glass on the upper surface to provide
support for the specimen. This table with sled is motor driven at the rate of
150 mm / min.
– The further detail of the equipment and procedure is described in the

chapter Mechanical Properties.
BLOCKING
DEFINITION:
• The tendency of two adjacent layers of films to stick together when stacked
under pressure is called blocking. It is an adhesion between touching layers of
plastic film. The blocking develops under variety of condition of temperature
and pressure. Blocking may also arise from processing, under usage or in
storage.
• The blocking in film may occur when film surfaces are extremely smooth or
allowing intimate contact of film surfaces under complete exclusion of air. It
may also occur under fusion of the surfaces under heat and pressure.
• The force required to separate two layers of blocked film when the force is
applied perpendicularly to surface determines the degree of blocking.

BLOCKING
BLOCKING FORCE:
• It is the average force per unit width of blocked surface required to separate
two layers of plastic film one from another by a rod of 6.35 mm diameter at
uniform rate of 125 mm / min. This force is expressed in grams per centimeter
of width.
TEST SPECIMEN
• Test specimens of film consists two blocked layers cut in rectangular shape.
The size of specimen is taken as 250 – 300 mm long and 200 – 250 mm wide.
EQUIPMENT
• An universal testing m/c, a metal fixure and a rod of 6.35 mm diameter is
used for separating the blocked film

BLOCKING
PROCEDURE:
• Metal fixure is attached with moving jaw of Universal Testing M/C. Specimen
to be tested is clamped in fixed jaw as shown in figure. Machine is started and
blocked surfaces are separated at rate of about 125 mm / min. As the jaw
moves it draws the frame and rod downward.
• The motions of rod cause layers of film separate. The force required to
separate the layers of film apart is recorded. This process continues until
layers of film are completely separated.
• The Actual blocking force is determined from best average load line. The
average load in grams is divided by specimen width in mm. It is expressed in
gmf / mm

BLOCKING TEST

BLOCKING TEST
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• The following factor affects the blocking of film.

• Thickness of the film: Low thickness of film has higher tendency of blocking
• Static charges, Surface treatment, Printing, Pre – treatment, Storage condition etc
also affect the blocking.
• Long storage duration increases the tendency of blocking.

BLOCKING TEST
HEAT SEALABILITY
• Heat sealability of the packaging film is one of the most important properties
when considering its use for wrapping and bag making. Therefore the
integrity of the seal has the tremendous, important in ultimate package.
TEST METHOD:
• The following two methods are commonly used for testing of heat salability
of film.
(A) Dynamic method
(B) Static method
In above test methods two layers of film are sealed under heat and pressure
using suitable heat sealing device. A 25 mm wide strip is cut through the heat
seal. This test sample is used for testing by both methods.

BLOCKING TEST
(A) DYNAMIC METHOD
• Under dynamic test method a sensitive tensile testing m/c is used. The two
free ends of film strip are clamed in machine grip and pulled a part. The force
required to peel apart the two pieces is measured.
(B) STATIC METHOD
• In static method one end of filmstrip is clamped and hung from a frame and
other end is attached to a dead weight. The seal are examined at a regular
interval of time for any sign of failure. The weight and duration of load, which
was hung, is taken upto failure and recorded.
• The heat salability of the film is affected by sealing temperature and rate of
heat transfer of sealing and dwell time.
MAR RESISTANCE
• It may be defined as the resistance of the surface to abrasive action of
abrasive particles. The following three methods are used for measuring Mar
resistance.

BLOCKING TEST
METHOD I:
• This method is based on AST MD – 1044 – 76. The surface of the specimen is
subjected to an abrasive action and then the light scattering properties of the
abraded area are determined and compared to those of the original unmarred
sample.
METHOD II:
• This method is based on ASTMD– 673 the film surface is abraded by dropping
abrasive particles on to the film from a fixed height. The gloss of the marred area is
measured and Compared to the unabraded film to determine the mar resistance.
METHOD III:
• This method is based on ASTM D – 1242 – 75 surface of film is abraded in a
standard way and the volume of material lost by the specimen due to this abrasive
action is determined. The loss in volume is taken as a measure of the abrasion
resistance.
PRINTABILITY AND PRINT ADHESION
• Printability depends directly on film treatment and while its print adhesion depends
on both ink and film.

BLOCKING TEST
PRINTABILITY
• A method for measuring the printability or degree of treatment of film
measures, the force required to peel a strip of pressure sensitive tape from a
section of film. The tape is applied to the film and the assembly is clamped
together for a standard time under standard pressure. Any suitable machine
measures peeling force with an autographic recording device.
PRINT ADHESION
• The Permanence of the printing on the film is measured by subjecting the
printed film to an abrasion test. For testing, the Printed film is mounted in
glass plate and abraded forwards and backwards against metal peg covered
with a strip of standard fabric. The no of cycles required to produce visible
damage to the print is recorded as print adhesion.

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
INTRODUCTION:
• Dimensional stability is a desirable property in film conversion process particularly
in printing. The small changes in film dimension while passing through printing
process may lead to serious printing problem.
PROCEDURE:
• Dimensional stability of film is carried out by cutting film strips in both machine
and transverse directions. Film is subjected it to varying conditions and noted the
percentage change in dimensions. The test conditions are kept very close to the
conditions likely to be encountered during conversion or end – use process.
• The maximum shrinkage is measured in the case of heat shrink films. This is
determined by immersing the marked film samples for 5 minutes in water or in
silicones oil at 1000 C.

LIGHT RESISTANCE
INTRODUCTION:
• Plastic films exposed to sunlight for long period properties and performance of the
film is affected as UV radiation raises the surface of temperature of film. UV radiation
and heat causes the oxidation reaction, evaporation of plasticizers, polymer bond,
chain scission etc This leads to brittlement of film, color change, loss of clarity of film
surface, imperfections, and reduction of strength properties etc.
PROCEDURE:
• This test is carried out by exposing the film samples in weather-O- meter or UV
Chamber. In weather-O-meter light of suitable wavelength or combination of
wavelength is artificially created with the help of UV lamp fitted in the chamber and
sample is exposed to UV light for a given time.
• The film samples are taken out and test for various parameter such as tensile
strength, % elongation, impact strength and various optical properties etc. is carried
out . The result obtained is compared with the result of original unexposed samples.
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
INTRODUCTION
• The effect of chemicals on a packaging film is an important factor when assessing
its suitability for packaging a particular product. Under certain circumstances, it
may also be important from an environmental point of view. Therefore
measurement of chemical resistance is an important property of films.
DEFINITION
• Chemical resistance involves the subjecting of film sample to the chemical under
test. Test sample are immersed in chemical under a specified condition. The
change in appearance and in property such as tensile strength, transmission
properties and other are co – related with the chemical resistance of the film.

HEAT SHRINKAGE
DEFINITION
• Heat shrinkage is defined as the dimensional changes of film due to heating and
subsequent cooling.
• Some products are packed in the film package in the hot condition. This raises the
temperature of film material, and on cooling stress reliving takes places. This
causes the dimensional changes.
PROCEDURE:
• Heat shrinkage is determined by immersing marked film sample in water or silicon
oil at 100oC for five minutes and measuring the dimensional changes in with
respect to original marking. It is expressed in percentage.

CONTAINER
TESTING

PURPOSE OF CONTAINERS
Plastics containers are commonly used
To check suitability of container for packaging of food-stuff, liquid, semi-solid and

solid materials
Transportation, handling, storage and sales of of materials
Provide protection during conservation
Preventing from contaminations and maintaining hygienic conditions
Quality control of the containers

COMMONLY USED MATERIALS FOR
CONTAINER
Following materials are used packaging of different kinds of materials
• Polyethylene(HDPE,LDPE,LLDPE)
• Polypropylene(PP)
• Polystyrene(PS)
• Polyvinyl chloride(PC)
• Thermoplastic polyester (PET)

MATERIAL SELECTION REQUIRMENT FOR
PLASTIC CONTAINERS
• Easy Process ability
• Good Chemical Resistance
• Good Impact strength.
• Inertness
• Heat stability
• Good Environmental Stress Cracking Resistance

COMMON TEST ON CONTAINERS
• Following tests are most commonly • Handle pull test

carried out on containers • Environmental-Stress cracking
• Stacking Test Resistance
• Drop Impact Test • Transparency
• Leakage Test • Overall Migration Test
– Closure leakage test • Ink adhesion for printed containers
– Vibration Leakage • Product Resistance of printed
– Air Pressure Leakage containers
• Transparency
• Water potability Test

STACK TEST
DEFINITION :
• Stacking is subjecting the plastics containers to a specified load based on the
the capacity of the containers for a specified period of time.
• Significance of the test : To check the ability of the filled containers to

withstand compression loads when the containers are stacked over another
set of containers during the transportation and storage. When the filled
containers the setup
• If the stiffness and strength of container is inadequate the compressive load

of filled container may permanently deform or buckle the container and
content may leak

STACK TEST
PROCEDURE
• Block of four containers are taken and used in a

single test.
• Fill the containers with water to their nominal Container’s Stack load on
capacity Nominal the four
• close with their usual closure and heat seal at the capacity (Kg) containers (N)
mouth. 1.0 400
• Arrange four containers on a flat level surface 2.0 600
without any outer support.
5.0 800
• Apply a top load on the container for 24 hrs in such a
10.0 1200
way that it is evenly distributed on the containers.
15.0 1600
• Superimposed load for different sizes of containers
shall be as under
• Examined the containers after 24 hrs of the test for
any leakage, crack and permanent buckling etc.
• The container should not show any leakage, crack
and permanent buckling etc.
DROP IMPACT TEST
• This test measures the ability of the containers to withstand damage to the
container and packing material caused by sudden shock induced in accidental
dropping, rough handling, transportation etc.
• This test also provides useful information in improving the design of the
containers.
• The test is carried out by dropping the preconditioned sample freely from a
specified height which is filled with suitable material in it.
• The sample strikes the base in a predetermined position. The sample should
resist the impact.

TEST PROCEDURE
Take 6 nos. of containers and divide in to two sets and designate Set – I & Set – II.
Fill the containers with water to their nominal capacity at standard conditions
Close the containers with there usual closure and heat sealed to its mouth.
Drop the containers of set – I under free fall condition squarely on their base on
the rigid flat horizontal surface from the specified height.
Drop the containers of set – II under free fall condition on their side on to a rigid flat
horizontal surface from the specified height.
Specified drop height for different capacity of containers varies from 0.5 m to 1.2 m
Checked the each container for any ruptured , leakage from the wall or closure.
There shall be no ruptured, leakage from the wall or closure

LEAKAGE TEST
Leakage may occur due to the top load of the packed product, transportation
vibration or leakage because of internal pressure developed inside container.
Leakage test is carried out to check the defects in the closure system of the
container.
Generally three types of leakage test are conducted on plastics containers
i) Closure Leakage
ii) Vibration Leakage
iii) Air Pressure Leakage Test
Air pressure leakage test is carried out by maintaining the specified pressure
inside container and detecting any leakage with water or soap solution.

I. CLOSURE LEAKAGE TEST
Closure leakage test is carried out by placing filled container in inverted

position at a specified condition.
PROCEDURE :
Take a container and fill it to it’s nominal capacity with colored water or
material to be packed at specified condition,
Close the container with it’s usual closure
Keep the container in an inverted position on a white blotting paper without
any external support for a specified period.
Examine the container for any leakage for any visible stains on the blotting
paper.
The container should not show any leakage or stain on blotting paper.

