Chapter 2

Electricity Generation

1
 Introduction
 Thermal Electric System
- Available Thermal Power
- Structure of a Thermal Generating Station
- Thermal Stations and the Environment
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermal Stations
 Hydro Electric System
- Available Hydro Power
- Types of Hydropower Stations
- Structure of a Hydropower Plant
- Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower Stations
 Nuclear Electric System
- Basic Theory of Nuclear Energy
- Types of Nuclear Reactors
- Nuclear Fusion
 Renewable Energy System
- Wind
- Solar
- Geothermal
- Biomass

2
 Electricity generation is the first process in delivery of
electricity to customers.
 Electricity has been generated for the purpose of powering
human technologies for at least 120 years from various
sources of potential energy.
 Today, we rely mainly on petroleum, natural gas, coal,
hydroelectric, nuclear power, and small amount from
renewable energy such as solar energy, tidal, wind energy,
and biomass.
 There are three main types of generating stations:
1. Thermal
2. Hydropower
3. Nuclear

3
 At power generating station (generating voltage)
 11 – 20kV and frequency of 50 Hz
 Transform to higher voltage (transmission
voltage)  132kV, 275kV and 500kV
 Transform to lower voltage (distribution voltage)
 33kV or 11kV

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 Thermal generating stations produce electricity from the
heat released by the combustion of coal, oil, or natural gas.
 Water is heated in a boiler until it becomes high-
temperature steam. This steam is then channeled through
a turbine, which has many fan-blades attached to a shaft.
 As the steam moves over the blades, it causes the shaft to
spin. This spinning shaft is connected to the rotor of a
generator, and the generator produces electricity.
 Most stations have ratings between 200 MW and 1500
MW.
 Thermal stations are usually located near a river or lake
because large quantities of cooling water are needed to
condense the steam as it exhausts from the turbines.

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6
Available Thermal Power

 The efficiency of thermal generating stations is always low

because of the inherent low efficiency of the turbines.
 The maximum efficiency of any machine that converts heat
energy into mechanical energy is given by the equation:
 = (1 – T2/T1) 100
where  = efficiency of the machine (%)
T1 = temperature of the gas entering the turbine (K)
T2 = temperature of the gas leaving the turbine (K)
 In most thermal stations, the gas is steam. In order to
obtain a high efficiency, the quotient T2/T1 should be as
small as possible.

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 However, T2 cannot be lower than the ambient
temperature, which is usually about 20°C, Thus, T2
cannot be less than
T2 = 20° + 273° = 293 K
 This means T1 should be as high as possible. The highest
feasible temperature T1 is about 550°C, As a result,
T1 = 550° + 273° = 823 K
 So, the maximum possible efficiency of a turbine driven
by steam that enters at 823 K and exists at 293 K is
 = (1 – 293/823) 100 = 64.4%
 Due to other losses, some of the most efficient steam
turbines have efficiencies of 45%.

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 Structure of a Thermal Generating Station
Induced-
draft fan
Boiler
HP MP LP
Drum Turbine Turbine Turbine

S3 Generator
S2
Condenser
HP MP LP G

P1
Burner S1
S4
P2

Forced- Reheater
draft fan P3
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 Boiler – acts as a furnace, transferring heat from the
burning fuel to row upon row of water tubes S1.
 Drum – containing water and steam under high pressure
produces the steam required by the turbines. It also
receives the water delivered by boiler-feed pump P3.
 High-pressure (HP) turbine – converts thermal energy
into mechanical energy by letting the steam expand as it
moves through the turbine blades.
 Medium-pressure (MP) turbine – similar to the HP
turbine, except that it is bigger so that the steam may
expand still more.
 Low-pressure (LP) turbine – composed of two identical
left-hand and right-hand sections. The turbine sections
remove the remaining available energy from the steam.

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 Condenser – causes the steam to condense by letting
it flow over cooling pipes S4.
 Reheater – is a heat exchanger. It receives hot steam,
bled off from HP turbine.
 Burners – supply and control the amount of gas, oil,
or coal injected into the boiler.
 Force-draft fan – furnishes the enormous quantities
of air needed for combustion.
 Induced-draft fan – carries the gases and other
products of combustion toward cleansing apparatus
and from there to the stack and outside air.