VIBRATION LEAKAGE
• Vibration leakage test is carried out on filled containers by subjecting a specified

vibrational frequency for a specified time period.
PROCEDURE
• Take containers and fill it to their nominal capacity with water at specified
condition,
• Close the containers with their usual closure
• Containers are subjected to the vibration on the vibration tester at a specified
frequency and peak acceleration for predetermined time.
• At the end of the test closures are observed for any leakage
• The container should not show any leakage.

VIBRATION TESTER

AIR PRESSURE LEAKAGE TEST
Air pressure leakage test is carried out by maintaining the specified pressure
inside container and detecting any leakage with water or soap solution.
This test is carried out for particular type of containers such as mineral
water bottle.
PROCEDURE
Take a container to be tested and connect to the container by tightly fitting
the rubber plug in the mouth of container
Emerge the container in the water reservoir or soap solution for detecting
any leakage by bubbles of air escaping through the water.
Regulate the air with the help of air pressure valve
Observe any leakage by bubbles of air escaping through the water or soap
solution

HANDLE PULL TEST
 Handles are generally provided larger size of container (5 Ltrs and above) for easy
handling.
 Handle pull test is carried out to check the ability of the handle to bear the weight
of the filled containers.
PROCEDURE
Take the container and fill it with suitable material equal to the double of nominal
capacity or specified load.
Hang the above filled container to a vertical pull from a fixed point for the
specified period.
After the specified period check for any damage to the handle or the hinge.
The handle or hinge should not show any damage

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CHECKING
RESISTANCE
The plastic containers used for packing and storage of various chemicals,
detergent and other surface active substances which may cause cracking to the
container.
Plastics containers may exhibit mechanical failure by cracking under condition

of internal or external or combination of stresses in the presence of
environments such as soaps, wetting agents, oil, detergent, heat etc.
test is carried out by keeping the specimen in contact with chemical active
agent under specified condition of temperature & time.
Specimen are checked for any cracking or surface irregularities

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CHECKING
RESISTANCE
PROCEDURE
• Take about 15 containers and fill with test liquid their nominal capacity
• Heat seal with the laminate and close with usual closure
• Put the containers in plastic bag in vertical position and close by means of rubber
band .
• Place the container in the oven at the test temperature
• Inspect the container for environmental cracking failure after an interval of 24 hrs.
• Remove the failed container and record it’s failure and time.
• Continue the test with remaining container until all fail or to a maximum of 360 hrs.
• Calculate the percentage of failure using following formula
Failure % = (n/N) X 100,
Where, n = Number of containers failed at a given time
N = Number of containers Tested

OVERALL MIGRATION
DEFINITION
• Migration is the mass transfer

(transport) of material from
plastic( packaging ) in contact with food
under the specified condition is called
Migration.
• When plastic & foods come in contact

the constituents which may be
transported are monomer, oligomer,
additives such as plasticizers, stabilizers,
antioxidant, slip agent, antistatic agent
etc. present in the material.
• Accumulation of toxic materials from

plastic may lead to contamination of
food hazards and may cause serious ill
effects. Corporate Training & Planning 151
TYPE OF MIGRATION
There are two types of migrations
1) Specific migration
2) Overall/Global migration
Specific migration : Where the migration of as single chemical species is measured

that is called specific migration.
Overall/Global migration : Where the total migration of all species migrating is

measured
Migration varies with time and is influence by the temperature

MECHANISM OF MIGRATION
Migration operate in two ways
1. Mass transfer from plastic package into food in physical contact with it, causing
contamination, adulteration, diffusion and leaching.
Example: Plasticizers can migrate into the food from plastic film/ container to
the point where the containers/film becomes brittle
2. Negative/ reverse migration: is the mass transfer from food into an external
acceptor in physical contact with it causing the change in the composition of
food leading to adverse effects.
Example : By negative migration lipids can migrate from oily food into packaging
or conveyor belts to cause structural damage.

MIGRATION
Two different situations

MIGRATION
Over all migration test of plastics is carried out by

placing sample in contact with suitable simulants
at specified condition and time (as given in IS:
9845:98.)
 Extraction cell is used for migration

test of cut pieces from larger size
containers
 Tested simulants are evaporated

and extractive/residue is calculated
in mg/dm2 or mg/ltrs or mg/kg or ppm.
Extraction Cell

CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD
AND SELECTION OF SIMULANT
S. No. Type Description Examples Simulants
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
i I Aqueous non acidic food Honey mineral water, sugar syrups, ‘A’
(pH>5) without fat molasses, skimmed milk, rasgulla,
infusions, murabba, yeast paste etc.
ii II Aqueous, acidic food (pH 5) Fruit juices, squashes, fruit chunks or ‘B’
without fat puree or paste, vinegar, jams, jellies,
carbonated beverages,
lemonade,processed vegetables, rennet,
preparations of soups, broths, sauces, RTS
beverages etc.
iii III Alcoholic beverages : Beer and some pharmaceuticals syrups ‘C1’
i) Alcohol concentration
less than 10 percent Wine, brandy, whiskey, arrack and other
ii) Alcohol concentration alcoholic drinks ‘C2 ’
above 10 percent
CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD
AND SELECTION OF SIMULANT
Sl. Type Description Examples Simulants
No.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
iv IV Oil facts and processed by Vegetable oils, ghee, vanaspati, cocoa ‘D’
foods with surface fat or butter, lard, biscuits, spice powder,
volatile oil snacks and savory, chocolate, caramels,
malted foods, egg powder, tea, coffee
powder, confectionary, fried and roasted
nuts etc.
v V No acidic foods (pH> 5) or Butter, bread, pastry, shriek and with low ‘ A and B’
high fat and having high cakes, milk based sweets, ice-cream,
moisture content moist and fatty confectionary products.
vi VI Acidic foods (pH<5) or high Pickles, ketchup, chees, with low curd, ‘ B and D’
fat and having high moisture fresh and rocessed meat and fish
content products, sauces having fat, froen foods,
mayannaise etc.
vii VII Dry processed foods without Cereals and pulses, dehydrated vegitable No end test
fat and fruits, dried yeast, com flakes, salt,
sugar, milled products, barley powder,
oats, vermicelli, spaghetti etc.

SIMULATING SOLVENTS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOODS
AND TEMPERATURE – TIME CONDITIONS
10% 50%
Water 3 % Acetic
S.N Type of Alcohol Alcohol N-Hepten
Conditions of use (Time- Acid (Time-
o. Food (Time- (Time- (Time-Temp)
Temp) Temp)
Temp) Temp)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
i) High temperature heat I,II,IV, 1210C 1210C -- -- 660C for 2 h
sterilized (Retorting) V & VI 2h 2h
ii) Hot filled or pasteurized I,II,IV, 1000C 1000C -- -- 490C for 30

above 660C, below 1000 C V & VI 2h 2h minutes
iii) Hot filled or pasteurized I to VI 700C 700C 700C 700C 380C for 30
below 660C 2h 2h 2h 2h minutes
iv) Room temperature filled and -do- 400C 400C 400C 400C -do-
stored (no thermal treatment 10 days 10 days 10 days 10 days
in container) and also in
refrigerated and frozen
condition
SIMULANTS
Migration test is carried out using the following simulants
• Simulant ‘A’ - Distilled water or water of equivalent quality.

• Simulant ‘B’ - 3 percent acetic acid (w/v) in aqueous soluion
(using the simulant ‘A’)
• Simulant ‘C1’ - 10 percent ethanol (v/v) in aqueous solution less than 10% (v/v)
• Simulant ‘C2‘ - 50 % ethanol (v/v) in aqueous solution for foodstuffs having
alcohol more than 10 percent and less than 5 % (v/v)
• Simulant ‘D’ - n-heptane - shall be freshly distilled before use.
• Simulant ‘E’ - Rectified olive oil or mixture of synthetic triglycerides sunflower
oil

SAMPLE SIZE AND TEST EXPOSURE AREA OF
DIFFERENT SIZE & TYPES OF PRODUCTS
Sl. No. Method Product Description Sample Size

1. Method-I Finished container (within 2 liters) Area of exposure is 1000
or sealable single multi-layered cm2(in case of films 2
flexible films (one side exposure) pouches of size 125 x
200mm)
2. Method-II Large containers > 2 ltrs capacity, Area of exposure – 5 pieces

of size 10 cm x 10 cm
3. Method-III Both side exposure for film, which
can not be heat sealed
4. Method-IV Closures, sealing gaskets Area of exposure – 10 cm2
or ten lids.
5. Method-V Materials intended to come in

repeated contact with food stuff
PROCEDURE
Following procedure is followed:
• Select appropriate simulant, test method and test conditions as applicable from
the above referred list
• Select the appropriate size of sample from container/ film etc.
• Fill the container with simulant to it’s capacity and close with it’s closure
• Place the filled container in air oven at specified temperature and time
• In case of large size of container cut pieces each of size 10cm x 10 cm are taken
so that test exposure area is is 1000 cm2
• Take specified quantity of simulant in extraction cell as shown above
• Dip the test pieces in simulant and cover with lead and place with hot oven at
specified temperature and time

PROCEDURE
• Remove the test pieces and transfer content of the extractive cell in clean
pyrex beaker and evaporate to 50ml
• Then transfer in petri dish and evaporate in hot air oven
• After complete evaporation remove from oven, cool to room temperature.
• Weigh petri dish with residue to the accuracy of 0.1 mg.
• Calculate amount of extractive in mg/dm2 or mg/ ltr or ppm using formula
• Extractive amount(Ex) : M/A x 100 mg/dm2 or

: M/V x 11000 mg/kg or mg/ltr or ppm. or
Where, M = mass of residue in mg minus blank sample residue
A = Total surface Area in cm2 exposed in each replicate
V = Total volume in ml. of simulant used in each replicate

INK ADHESION FOR PRINTED CONTAINERS
SIGNIFICANCE: This test indicates the adhesion characteristics of the container to the
ink used for printing of product details and information's on containers such as
capacity, content, manufacturing, packaging date and other instructions about
product. These information's are vital for the consumers till the product is used and
disposed.
• This test is carried out by applying transparent pressure sensitive tape on to the
printed area, then slowly remove and checked for removal of printed matter for
container.
PROCEDURE
• Take container and apply 25mm wide transparent pressure sensitive tape on
printed area one around circumference another long the height of container
• Press tape firmly on container and leave for 15 second
• Remove tape by pulling slowly @1 cm/sec. From one end at 900 container surface
• There shall no removal of print from the surface of the container

PRODUCT RESISTANCE TEST
Significance : When the Product comes in contact of printed matter of container under
rubbing action at normal or high temperature there may be removal of printed
matter. Thus the information about the product may be lost.
• This test is carried out by smearing the printed area of the container with product
and left for the specified time.
• Subsequently, the container is washed and rubbed with hard tissue paper and
checked for any significant removal of printed matter from the container.
PROCEDURE
• A section of the container from the printed area is cut and smeared on the printed
area , with the product at 40 + 20C and then left for 1 hr.
• The smeared section of the container is washed with cold water
• Again the section of the container is rubbed firmly with hard tissue paper ten times.
• Then the surface of the section is checked for any significant removal of the print
from the surface
• There shall be no removal of printed matter from the surface

TRANSPARENCY TEST
DEFINITION & SIGNIFICANCE

• Transparency of material is defined as the extent to which light is transmitted
through it so as to render an object placed beyond it visible.
• This test is generally applicable for the containers used for packaging of
Natural mineral water and packaged drinking water, baby feed bottle etc.
Mineral water are needed to be viewed clearly from outside of the containers
for any foreign suspended particles level, of content etc.
• Minimum light required transparency in the container is 85%

PROCEDURE
• The integrated ball type light transmission apparatus is used
• Test pieces of 50 mm x 50mm are cut from container
• The white standard plate is installed and reading(T1) of current meter device
is adjusted to 100 by incident light.
• Installed the test specimen in place of white standard plate and measure the
current meter reading as (T2).
• The transmittance is calculated by the following formula T =( T1/ T2) x 100
Where, T = full light transmittance , (%)
• The Transparency of a container shall be not less than 85% in light
transmittance.

INTEGRATED BALL TYPE TRANSPARENCY TESTER

WATER PORTABILITY TEST
SIGNIFICANCE :
These test is carried out to check the suitability of the container and material for
packaging and storing of drinking water for the human consumption
When the water is stored in the container for a longer period it may acquire some
unpleasant, bitter taste or smell concentration of some odiferous substances.
PROCEDURE :
• Five containers are filled to its nominal capacity by mineral water and closed
tightly with closure
• Keep at 38 + 2 0C in air oven for 30 days
• Two containers are opened and examined at regular interval for any disagreeable
odour or smell.
• At the end specified period, after 30 days the water is checked for any
unpleasant odour or taste.

WOVEN SACKS
TESTING

WOVEN SACKS TESTING
• Advantages of Woven sacks over conventional sacks
» Light weight
» High production rate & hence cost effective
» High strength Vs wt ratio
» Good permeable resistance
» Non biodegradable
» Good chemical inertness
» Good printability, easy & wide colourability
• Materials are used : Raffia grade of HDPE/PP is used

MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF WOVEN SACKS
• Film is produced by blown film /cast process which is subsequently slit in desired
width by slitting process
• Slit film is heated approximately to softening temp over hot plate or in the air oven
and stretch in lengthwise direction to achieve high orientation in the lengthwise
direction.
• From those tapes fabric are weaved.
• For packaging of fertilizers, powdered chemicals, pesticides or other hygroscopic
materials fabric is coated with a thin layer of LDPE/PP material generally of order
of 25 micron thickness.
• From these fabrics bags of various sizes are prepared by stitching with the tape of
about 20% higher denier.
• Thus the quality of the woven sack depends on tape, fabric and stitching
• Therefore the quality control test is necessary to performed of (a) Tapes, (b)
Woven fabrics and (c) Woven bags.

TESTS
S.No. On Tape Fabric Sack Bag
1. Identification of material 1. Capacity & dimension
1. Width of the tape 2. Mass
2. Thickness of the tape 3. Ends & picks per dm
3. Linear density 4. Distance between two rows of stitches
(a) Linear 5. Seam depth
(b) Text 6. No. & type of stitches
4. Tenacity 7. Hammed width of sack mouth
5. Breaking load & tenacity 8. Thickness of loose liner
6. Heat Shrinkage 9. Liner width & bottom seam
10 UV resistance
11 Mass of bale of sacks
DETERMINATION OF LINEAR DENSITY
(DENIER & TEX) OF HDPE/PP TAPE
DEFINITION
 It is the mass certain length of the tape and expressed in either in denier or Tex.
 Denier : It is the mass in gms of 9000mtrs length tape.
• Tex : It is the mass in gms of 1000 mtrs length tape
SIGNIFICANCE
• Determination of linear density is useful for control of mass obtained and it’s
uniformity through out the bag. It is used for quality control of the yarn.
Apparatus
• Denier or micro balance capable of measuring the mass to the accuracy.
• Measuring tape, Wrap reel.
• Drying oven capable of maintaining temp. of 105 ± 30C.
• Desiccator with suitable desiccant.
Test Specimen
• Take suitable length of tape in multiple of 1m for tex & 9m for diner measurement by
wrap reel
DETERMINATION OF LINEAR DENSITY
(DENIER & TEX) OF HDPE/PP TAPE
PROCEDURE • Take tape of suitable length having a
• For determination of denier mass at least 100 micro gram.
• Set temperature of oven as 105 ± 30C • Weigh on microbalance accurately in
and allow to maintain grams.
• Cut the suitable length of tape and • Multiply the required factor to achieve
condition of air oven maintained 1050C the mass of the test for 9000 m length.
till it achieve the constant mass. • For determination of Tex.
• Use the denier and micro balance as • Take tape of 10m length duly condition
may be the case in the air oven at 1050C.
Using Denier balance : Take a tape of 90cm • Measure the length accurately by
length & measures its length accurately. measuring tape by applying pre-
Place on the denier balance. tension of 0.5N/tex.
• The denier balance will give the denier • Take the mass and microbalance
directly. Using micro Microbalance
• Result : The linear density to the
specification on requirements

FACTORS AFFECTING DENIER
The following factors affect the variation in the Denier
– High melt flow index material.
– Uneven heating on hot plate.
– Uneven stretch of tape
– Variation in heating temp. of barrel & dies.
– Uneven width of spacer
– Tight winding at winding stations.
– Linear density varies due to
– Initial film thickness or
– Improper orientation of tape
– Temperature variation during manufacturing and stretching
process.

DETERMINATION OF UV RESISTANCE OF
WOVEN SACKS.
DEFINITION : APPARATUS
• It may be defined as the ability of woven • UV tester fitted with fluorescent lamp
sack to retain it’s breaking load after type B
exposure to UV radiation under specified • Capable of maintaining temp of 50 to
condition and duration in UV radiation. 600C in heating & cooling mode.
• Fitted with temperature, humidity
SIGNIFICANCE
and UV sensing device.
• In certain packaging application packed
• Capable of programming and run
HDPE/PP woven bag are retained for long
according test programme.
duration in out door weather condition.
Due to UV radiation the detoriation of • Specimen rack for exposure to UV.
physical properties the load carrying • Tensile testing machine of suitable
capacity of woven bag declines. Thus this capacity.
test is useful for quantity control, R&D • Testing fixture for holding test
development and characterisation of sample.
material • Steel rule/ measuring tape.

DETERMINATION OF UV RESISTANCE OF
WOVEN SACKS.
TEST SPECIMEN • Continue this test cycle for 144 hrs.
• Cut pieces of 32 x 5 cm : 10nos and • After 24 hrs take out the test pieces
divide in two sets from the UV chamber.
• Procedure • Conduct the tensile test in the tensile
testing machine and find out the
• Set the UV test programme in the UV
breaking load of test pieces before
tester such as to run the machine 8
and after UV exposure
hrs at 800C with UV radiation.
Alternating with 4 hrs at 500 C with • Compare the breaking load before
condensation. and after UV exposure
• Take one set of test pieces for UV • Result : The percentage retention of
exposure breaking load after UV exposure
should not be less than 50% of
• Expose the test specimen to UV light
unexposed
alternatively to the condensation.

DETERMINATION OF TENACITY AND
ELONGATION OF RAFFIA TAPE
Definition : It is the breaking load of tape divided by the linear density of
unstrained material. It is usually expressed in g/ tex
Significance : Testing of the tape determines the capabilities of woven sack to
take-up the load of the bag when it is handled in the filled condition during
real life application.
Apparatus
• Tensile testing machine capable of measuring breaking load accurately to 10
Newton and stretching of the test sample at the rate of 300±15mm/minute.
The machine should be provided with.
• Suitable clamp for holding sample mechanically or pneumatically without
damaging the test price at clamp point.
• Machine shall be capable to adjust any distance between clamps.
• Machine shall be capable to provide pre-tension of 0.5±1 N/tex to test
specimen when clamped.
• Capable to record the load and extensions.
• Denier or Microbalance.
PROCEDURE
• Determined the linear density of the tape using denier balance or microbalance.
• Calculate the pre-tension load equal 0.5N/ tex
• Cut ten test specimen of about 500mm long.
• Set a distance of 250±2 mm between clamps in machine.
• Clamp the test specimen between grips and light mechanically or pneumatically.
• Apply pre-tension of 0.5 N/ tex using simple tension device.
• Set the test speed in the machine.
• Stretch the tape between two grips at the rate of 300±15 mm/min to its rupture.
• Record the breaking load is N and elongation in mm.
• Open both clamps and remove the broken pieces.
• Repeat the same procedure for other test pieces

SAFETY
• Set limit switches of tensile testing machine within operating range.
• Apply accurate pre-tension on the sample.
• Determine linear density of tape/fibre.
CALCULATION:
• Calculate the tex and tenacity of tape using following formula Tex = 100 X 10m
L
Where, M= Mass of specimen in gm.; L = Length of tape
Tenacity = Mean breaking load N

Mean linear density in tex.

FACTORS AFFECTING TENACITY
The following factors are affecting the tenacity of the tape :-
• Type and intensity of cooling after extrusion
• Degree of orientation of molecules during drawing
• Presence of nucleating agent in the material.
• Stretch ratio: Tenacity increases with increase in stretch ratio.
• Type of film & tape manufacturing process i.e. cast or blown process.
• Up to a certain limit tenacity increases with increase in stretch temp. & the starts
decreasing.

AVERAGE BREAKING STRENGTH
& ELONGATION OF FABRIC
• Breaking strength of fabric signifies the load carrying capacity of bag in the filled
condition.
• Test is performed on test sample of size 325 x 60 mm cut from the woven sacks .
• Samples are preconditioned tensile strength test is conducted in tensile tester /

UTM taking gauge length 200 mm. The rate of separation is set to the value so that
the breaking should occur between 20+3 seconds of test starting. Percentage
elongation calculated by measuring the distance between grips at the time of
break against the gauge length. The Tenacity is the important term related with
the breaking strength.

PLASTIC FLOORING
MATERIALS USED FOR FLOORINGS:
INTRODUCTION
• Polyvinyl Chloride (mostly used)
• When replacement of conventional • Polystyrene (wall tile application)
material by plastic material has • Thermo set Epoxy
started, the trend has also splashed
the sector of flooring & wall tiling. ADVANTAGES OF FLOORING:
Mainly the applications are in train, • Fast and clean installation
office decoration; shopping mal etc. • Available in various color, texture,
apart from these numerous shades and printed form
advantageous properties of various • Water repellant
polymers has brought their • Self extinguishing in nature
acceptance in coating application • Good abrasion and scratch resistance
over conventional materials, • Dust free
including coating over floor & walls. • Noise absorbing

COLOR & FINISH
TESTS ON FLOORING
Generally following tests are important for the flooring and tiles. It is described as
below:
• The floorings are available in variety of color and textures and as per the
aesthetic requirement of the products. So to conform the aesthetic
requirements and to the requirement of the specification this test is important.
This is the visual observation as per the agreement by the purchases & the
supplier. In case of plain tiles there should be uniform color distribution whereas
for mottled tiles the color should be randomly distributed

PLASTIC FLOORING
DIMENSION & TOLERANCE
• When the tiles are to be pasted on the floor, the dimensional uniformity is mostly
required to avoid the mismatching or gap between them. Generally the tiles are
produced in the standard dimension of 200 & 250 mm square and thickness such
as 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 & 3.0 mm etc.
• The length & width of tiles are measured by traveling microscope and measuring
tape immediately after conditioning at a temperature of 27±2oC for at least 60
minutes. Thickness is measured by micrometers.
SQUARENESS
• The tiles are generally available in the square shape as per the requirement of the
standard. So these are to be perfectly square otherwise one tile would mismatch
with others during their installation on the floor. To check the squareness of the
PVC floor tiles the one side of the samples is held against the one side of L shaped
metal jig( L angle is of 90oC) comprising two arms each of length greater than the
side of the tile. Any gap between the sides of the tile and metal arms are
measured by the feeler gauge or microscope.

PLASTIC FLOORING
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
• The tiles generally get exposed in different environmental condition in different

seasons through out the year in its use. So this is very important that the tiles
should retain it’s actual dimension during varying atmospheric condition. The test
is carried out as follows:
• The test specimens of 200 X 200 mm has is taken and marked along each liner
dimensions of the surface of the test specimen. These are samples placed
horizontally on one shelve of the oven at 80 ± 2 oC for about 6 hours. After this
test duration the samples are removed and cooled to room temperature and again
conditioned 1 hour. Lastly, the distance between the reference marks is measured.
• The change in the distance between each pair of reference marks are calculated
as the percentage of original distance and reported as dimensional stability.

PLASTIC FLOORING
DEFLECTION
• During the installation of the tiles sometimes it is required to bend the tiles.
During this action it should not be crack or break. This test is actually confirming
this requirement. Test pieces of 200 X 50 mm are cut pieces from PVC tile and
conditioned then placed over two supports of circular shape (200 mm apart) and
then at the centre point, the sample is deflected downwards at the rate of 100±3
mm/min. by moving the third rod nose till deflection of at least 25 mm is obtained
without break.
• The average amount of deflection without break is reported.

PLASTIC FLOORING
IMPACT
• Impact strength of the tile measures the toughness of the materials. This test
reflects the resistance of flooring sample to fracture in case anything drops from
height on it during its use. This shows toughness of materials. In this test known
amount of impact load is dropped from the certain height over the tile placed over
annular surface supported on steel ball of about 25 mm diameter for number of
times. The test pieces are then examined visually for cracks in enough light
without flexing and reported failure if cracks found.
COLOUR & FASTNESS TO DAYLIGHT
• Colour is one of the main aesthetic requirements of the tiles. During their use the
tiles may be exposed to sunlight coming through the window. This test is to
ascertain the colour of the tiles. It should not fade due to sunlight that extent
during use. The test is generally visual observation, which conform the standard
requirement.
VOLATILE MATTER
• The tiles are produced from such materials and compounds, which contain a
number of ingredients to improve properties and processability. Some of these
ingredients are volatile in nature, which may evaporate under heat and other
environmental condition. Thus the quantity of ingredient material may change and
hence performance of flooring is affected. Therefore the measurement of volatile
matter in the flooring & tiles are important. To measure the volatile matter a test
piece of about 200 X50 mm is cut from PVC tile and weighed on balance and
placed in the over at 100±2°C for 6hours. After 6 hrs sample are removed and
coded in air and reweighed. The percentage loss in mass is calculated and reported
as volatile matter.
CURLING
• During the use of tiles they may come in contact of different types of forces and
substances due to which the tiles may curl and aftermath of that peeling may
occur. This test is to measuring the tendency of the tiles to curling & hence future
peel out. To perform these test two-test specimens measuring 150X150mm is
taken and placed over slab covered with wick material in the water bath. The
retention period is 72hours at 27±2°C. At the beginning and end of this period
the gap between the test piece surface and a light straight edge placed on each
pair of diagonally opposite corners are determined. The average of the amount of
curling is reported. Corporate Training & Planning 190
INDENTATION
• Resistance to indentation & extent of it is a very important parameter to be for

the materials used as flooring. This test is a measurement of hardness of flooring.
The PVC tile sample is taken place on the rigid plate. A load of about 13Kg is
applied through hemispherical head attached with dial gauge. The depth of
penetration of hemispherical head on the surface of flooring is recorded.
RESIDUAL INDENTATION
• This is the measurement of retention of actual indentation occurs. In this test, at

first the thickness of the test piece at the same point by means of the indenting
tool for a period of 10 minutes. After completion of 10 minutes the load is
completely removed from the test piece and stand at a temperature of 27±2oC
for a period 60minutes. Lastly, the indentation is measured for the nearest of
0.01mm and average value is reported.

RESISTANCE TO VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
• During their use in the flooring they may come contact of different types of substances
such as tea, hot water, various food gradients, soap solution, phenyl etc. The tiles or
sheeting should not be affected by this type of substances whose basic materials are
generally weak acids and bases. This test is the indication of the resistance of flooring
against these various substances. Separate test pieces of 50 X75mm cut from tiles or
sheets and kept in four types of liquids i.e. i) Isopropyl alcohol; ii) Light mineral oil; iii)
Cotton seed oil; iv) 2% NaOH Solution at room temperature for about 46 hours. Then
scratching on the surface of the tiles is done. The resistance in the form of
scratchability is evaluated by measuring the load & width of scratch.
FLEXIBILITY
• The flexibility of the floor tiles is affected by change of its use temperature. For
example at reduced temperature the molecular movement of material is reduced
hence it becomes less flexible whereas at higher temperature molecular movements
are increased so the flexibility of tiles increases. Due to these changes in temperature
the deformation behavior of tile under load is changing. This affects the performance
of flooring and tiles. Therefore measurement of flammability of floor tiles is important.
• A 50X225 mm test pieces is taken and conditioned at 0±0.5°C for about 60 minutes
in air and then bent by hand over steel mandrel whose temperature is at 0°C through
an arc of approx.180°C in 3 seconds. The bent portion of test pieces are then
examined in light under 4 X magnification for any cracks, breaks and other signs of
failure.
PLY ADHESION
• The tiles them sheeting are fixed on the floor by adhesive and it is to confirm a very good
adhesion between otherwise peeling will occur very easily. This test is conducted to
ascertain the very good bondability between tiles and the floorings. To perform this test
150X50 mm test pieces are cut from the specimen. Three parallel lines are marked and
each of them, then partially immersed in the ethyl acetate to the depth of more than 20
mm for 45 minutes. The immersed portion of laminate is separated by hand and dried
about for 90 minutes. Then the load required to separator the sample for about 75 mm is
measured by using tensile testing m/c. The ply adhesion is calculated by dividing average
load of separation by width of test piece.
MOISTURE MOVEMENT
• The dimensional stability is very important for the tiles. This may be affected by various
ways such as temperature, moisture, water etc. The two test pieces each of 225 mm
dimension are taken and conditioned for specified period.
• Then the specimens are marked along each liner dimensions of the surface of the test
specimen. Then the distance between pairs of marks are measured and placed on
perfect flat surface with the steel plate on top of it. The test piece is then put over the
layer of glass balls in tray containing water for 72 hours at 27±2°C. After the time is
over the test piece is removed from the water and distance between the pair of marks is
measured. The change in the distance between corresponding marks expressed as a
percentage of the original distance is the measurement of moisture movement.

HEAT AGING & EXUDATION
• PVC is compounded with various substances to make it flexible and ready for
processing. During the use PVC tiles come across different environmental
conditions. Therefore there is the possibility of migration of some compounds to
the surface. Thus the product remains no more flexible. This test is to observe the
retention of quality & flexibility of PVC flexible flooring after aging. Test sample of
50 X 225 mm dimension are taken and placed in a air oven for 15days at 70±1°C .
After 15 days the samples are removed, cooled and conditioned for about 60
minutes. To check exudation a clean white papers is rubbed over the wearing
surface. The greasy stain on the paper is the mark of exudation occurrence and
hence failure. Subsequently other samples are bent around the mandrel through an
arc of 180° in approx 3 seconds. The bent portion is observed in good lighting
under magnification for any sign of crack, break or other failures.

ELASTIC PRODUCT:
• It is the test for determining the resistance of flooring to be stretched in a
direction and permanent deformation prior to failure. To conduct this test 25
mm wide and 75 mm long six test pieces ( three are parallel and three are
perpendicular to calendaring axis) are first conditioned and subsequently
tensile test is performed at a specified speed. The mean of six determinations of
the product of tensile strength and elongation of each sample is the
measurement of elastic product of the sample.
ABRASION RESISTANCE:
• The flooring comes across the abrasive action during their use. Due to abrasive
action there is the possibility of loss of material from the surface of tiles, which
may affect its original aesthetic look and appearance. Thus It is required to
measure the resistance to wear of PVC floor tiles against the abrasive force. This
is tested by cutting the sample from the tiles or sheeting. The test is performed
in the taber abraser under a specified load for 1000 cycles. The loss in weight of
material after abrasion is reported.

REASONS FOR GROWTH OF PLASTIC FOAM
DEFINITION:
 Cellular materials (Expanded or foamed) is defined as the material containing many
cells (either open, closed or both) dispersed throughout the mass.
REASONS:
 Reduction of cost.
 Improved functional performance.
 Potential for integrated design.
 Weight reduction in automobiles
 Reduction of flammability
 Reduction in production of smoke in building
 To provide better insulation in building.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOAM
Cellular polymer can be divided into three classes.
– Rigid
– Semi-rigid
– Flexible foam
Further foam can be sub-divided as: -

• Open cell: In open cell foam, gas cells are interconnected with each other.
• Closed cell: In closed cell foam each gas cell is totally enclosed by thin plastic wall.

METHODS OF FOAMING
Foams are produced by following three principal methods:-
• Mechanical
• Physical
• Chemical
– Mechanical:
In this system resin as a solution in emulsion form is vigorously agitated unit it
becomes foam of air bubbles. Then it becomes solid foam by fusion e.g. PVC
plastisols can be mechanically foamed.
– Physical:
The compressed gases or chemicals which change their physical form during
the foaming process e.g. PE foam.
– Chemical:
The liquid resin reacts with the chemical compounds under heat by mixing or
dissolving. The gas causes the foaming action with in the molten or liquid resin
e.g. PU foam.
MATERIALS FOR FOAM & APPLICATION
Table-11.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF PLASTICS FOAM
Polymers Density Type Cell Available Form Characteristics uses

Lbs/cu.ft. structure
ABS 31-62 Thermoplastics Closed Pellets Picture frames, ice buckets,

rigid wall plaques.
Cellulose- 6-8 Thermoplastics Closed Boards and rods Life buoys, aircraft floats, fuel
accetate rigid tanks.
Epoxy 2-23 Thermoplastics Closed Liquid and precast Accoustical insulation,

rigid sheets and blocks refrigerator doors, pontoons
gun stocks, furniture.
Ionomer 2-20 Thermoplastics Closed Sheets and rods Marine floats, gaskets
Flexible insulation, packaging.
Phenolic 0.1-22 Thermoplastics Closed & Liquid foam in place Cores for boat hulls, pipe,
rigid Open resin Insulation, cores for plywood
insulation.
Polystyrene 1-10 Thermoplastics Closed Expanded beads Hot and cold drinks cups
rigid boards and blocks packaging food containers,
insulation.
Polyurethane 1.5-70 Thermoplastics Open & Foam-in-place liquids Freezer insulation Marine
flexible or rigid Closed boards and blocks floatation, furniture cushioning,
packaging.
Polyethylene 2-35 Thermoplastics Closed Sheets, rods, tubing Packaging cushioning, life
rigid moulded parts jackets, boat bumpers, gaskets
Polyvinyl 3-45 Thermoplastics Open & Sheets, moulded Thermal insulation, atheletic
chloride flexible or rigid Closed shapers and gear, ice buckets, flooring
expandable beads carpet backing
Silicon 9.6-31 Thermoplastics Open & Liquid of sheet Plastic surgery, heat sealing
flexible or rigid Closed blankets sponges.
PROPERTIES OF FOAM
•The properties of the foam depend upon the following factors:

•Base polymer.
•Cell structure and size
-Density
-Porosity
-Physical properties
•Applications.

DENSITY
INTRODUCTION:
• The physical properties of the cellular plastics is related to it’s density. Many physical
properties particularly strength of cellular plastics vary directly with density
DEFINITION:
• Density is defined as the weight per unit volume of cellular material. It is expressed
in Kg/m3
CALCULATION: Density (Kg/m3 ) = Weight of Specimen (Kg.)

Volume of Specimen (m3)
FACTORS AFFECTING:
- Density of foam depends upon the base material of foam.
- Type and characteristics of cell, it’s size and structure etc.
- Conditioning of foam and skin of the foam

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
- Tensile Strength - Resilience
- Compressive strength - Abrasion Resistance
- Shear strength and modulus - Indentation Hardness
- Flexural strength - Friability
- Impact strength - Compression Set
- Tear Strength - Creep
- Fatigue strength

TENSILE STRENGTH
INTRODUCTION:
Generally flexible cellular plastics are characterized by tensile strength.
DEFINITION:
It is defined as the maximum tensile stress sustained by material at rupture or break.
It is expressed in kg/cm2 . Tensile strength is calculated from the maximum load of
rupture during tensile divided by original cross sectional area of specimen.
Test Specimen:
• Dumbell shaped specimen as shown
in side.

TENSILE STRENGTH
TEST METHOD : ISO: 1798 & ASTM D3574.
PROCEDURE:
• The specimen is preconditioned at specified temp. and humidity.
• Width and thickness of test specimen is measured and cross sectional area is
calculated.
• Test parameters such as test speeds, grip length etc. as specified by the standard is
selected and set in the testing machine
• Specimen is pulled between the jaws at the rate such that test specimen breaks
between 3 to 6 minutes. The load and extension at break point is recorded.
CALCULATION:
Tensile strength is calculated by using following formula:
Tensile Strength (Kg/cm2 ) = Load at break (kg.)
Cross sectional area ( cm2 )
% Elongation at Break = Change in length x 100
Original length

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
INTRODUCTION:
• Many materials such as low-density rigid cellular plastic material are crushed at lower
stress, when subjected to compressive load. The compressive properties of material
include compressive Strength, compressive strain, compressive modulus etc.
DEFINITION:
• It is defined as the maximum compressive stress which the material is capable of
sustaining for very short time at a fixed point in the loading cycle.
• compressive modulus is the ratio of stress to corresponding strain below the
proportional limit of material when under compression. It is expressed in force per
unit cross-section area of specimen.
SIGNIFICANCE:
• This test provides the information about behavior of material under compression
load. Used for R&D and verifying the process.Used for quality control and inspection
of material.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
TEST SPECIMEN:
• Test Specimen of square or circular cross section of minimum 25.8 cm2 and maximum
of 232 cm2 cross-section area and a height of 25.4mm is cut from the foam.
PROCEDURE:
• Specimen is pre-conditioned and it’s dimension is measured.
• When It is subjected to compressive load between compressive plates at the rate of
2.5mm/min in the testing machines.
• Compression is continued till yield point is reached or up to 13% decrease in the
original height of specimen.
• Compressive load and deflection is recorded at regular interval at each point. The
compressive strength and modulus is calculated.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Base material of foam and it’s density. Higher is the density higher will be the
Compressive strength.
• It depends upon the direction of orientation of cellular structure.
• Compressive strength will be higher in the direction of orientation compared to non-
oriented direction.
• The structural parameters such as cell size, cell size distribution, Anisotropy etc.

SHEAR STRENGTH & MODULUS
INTRODUCTION:
• Shear strength of cellular materials has particular importance in the
construction because in most construction applications cellular materials are
loaded in compression, tension and shear.
DEFINITION:
• Shear strength is defined as the maximum shear stress of material at rupture.
It is calculated from maximum load during the shear test divided by cross-
sectional area of specimen.
TEST METHOD:
• Shear strength of cellular material is determined as per ISO: 1922-81 and BS:
4370 part-II method 6.
TEST SPECIMEN :
• Test specimen of 250 x 50 x 25mm parallel piped specimen is taken
PROCEDURE :
• Shear force is applied via two mild steel support bonded to the largest surface.
Shear stress is applied in a direction parallel to longitudinal axis of specimen
by placing the specimen and supporting vertically between the movable grips
@ 1mm/min. The force and deflection are recorded.

SHEAR STRENGTH & MODULUS
CALCULATION:
Shear strength is calculated by using Shear strength = 100Fm/ l b

Where, l = Initial length of specimen.
b= Initial width of specimen.
Fm= maximum force applied to the specimen.
Shear modulus (G) = 1000dΦ / lb.

Where, Φ = Slope of linear portion of force deflection diagram in N/mm.
d = Thickness of specimen.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH
INTRODUCTION:
• Flexural strength is measured in similar manner as used for non-cellular plastics. It is

measured by two methods i.e. three point bending system and four point bending
system.
DEFINITION:
• Flexural strength is the ability of material to withstand bending forces applied

perpendicular to longitudinal axis. It is expressed in Kg./cm2 .
TEST METHOD:
• ASTM D 790, BS 4370 part-1 (method-4).
TEST SPECIMEN:
• Specimen of size 200mm long, 35-70mm wide and 50mm thick are cut from the
cellular material and conditioned.

FLEXURAL STRENGTH
PROCEDURE (3 POINTS SYSTEM) :
• Dimension of specimen is measured accurately and placed on two parallel

support bar 150mm apart
• Load is applied centrally at the rate of 100mm/min by means of moving bar in

the universal tensile machine.
• Load point at which fracture occurs is recorded and mean result of five
measurements is taken.
CALCULATION:
Flexural strength is calculated as below.
Flexural strength = 3 FL / 2bd2
Where, F = maximum force recorded during test ;
L = Distance between two support
b = width of specimen
d = Thickness of specimen

IMPACT STRENGTH
INTRODUCTION
• Cellular materials are often used for thermal insulation on pipes with impact
protective covering. Foams are also used to protect electronic product from impact
load during transit. The closed cell foam provides pneumatic cushioning and hence
absorbing mechanism where as open cell foam do not have this energy absorbing
mechanism.
DEFINITION
• Impact strength of cellular material is the ability of material to withstand impact
load. The material which crush easily on impact may be unable to sustain normal
wear and tear that would be expected in service.
• Impact strength of foam is determined by following two methods
(i) Izod - impact test - known as method A.
ii) Charpy - impact test - known as method B.
• Izod and charpy impact of rigid cellular plastic is determined in similar manner as for
non-cellular material. Detail test procedure is given in chapter Mechanical Properties.

TEAR STRENGTH
DEFINITION :
• Tear strength is defined as energy required to propagate a tear through a specified
length of that has already been initiated in sample by small nick with a razor blade.
SIGNIFICANCE
• The tear initiation and tear propagation of the foam are important in the packaging.
Generally the tear of brittle foam is measured as the maximum tear initiation force
whereas for tear propagation is important in tough foam
EQUIPMENT:
• Tear tester or universal testing machine capable of measuring tear force, Razor for
notching sample.
SPECIMEN:
• Test specimen of size of 125 – 150mm x 25mm x 25mm are cut Notching is done
with razor centrally from one end of cross section to a depth of 50mm. Figure shown.

TEAR STRENGTH
PROCEDURE: Two nicked edges of specimen are fixed between fixed and moving
jaws. Specimen is pulled at the rate of 50mm/minutes. When the tear has
traveled 25mm along the test piece then test is terminated and maximum force
(F) is recorded
CALCULATION
• Tear resistance(R) is calculated by
R= F/d
Where, F = Maximum force in Newton.
d = Thickness of specimen in meters.
FACTORS AFFECTING: TEAR SPECIMEN

- It is affected by density of the cellular material and it’s base material.
- Speed of testing and depth of notch in specimen.
- Cellular structure, size & it’s orientation.

FATIGUE (DURABILITY) STRENGTH:
INTRODUCTION:
• The properties of cellular material deteriorates when subjected to a large number
of repeated cyclic load and deformation. The failure or decay of mechanical
properties after repeated application of stress and strain is known as fatigue.
DEFINITION:
• Fatigue life is defined as the number of cycles of deformation required to bring
about failure of test specimen under given set of oscillating conditions.
SIGNIFICANCE:
- This test gives information about the ability of cellular plastic material to resist the
development of crack as a result of large number loading and deformation cycles,
which leads to decay and failure.
- This test is also used for research and development.
PRINCIPLE:
• This method is based on measuring changes in thickness and hardness of cellular
material due to repeated load by a specified indenter.
FATIGUE (DURABILITY) STRENGTH
APPARATUS: PROCEDURE:
• Equipment consists of a constant load
• Measured thickness and hardness of
of 750N, an indenter of 250mm
the test pieces and then placed
diameter capable of oscillating and
centrally beneath the indenter as
applying load on sample. A platen for
shown figure. Adjust striking stroke to
placing test specimen. Dial thickness
ensure to correct position for
gauge, a hardness tester for hardness
applying load. Lift indenter to its
measurement.
mounting position and drop on test
TEST-SPECIMEN: specimen. Apply this test load for
• Test specimen of 380 x 380 x 50mm. At 80,000 cycles, then removed and
least three specimens are tested. allows to rest for 10 minutes. Re-
TEST METHOD: measure thickness and hardness of
tested portion. This shows failure or
• The durability of flexible foam is
decay in Mechanical Properties.
determined by using a shear or
pounding force on the foam according
to BS, ISO 3385.
FATIGUE (DURABILITY) STRENGTH
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• The following factors affect the

fatigue & durability of foam:
- Density of cellular material.
- Cell size and structure.
- Indenter size, Test load and

number of test cycle applied to
test.
TEST SET-UP
- Position of fall of indenter.

RESILIENCE
INTRODUCTION:
• This property of cellular material is important for packaging. This test is useful for
determination of both flexible and rigid cellular plastics.
DEFINITION:
• Resilience may be defined as the ability of material to restore the energy without
showing permanent deformation
TEST METHOD:
• Resilience can be determined by ASTM D1564.

RESILIENCE
EQUIPMENT :
• It consists of a steel ball of 0.625-inch diameter and arrangement for holding
and free fall on the specimen. It shall be equipped with measuring rebound
height accurately.
PROCEDURE:
• Place the specimen on the test station beneath the test ball. Set the test height
18 inches and hold the steel test ball. Drop the test ball on the test sample from
the set height of 18 inches. Observed and determine rebound height of ball.
Express resilience of material as a percentage of drop height that the ball has
rebound.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
 Factor affecting resilience is base material of cellular polymer, Density and cell
size of cellular material.
 Resilience is also affected by size of rebound ball

ABRASION RESISTANCE
DEFINITION:
• It is defined as the ability of material to withstand mechanical action (such as
rubbing, screeching) that tends to progressively remove material from its surface.
• Abrasion resistance of cellular material is measured in similar manner as is
measured for non-cellular material. This evaluation is based on percentage of light
scattering by abraded surface compared to the unabraded surface. This also
measures of material versus number of cycle abraded. This test is used for testing of
both flexible and rigid cellular material.
EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE:
• The detailed test equipment, specimen, test procedure and calculation etc. is
described in chapter Mechanical properties
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• It is affected by surface hardness of material.
- Type & hardness of abrasive wheel; number of test cycles, test load applied in
abrasion.
- Quality of abrasive wheel and heat dissipation characteristic of polymer.

INDENTATION HARDNESS
INTRODUCTION:
• Flexible cellular materials are widely used in the applications of packaging. These
materials are designed basically for providing cushioning. Hence protection from
the damage of delicate and fragile material from the vibration and other
mechanical forces.
• Low-density cellular material deform quite easily and have discrete cell structure,
so re-producible results are difficult to obtained. However with high Density
cellular material with fine cell structure or surface skin, durometer hardness is
used successfully.
PROCEDURE:
• Durometer hardness test is used for determination of hardness of electrometric
plastics. The details of equipment, test procedure etc. is described in the chapter
Mechanical Properties.
DEFINITION
• Indentation hardness may be defined as the resistance to indentation or
penetration.

FRIABILITY
INTRODUCTION: SIGNIFICANCE:
• Many rigid materials are quite • Determination of friability is not

abrasive in nature to oak block of ¾” very easy to determine. Therefore it
which is used as standard wearing is rarely used for quality control
surface. This block is worn down purpose. Friability is used for
quite rapidly by cellular material. development of the formulation of
rigid cellular materials such as phenol
DEFINITION : Formaldehyde for specific
application.
• Friability may be defined as the
ability of foam to easily crumbled, TEST METHOD:
pulverised or reduced to powder.
Friability is expressed in percentage • Grinding process for testing may be
of loss of material in pulverization or done by using BS 4370 part3 method.
disintegration process. The loss in
weight determines the relative
friability of cellular material.

FRIABILITY
APPARATUS :
- A Ball mill of 260mm diameter and 90mm long containing 3.8kg of 19mm
diameter porcelain ball. It shall be capable to rotate at the rate of 60 revolutions
per minutes (RPM).
- Analytical weighing balance to the accuracy of 0.01 mg.
TEST SPECIMEN:
• Sufficient numbers of cubes of cellular material each of size about 20mm.
PROCEDURE:
- Take Sufficient numbers of cubes of cellular materials and take their cumulative
weight on analytical weighing balance to the accuracy of 0.01mg.
- Place the cubes in container of ball mill with porcelain ball
- Rotate the mill @ 60-62 rpm for 60 revolution. Then test sample are removed
and cleaned by vacuum.
CALCULATION: Relative Friability (%) = Loss in weight x 100

Original Weight.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
- Rigidity of cellular material and it’s base material.
- Diameter and number of balls in the ball mill.
• Speed and number of revolution of milling : Higher rpm and number of revolution
higher will be friability (loss of material)
COMPRESSION SET
INTRODUCTION:
• This test consist of deflecting cellular specimen under specified temperature
and time. The effect on thickness of specimen is observed. A number of
methods are used for determination of compression set of flexible and rigid
cellular plastics.
DEFINITION:
• Compression may be defined as the percentage of deflection of cellular
material after recovery under specified condition. It is expressed in
percentage.
EQUIPMENT:
• Equipment consist of two rigid, flat parallel plate with specimen locking
arrangement, spacer and clamps to give required degree of compression and
to held plates parallel to each other during test, Dial micrometer etc.
TEST SPECIMEN:
• Five number of test specimen each having thickness equal to 25mm and in
size equal to flat parallel plate. Thin specimen are piled to achieve required
thickness.

COMPRESSION SET
PROCEDURE: Thickness of test specimen is measured by dial micrometer. Place the
specimen in between two parallel plates of compression set. Deflected specimen
either 50% / 75% or 90% with the help of clamp and spacer block as shown in
figure.
COMPRESSION SET
•Place deflected specimen in air oven maintained at 700C and 50% relative
humidity.
•Take out specimen from oven after 22 hours and remove clamp within one
minute and is allowed to recover deflection for 30-40 minutes by laying on
wooden surface.
•Re-measure the thickness of the specimen. Calculate compression by using the
following formula.
COMPRESSION SET
CALCULATION:
Compression set is determined by using following formula:
Cs = T0 - Tr x 100
T0
Where , T0 = original thickness of material.
Tr = Thickness after recovery
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Following factors may affect compression set.
• Percentage of deflection from it’s original thickness.
• Test temperature and duration of exposure in the air oven. High temperature
of oven and long duration may show higher deformation.
• Recovery time allowed for this test sample. Higher recovery time may lower
the compression set.
• Density of the foam and cellular structure of foam affect the compression set.

PERMANENCE PROPERTIES
INTRODUCTION:
• A number of standard test methods are used for estimating the permanence
properties of cellular materials. Most of these are derived from methods, which
are used for material in their solid form. Many of these methods have been
adopted with no changes.
• The detail of the test equipment, conditioning and test procedures and other
details are described in the chapter Permanence properties.
 Aging test  Chemical Resistance

 Dry heat test  Fungi resistance
 Out door weathering  Simulated Service test
 Steam Auto Clave test  Water absorption
 Water Vapor transmission rate

AGING TESTS
• “Aging tests” is developed primarily for vulcanized sponge and other
electrometric products. This involve determination of tensile strength before and
after heat aging. These tests are seldom used for other cellular materials. The
details test procedure is described in chapter Permanence Properties
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
INTRODUCTION:
 Chemical resistance of cellular materials is determined by ASTM D471-68,D 543-67
& D 1056-67T. These test methods can be used for cellular materials other than
those for which they were specifically designed and are generally applicable to all
cellular materials.
PROCEDURE:
 In this test pre-weighed sample is immersed in chemical for the specified duration
and the resistance to the chemical is determined by the weight loss, swelling and
change in physical properties after immersion. The procedure for determination of
chemical resistance are described in chapter Chemical properties.

DRY HEAT TEST
• The dry-heat-test consists of exposure of the cellular material to a high

temperature in air oven, after which the change in physical properties are
determined. Two test methods are used, AST D1564-69 and D 2406-68, both of
which are designed primarily for flexible urethane foams. These tests methods have
found little application with other cellular materials. The detail of the test are
described in the chapter permanence properties
FUNGI RESISTANCE
• Fungi resistance of cellular material can be determined by AST D 1924-70. This test
is designed for solid plastics but can be used for all cellular materials. Fungus
resistance is determined and reported only for the specific formulation being
tested. Detail test procedure is described in chapter permanence properties.

OUT DOOR WEATHERING
• Like non-cellular polymeric materials when cellular materials are exposed to
out door weather conditions, the characteristics and properties of materials
changes under the influence of different weather conditions as a result there
is a gradual detoriation in the properties Out door weathering is usually
determined by AST D1435-69. This test method is for determination of out
door weathering of plastic materials and also used for all cellular organic,
inorganic, rigid or flexible materials. Details of test procedure are described in
chapter Weathering Properties.
SIMULATED SERVICE TEST:
• Simulated service tests are another form of aging test and are run on a wide
variety of cellular materials. There are various test methods designed and
developed for specific materials they can and have found use for simulated
service testing of other cellular materials because all methods allow the use
of a variety of test-condition options. The option includes range of
temperature and humidity.
STEAM AUTO CLAVE TEST:
• There are two steam autoclave tests. AST D1564-69 and D 2006 have been
designed specifically for flexible urethane foams. These test methods have
had only limited use in testing other cellular materials

WATER ABSORPTION
INTRODUCTION:
• Cellular plastics are extensively used in flotation application because of their

ability to maintain a low buoyancy factor. The buoyancy factor is affected by
absorption of water by particular foam. The water absorption is expressed in
the percentage of change of mass due to immersion.
• Water absorption is determined by measurement of buoyancy force of the
specimen when immerses in distilled and de-aerated water for four days.
• Water absorption of EPS and rigid cellular material is measured as per the BS
3837 part2 and ISO 2896. The test procedure is described below.
TEST SPECIMEN: Specimen of 150 x 150 x 75mm shall be cut from foam
DEFINITION:
• It may be defined as the amount of water absorbed by cellular plastic when
immersed in water with respect to original mass of materials. It is measured by
the change in mass or dimension/volume of the sample w.r.t original. It is
expressed in percentage.
WATER ABSORPTION
PROCEDURE
EQUIPMENTS-USED:
• Take weight of specimen on the
• Analytical weighing balance, stainless analytical weighing balance and
steel mesh cage (figure shown). measure the buoyant force by
Appropriate weight to measure immersing in distilled water. Place
buoyant force, Distilled water etc. specimen in the stainless steel mesh
cage and suspend from the balance
and measure the buoyant force.
• Immerse the cage in distilled & de-
aerated water such that water
surfaces is 50mm above the top
surface of specimen.
• Cover the container with the non-
permeable film to prevent
evaporation of water. Take apparent
mass after 04 days and calculate
water absorption in percentage.
WATER ABSORPTION
CALCULATION: Water absorption (%) = Change in weight x 100

Original weight.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Water absorption depends upon many factors such as base material of foam,
cellular structure i.e. opened or closed cell. It depends upon depth of
immersion in water sample, surface to volume ratio of specimen etc.

WATER VAPOUR TRANSMISSION RATE
INTRODUCTION :
• Resistance to water permeability is an important requirements in various
application of cellular plastics particularly in packing, building construction. Water
vapour transmission test is used to determine amount of water vapour transfer
through the permeable material
DEFINITION:
• Water vapour transmission rate is defined as the water vapour flow in a unit time
through unit area of body, normal to specified condition of temperature and
humidity at each surface. It is expressed in g/m2 24 hrs.
• Water vapour permeability is the rate of water vapour transmission through unit
area of a flat material of unit thickness induced by unit vapour pressure difference
between two specific surface under specified condition of temperature and
humidity. It is expressed in g cm/m2 day mm Hg)
• Water vapour permeability is also defined as the product of permanence and
thickness of specimen. The unit of permeability is perm- in.

EQUIPMENT:
• Micrometer, Analytical weighing

balance, Environmental chamber,
Glass beaker, CaCl2 etc.
SPECIMEN:
• Specimen from foam is cut in size

equal to the internal diameter of
beaker having minimum exposure
area of 32 cm2 and 25mm thickness

PROCEDURE (DESICCANT METHOD) : FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Take desiccant or water in beaker and seal
test specimen over the open mouth of • Density of cellular plastic: As the
beaker. Take weight of sealed specimen density of cellular plastic is decreased
with dish on weighing balance. Place water vapour permeability is
sealed specimen assembly at controlled increases.
test atmosphere of 380 C and 0-85%
relative humidity. Take weight of • Pressure difference and test
specimen assembly periodically. temperature: Higher the pressure
difference higher is the transmission
• In water method, distilled water is used in rate. At increased temperature and
place of desiccant. Rate of water humidity water permeability
movement through specimen is increases.
determined periodically by weighing dish
containing distilled water and specimen. • Thickness of test specimen: Thicker
specimen shows lower rate of
• The detailed procedure of water vapour transmission
transmission is given in chapter
permeability.

FLAMMABILITY
INTRODUCTION:
• Cellular plastics find numerous applications in construction and packaging industries

because of their superior thermal insulation characteristics. Therefore the increased
use as thermal insulation of cellular plastics accounts considerable concerned in
regard to flammability. By material, Rate of burning/ extent and time of burning of
cellular plastics etc.
DEFINITION:
• It may be defined as the ability of material to support combustion, fire endurance,

ignition characteristics, rate of burning, extent of burning and time of burning,
determination of density of smoke produced by burning in particular condition, Rate
of spread of flame on the surface of material, limiting oxygen index etc.

FLAMMABILITY
TEST METHOD:
• There are various methods divided for determination of flammability of

cellular plastics such as ASTMD 3014 and ASTMD 1692, ASTMD 2863 etc.
PROCEDURE:
• The detail of various test methods / procedure, equipment, specimen,

calculation and interception of result etc. of test is given in chapter Thermal
Properties
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Base material of foam and it’s density, influences the flammability of material.
• Specimen width and thickness affect the flammability. As the volume of

material increase (due to increases specimen dimension either width or
thickness) flammability is affected.
• Flame retardant present in cellular material improves the flammability of

material.
• Flammability is also influenced by fire conditions used for test.

(F) THERMAL PROPERTIES:
• Thermal Conductivity
• Thermal Expansion
• Linear Thermal Expansion
• Cubical Thermal Expansion
• Heat Deflection Temperature
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
INTRODUCTION:
• One of the major reasons of the success of cellular plastic in thermal
insulation is because of it’s low thermal conductivity, Cellular plastics have
lowest thermal conductivity, compared to any material available today. The
outstanding thermal conductivity of these materials is largely due to
entrapped gases and not only to the polymeric material, which serves mainly
as an enclosure for entrapment of gases. Superior insulation ability depends
upon many variable factors.

PROCEDURE:
• Thermal conductivity of cellular materials is measured by “Guarded hot plate
Method”. The details of the equipment test specimen, conditioning and procedure
of determination of thermal conductivity is given in chapter Thermal properties.
• In guarded hot plate method it consist of guard heater to prevent heat flow in all
direction. Test specimen is placed between main heaters and cooling plate (i.e sink).
Time required to stabilize input and output temperature is determined. Thermal
conductivity is calculated as below.
DEFINITION:
• Thermal conductivity is defined as the rate at which heat is transferred by
conduction through a unit cross sectional area. It is expressed by K - factor and
expressed as the quantity of heat that passes through a unit cube of the substance
in a given unit of time when the difference in temperature of two faces is 10 C.
SIGNIFICANCE
• Thermal conductivity of foam can be used for quality control and inspection purpose
and also for research and development of material.
• It is also used for ranking of different cellular material for conductivity with respect
to their density.
CALCULATION:
Thermal conductivity is calculated as K = Qt / A( T1 – T2)
Where, K = Thermal conductivity ( BTU/in/h/ft2 / 0 F)

Q= Thermal of heat flow ( BTU/hr)
t= Thickness of specimen (in)
A= Area of specimen under test.
T1= Temperature of hot surface 0 F
T2= Temperature of cold surface 0 F
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Base material of cellular plastics.

• Density of cellular material with decrease of density thermal conductivity decrease
up to certain values but rises again due to increased convection effect.
• It is also affected by blowing agent used in material.
• Also affected by cell size, close cell content, temperature and moisture etc.

THERMAL EXPANSION
• Co-efficient of thermal expansion for the different plastics and cellular material is
very important and interesting for the designer. Like non-cellular plastic and other
cellular plastic material it also expand and contract largely due to change of
temperature.
DEFINITION:
• Co-efficient of thermal expansion is determined as the fractional change in length or
volume of material for a unit change in temperature. It is expressed in percentage.
SIGNIFICANCE:
• Co-efficient of thermal expansion is used for ranking of different cellular materials
based on expansion.
• It is also used for quality control, inspection, Research and development of material.
TEST METHOD:
• Co-efficient of thermal expansion of cellular plastic is determined by two methods
i.e ASTMD 696 and ASTMD 864.
• ASTMD 696 determines co-efficient of linear thermal expansion and ASTMD 864 co-
efficient cubical thermal expansion.

THERMAL EXPANSION
PROCEDURE:
• The details of equipment, specimen, conditioning details and procedure are given
in chapter Thermal Properties. Test method uses dilatometer for determination of
co-efficient of linear thermal expansion and device for measuring change in length
(LVDT). A 2 to 5 inches long test specimen is mounted in dilatometer. Test
specimen is heated in oven or liquid bath to the required temperature. The change
in length is recorded. Co-efficient of linear thermal expansion is calculated as
below.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Base material and density of cellular material. It is also affected cell size, close cell
content, temperature

THERMAL EXPANSION
CALCULATION:
• For linear thermal expansion:

X = ΔL / Lo Δt = Change in length due to heating or cooling
original length x Change in Temperature.
Where, X= Co-efficient of linear thermal expansion.
Δl = Change in length of specimen due to heating.
Lo = Original length of specimen at room temperature.
Δt = Temperature difference
• Cubical thermal expansion is calculated by following formula Z = ΔV / V 0 Δt

Where, Z = Co-efficient of cubical expansion
ΔV = Change in volume.
V0 = Original volume.

HEAT DEFLECTION TEMPERATURE
INTRODUCTION:
• The increased application of cellular plastic as thermal insulator encourages to

evaluate this short term effect of heat
• Determination of Heat deflection temperature test is applicable on rigid cellular

plastics. Determination of HDT of cellular material is similar used for most cellular
materials.
DEFINITION
• It is defined as the temperature at which a standard test bar of 127 x 12.7 x 6.4
mm deflects 0.01 in (25 mm) under stated fibre stress of either 66 PSI (4.6 kg. /
cm2) or 264 PSI (18.5 kg./cm2)
TEST METHOD:
• Heat deflection temperature of rigid cellular plastic is determined according to
ASTMD 648.

HEAT DEFLECTION TEMPERATURE
PROCEDURE:
• The detail of test specimen Equipment and test procedures are described and
given in chapter Thermal Properties. This method measures a definite temperature
at which cellular plastic sample begins to distort under load when heated at a rate
of 20 C/min and specified stress. The temperature at particular distortion is taken
as heat distortion temperature.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Heat distortion temperature will be affected by density and the base material of
cellular materials.

TESTING OF FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS
REASONS FOR PRODUCT FAILURE:

There are five major causes for product failure. There are: -
• Misapplication of materials.
• Poor Design.
• Inadequate Control of Materials
• Poorly Controlled Manufacturing Techniques
TESTING OF FRP :
It may be divided into following three groups
• Testing of Resin.
• Testing of Fibers
• Testing of Reinforced Plastics (FRP Products).

TESTING OF RESIN
RESIN:
• Different resins are used to manufacture FRP products. The resin acts as binding
material to the fiber. Following resins are used commonly used for manufacturing
FRP products.
• Unsaturated Polyester resin
• Epoxy resin
• Phenolic resin
• Silicon resin
• Vinyl ester
UNSATURATED POLYESTER RESIN:
• Unsaturated Polyester resin is mostly used for reinforced plastics.

TESTING OF RESIN
Epoxy Resin: An epoxy resin is a polymer containing two or more epoxy groups –C–C- .
Commercially Epoxy resins is classified as below:

• Conventional Epoxy resin: based on epichlorohydrin and bisphenol – A.
• Cycloaliphatic epoxy resin: prepared by utilizing per acetic acid for the epoxidation
of an olefin.
• Epoxy novalac resins: prepared by reacting epichlorohydrin with novalac resins.
• Others.
• Hardeners for curing of the epoxy
• Anhydrides hardeners e.g. Phthalic anhydride, Maleic anhydride.
• Polyamine hardeners e.g. Diethylene triamine, Teriethylene tetramine.
• Reactive diluents are added to an uncured epoxy resin to lower the viscosity and
provide the better workability of resins.

TESTING OF RESIN
PHENOLIC RESINS:
SILICON RESINS:
• Phenolic resins are the third most
important resin used in the composite. • Silicon resin is the group of polymer
Phenolic resins are derived from the that have skeleton structure of
condensation of phenol ( C6 H5 OH) and alternate silicon and oxygen atoms
formaldehyde, HCHO. Phenolic resins with various organic group attached..
produced by much combination of phenol Resins are used for structural
and formaldehyde. Acetic and basic application for the operating
catalysts are employed for curing phenolic temperature range between 260 to
resin. Phenolics are used in application 5500 C. Silicon; glass fiber laminates
were high strength and heat resistance up have outstanding electrical
0
to 320 C are required. Generally high properties coupled with mechanical
pressure is necessary to cure phenolic properties at elevate temperature for
molding and laminates. Phenolics resins various specific applications such as
are difficult to handle as compared to supersonic vehicles etc.
polyester and epoxy resin because it
liberates water during the polymerization.

TESTING OF RESIN
In order to ensure the quality of thermo-set resin following tests are carried out.
• Visual Inspection • Epoxy value (In Epoxy resin)

• Viscosity • Chemical Composition
• Exothermic temperature • Specific Gravity
• Storage life, working life and Gel • Hardness ( of cured resin )
time
TEST ON FIBERS
• Tensile Strength
• Fiber modulus, Shear modulus • Fiber diameter
• Density of fibers (ASTM D 1505, 792) • Visual Inspection
• Linear Density • GSM

TESTING OF FRP COMPOSITE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Tensile strength • Impact Strength (Izod & charpy) Drop
Impact test,
• Elongation, Modulus of Elasticity
• Hardness test (Rockwell & Barcol hardness)
• Compressive strength
• Abrasion resistance
• Flexural strength
• Scratch resistance
• Shear strength
THERMAL PROPERTIES
• Heat distortion temperature • Co-efficient of thermal expansion

• Marten heat Stability • Thermal Shrinkage
• Flammability ( Critical oxygen index ) • Thermal conductivity
• Rate of burning

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
• Arc resistance • Volume and surface resistivity

• Insulation resistance • Dielectric constant
• Dielectric strength and breakdown • Loss tangent
voltage
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
• Index of refraction • Haze / Gloss
• Light transmittance
CHEMICAL & PERMANENCE PROPERTIES

• Resistance to chemicals • Loss on ignition of cured reinforced
• Weather resistance resin

NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Visual Inspection : Visual Non-destructive test (NDT) such as discoloration, foreign

matter, crazing cracks, Scratches, Dents, Blisters, orange peeling, pitting, air bubbles,
porosity, resin rich and region starved area, wrinkles and to extend
• Ultrasonic • Electrical properties for NDT

• Sonics • Microwave techniques
• X-ray & Radiography • Infrared / thermal NDT
Resin Testing
Visual Appearance

VISUAL APPEARANCE
• Visual appearance of the resin is an indicator of change of resin characteristics such
as advancing of polymerization and curing.
• Due to chemical reaction during manufacturing or storing or both, the changes in
color of the resin can take place
SIGNIFICANCE:
• This can be the indicator of change in quality and condition of resin. This test is used
for inspection and quality control of resin.
• Impurity present in resin may change the viscosity and work life of resin
PROCEDURE:
• Take a transparent and clean glass beaker so that there is no foreign material
present. Pour sufficient quantity of the resin sample in glass beaker. Place the beaker
with resin sample under the light and observed through the wall of beaker. Any
unusual color or foreign matter observed are recorded.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (DENSITY)
INTRODUCTION:
• The determination of the specific gravity and density of the resin is very important.
The specific gravity and density of the resin can be measure both in liquid and solid
form. The density of liquid resin is determined by ASTM D 1475. For solid, it is
determined according to ASTM D 792 and ASTM D 1505. Using displacement and
density column method.
DEFINITION:
• Density of cured plastic resin is defined as the weight per unit volume and it is
expressed in g/cm3
SIGNIFICANCE:
• This test is also used to characterize the resin. The physical, mechanical and other
properties of resin depend upon the density of resin.
• Used for quality and process control.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (DENSITY)
TEST PROCEDURE:
• The test equipments, procedure, specimen, observation, calculation and

other details for determination density and specific gravity of the cured resin
according to ASTM D 792 & ASTM D 1505 is described in the chapter
Mechanical Properties.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• It depends upon the material of the resin.
• Density of cured resin is affected by the rate and extent of the curing and
hardener used. High degree of curing yield higher density.

VISCOSITY
INTRODUCTION:
• The variation in viscosity of the resin arises from the deviation in Viscosity of the
resin. It is an indicator of working life of resin. It is important for achieving uniform
impregnation and wetting of fiber during molding operation.
• It is determined by means of a viscometer that measures the torque produced on

a specified spindle while rotating at constant speed when immersed in polymeric
solution.
DEFINITION:
• It is defined as the resistance to the flow due to internal friction. When one layer
of fluid (resin) is caused to move in relation to another adjacent layer it causes the
friction to the flow. Highly viscous resins requires more force to move than less
viscous material

VISCOSITY
SIGNIFICANCE:
• It is useful for quality control of incoming raw material and to check batch-to-batch
uniformity of resin.
• It is used for research and development of resin system curing agent etc.
APPARATUS:
• Brookfield viscometer Model RVT with 8 speeds of 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2.5, 1.0 and
0.5 rpm. Spindles No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 & 7
• Constant temperature bath, Capable of controlling and maintaining a constant
temperature of 23+ 2oC.
• Glass jars, Wide mouth glass jar of 10.8 cm high & 5.7 cm equipped with screw lids,
jars etc.
• Thermometer, capable of measuring temperature of range of – 2 to + 52oC.
CONDITIONING:
• Condition test sample at 23+ 2oC and 50 + 5% relative humidity for not less than 40
hrs prior to test.
VISCOSITY
PROCEDURE:
• Transfer test sample in a glass jar and attach the lid. Condition the resin
samples in water bath for 2 hr + 5 min. at 23oC + 0.2oC.
• Select the test spindle and fit in to the Viscometer.
• Move the jar into the place under the spindle and adjust elevation of the jar
so that the upper surface of the sample is in the center of the shaft
indentation.
• Care is taken to keep the Viscometer immersed in the resin all time during
the test.
• Set initial speed of a spindle at 0.5 rpm and allow the spindle is to rotate for
about 8 or 10 revolution.
• The switch ON the spindle at higher speed of 10, 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 rpm
to stabilize the pointer. Take reading after 10 revolutions.
• The procedure is repeated until reading (each after 8 or 10 revolution) are
constant within the scale division.
VISCOSITY
OBSERVATIONS
• Record the test temperature, time and dial reading of the viscometer in the centi
poise and convert the result from the table.
FACTORS AFFECTING VISCOSITY:
• Following factors affect the viscosity of resin.

• Proportion of reactants used in synthesis of resin, presence of impurities in resin,
Storage condition such as temperature, humidity and duration etc.

HARDNESS
INTRODUCTION:
• The hardness of thermo-set resin is determined after curing of the resin and of
reinforced composite when it has been fabricated and cured fully. Most commonly
used methods for determination of hardness of cured resin and FRP are Rockwell
and Barcol hardness as per ASTM D 785, ASTM D 2583 respectively.
DEFINITION:
• Hardness is defined as the resistance to indentation, penetration, scratching and
deformation particularly permanent deformation.
SIGNIFICANCE:
• The extent of curing of resin is assured by hardness of cured resin and fiber
reinforced plastic. It is useful for comparative evaluation and grading of material and
also used for quality control of the cured resin and reinforced plastic. This test is also
used as a tool of process control.

HARDNESS
EQUIPMENT:
• Following equipments are used for determination of hardness of resin and
reinforced plastics.
• Rockwel Hardness tester with accessories for determination of Rockwell hardness.
• Indentors of various sizes ( ½”, ¼”, 1/8” , 1/16”, diamonds indentor)
• Standard Hardness block of known hardness value for calibration of equipment.
• Micrometer capable of measuring thickness to the accuracy of 0.01mm.
• Barcol hardness tester with accessories for determination Barcol hardness.
PROCEDURE:
• The detailed test procedure of Rockwell, Barcol & Durometer hardness are given in
the chapter Mechanical Properties.
FACTORS AFFECTING:
• Hardness of the cured resin and reinforced plastics depends upon the rate and the
extent of the curing. Higher is the extent of curing higher will be the hardness and
vice-versa. It is also affected by the type of the resin and the hardener used.
PEAK EXOTHERMIC TEMPERATURE & GEL TIME
INTRODUCTION:
• Gel-time and Peak Exothermic temperature are the important parameters for
thermo-set resin. Resin producing high exothermic heat is more susceptible to cure
shrinkage and craze cracking. The laminates, which experience high heat, built up
(due to exothermic temperature) during cure of the resin it tend to produced weak
inter-laminar bond between the layers which leads to poor physical properties of
composite
DEFINITION:
• GEL-TIME: It is the time interval between the introduction of catalyst in thermo set
resin and formation of Gel. It is expressed in minutes.
• PEAK EXOTHERMIC TEMPERATURE: Peak exothermic temperature is the

maximum temperature reached by reacting thermosetting plastic composition on
incorporation of catalyst. It is expressed in degree Celsius.

SIGNIFICANCE:
• Gel-time helps to determinant working life of resin system on introduction of
catalyst in the resin.
• Peak exothermic temperature provides information about the rate of curing
of resin, hrinkage and craze-cracking likely to produce in reinforced plastics
products.
• It is useful for quality control of the incoming raw-material ( i.e resin) and to
check batch to batch uniformity.
• It helps to the processor to adjust their process according to gel-time of resin
system.
• Peak exothermic temperature affect the inter-laminar bond of composite and
hence physical properties of laminates.
• These tests are useful to ensure against storage changes and batch variations.

EQUIPMENTS:
• Following equipments are required.
• A simple container of approximately 7cm dia and 1.4cm depth
• A wooden probe and stopwatch
• A constant temperature bath capable of maintaining and holding temperature
within ± 0.10 C
• Temperature measuring device capable of measure temperature to the
accurately of ± 0.10 C, Non-conducting surface such as dry wood or
corrugated casing etc.
CONDITIONING:
• The test sample and other components are placed in suitable sample
container and conditioned in controlled temperature at 23 0 C for 4 hours
prior to testing. Probe to be used is also conditioned along with test sample.
Each component of samples is agitated separately with a stirrer rod for about
3 minutes in such a way that air does not entrap.

PROCEDURE:
• Gel-time and Peak exothermic temperature is determined according to ASTM

D 2471 by a common test. The conditioned sample compositions are taken
and curator is added to the resin in the recommended ratio and stopwatch is
immediately started. It is noted as starting time.
• The curator and resin is mixed slowly by agitating the mixture with stirrer rod
or mixing paddle. All care is taken such that heat transfer from the sample
container does not take place. Sample containers is placed on non-heat
conductive surface such as wood. Thermo couple or suitable heat measuring
device is inserted in the reacting mass.
• The change of temperature is observed and recorded at the end of test.

When reacting material stops adhering to the clean probe that time is
recorded as Gel-time as the elapse time from the start of mixing. The
temperature and time recording is continued for determination of Peak
Exothermic temperature.
• The highest temperature during reaction is recorded that is called peak

exothermic temperature and time elapsed to reach peak exothermic
temperature is called peak exothermic time
FACTORS AFFECTING:
Following factors affect the Gel-time and Peak exothermic temperature of resin
- Chemical composition of resins and proportions of reactant mass.
- The type and amount of the curators a hardener used
- Impurities present in the resin

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TEST
• In order to ensure high quality it is often required that certain feature of the
chemical composition be determined. The presence of contaminants in resin can
impair physical, chemical and electrical properties. For epoxy resin, tests of epoxide
equivalent and hydroxyl content provide measures of the reactivity of the resin.
Chloride and moistures of purity excessively values of such impurities can influences
reactivity as well as the electrical properties of the end product. ASTM D 1652 is used
for determination of epoxide content in the epoxy resin and ASTM D 1726 for
chloride content in epoxy resin
• Acid number of un-catalyzed polyester is determined as the quantity of KOH required
to neutralize 1gm of the resin. The acid number is used to ensure the batch
uniformity with respect to reactivity.
NON-VOLATILE CONTENT:
• Resin containing volatile species such as solvents etc. the determination of non-
volatile (solid) content is often required. ASTM D 1259 described the determination
of non-volatile content of resin solutions.
• Non-volatile matter are determined by weighing some amount of sample and then
exposed for specified period of time and temperature and weights are measured
before and after
REFERENCES
1. Hand Book of Plastics Testing Technology By Vishu Shah.
2. Testing & Evaluation of Plastics By A.B. Mathur.
3. Hand Book for Plastics Processor By J.A.Brydson.
4. Hand Book of Plastics Test Method By R.P.Brown.
5. IS Standards & AST Standards.

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CONTENTS

Corporate Training & Planning 2

Importance of product testing:

Corporate Training & Planning 3

– Additives,modifiers and processing aids.

– Plastic Processing Techniques e.g.Injection olding, Extrusion, Compression

– Processing Parameters (e.g. Pressure,Temperature & Time etc.)

– Pre Molding Operations e.g.Pre-heating,Pre-forming, compounding, Blending

– Post Molding operations such as Printing, decoration, drilling, trimming,

– Mould & Product Design

– End use conditions(e.g.Environmental condition,final assembly etc.)

Corporate Training & Planning 4

• Pipes and Fittings

• Plastic Films and Laminates.

Corporate Training & Planning 5

Corporate Training & Planning 7

Corporate Training & Planning 8

Corporate Training & Planning 9

Corporate Training & Planning 10

Polyvinylidene -- Lining material in steel pipes and

• The selection of correct piping depends as the application and environment.

• For chemical resistant & high temperature applications, Polypropylene pipes

Corporate Training & Planning 16

• Almost all the pipes are classified by

• Generally swegger and drainage pipe

Corporate Training & Planning 17

S.No. SDR of pipes Nominal Pressure SDR of pipes Nominal Pressure

S.N IS No. Pipe Sample Sample Test Test Duration Medium

Oil Immersion method : ( For UPVC pipes )

Corporate Training & Planning 25

• The most important and commonly used pressure tests are

Corporate Training & Planning 26

(ii) Type test (Long term test) : -

Corporate Training & Planning 27

Corporate Training & Planning 28

Corporate Training & Planning 29

• The hoop stress is expressed by following formula.

Corporate Training & Planning 30

Type test -do- 60 1000 1.16XPN

3. IS 14333-1996 Acceptance test -do- 80 48 4.1

Type test -do- 80 165 3.5

4. IS 12786:1989 Acceptance test -do- 20 1 6.9

Quality test -do- 70 100 2.5

5. IS 14151 Acceptance test -do- 70 70 5.4

Corporate Training & Planning 31

• It consists of subjecting the specified length of pipe to a constant internal

Significance : To check the conformity of the pipe to hydrostatic pressure test

Apparatus : Hydrostatic pressure machine capable to maintain required test

• Standard end fittings and other accessories

• Thermostatically controlled water bath

Corporate Training & Planning 34

Corporate Training & Planning 36

– For the quality control of the pipe

REAGENT : Concentrated Sulphuric Acid (Density 1840 kg/cm2 )

Corporate Training & Planning 38

Corporate Training & Planning 39

Corporate Training & Planning 40

Corporate Training & Planning 42

Corporate Training & Planning 44