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 Generator – directly coupled to all three
turbines, converts the mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 Others components – a) control valves regulate
the amount of steam flowing to the turbines; b)
complex water purifiers maintain the required
cleanliness and chemical composition of the
feedwater; c) oil pumps keep the bearings
properly lubricated.

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Thermal Stations and the Environment

 Products of combustion of thermal generating

stations give impact to our environment.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
water are the main products of combustion when oil,
coal, or gas are burned.
 CO2 and water produce no immediate
environmental effects, but SO2 creates substances
that give rise to acid rain.
 Dust and fly ash may also contribute to air pollution.
 Natural gas produces only water and CO2 and thus
it gives minimum pollution to our atmosphere.

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Advantages of Thermal Stations

 They are easily available in standard capacities.

 There are less standby losses.
 They occupy less space.
 They can be started and stopped quickly.
 Less of civil engineering work is required.
 They can be located near the load centre.

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Disadvantages of Thermal Stations

 High operating cost.

 High maintenance and lubrication costs.
 Capacity is restricted. Cannot be of very big size.
 Noise problem.
 Cannot supply overload.
 Unhygienic (polluted) gasses emission and the
ash disposal caused air pollution and give the
unwanted greenhouse effects.
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 Hydropower generating stations convert the energy of
moving water into electrical energy via its hydraulic
turbine which is coupled to a synchronous generator.

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Available Hydro Power

 The size and physical location of a hydropower station

depends on height and rate of flow of water source.
 The available hydro power can be calculated by
P = gqh
where P = available water power (kW)
q = water rate of flow (m3/s)
h = head of water (m)
g = the acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)
 The mechanical power output is somewhat less than that
given in the equation above due to the friction losses in the
water conduits, turbine casing, and the turbine itself.
 Efficiency of large hydraulic turbine = 90 – 94%.

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Example 3.1
A large hydropower station has a head of 324 m and an average flow
of 1370 m3/s. The reservoir of water behind the dams and dikes is
composed of a series of lakes covering an area of 6400 km2. Calculate:
a) The available hydraulic power; b) The number of days this power
could be sustained if the level of the water were allowed to drop by 1
m.
Solution
a) The available hydropower is P = 9.8 X 1370 X 324 = 4350 MW.
b) A drop of 1 m in the water level corresponds to 6400 X 106 m3 of
water. Because the flow is 1370 m3/s, the time for all this water to
flow through the turbines is
t = 6400 X 106/ 1370 = 4.67 X 106 s = 1298 hr = 54 days.

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Types of Hydropower Stations

 Hydropower stations are divided into three groups:

1. High-head development – have heads above 300 m, and
high-speed turbines are used, normally are found in the
mountainous regions. The amount of impounded water is
usually small.
2. Medium-head development – have heads between 30 m
and 300 m, the generating station is fed by a huge
reservoir of water retained by dikes and a dam, the dam is
usually built across a river bed, a great deal of water is
impounded behind the dam.
3. Low-head development – have heads under 30 m, and
low-speed turbines are used, extract the energy from
flowing rivers, no reservoir is provided.

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Structure of a Hydropower Plant

 A hydropower plant consists of dams, waterways, and

conduits that form a reservoir and channel the water
toward the turbines.

Draft Tube

Tailrace

Scroll-case
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 Dams – made of earth or concrete across river beds to
create storage reservoirs. Dams permit us to regulate the
water flow throughout the year, so that the powerhouse
may run at close to full capacity. Raises the water level of
the river to create falling water. Controls the flow of water.
Spillways are provided to discharge water whenever the
reservoir level is too high.
 Reservoir – a place where water is stored. Usually a lake.
 Penstocks and Scroll-Case – a penstock is a pipeline that
leads to the turbine. Brings water from the reservoir to the
turbine. The penstocks channel the water into a scroll-case
that surrounds the turbine so that water is evenly
distributed around its circumference.

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 Turbine – the falling water from the dam causes
the turbine blades to spin. Converts kinetic energy
of the falling water to mechanical energy.
 Draft Tube and Tailrace – Water that has passed
through the turbine moves next through a
carefully designed vertical channel, called draft
tube. The draft tube improves the hydraulic
efficiency of turbine. It leads out to the tailrace,
which channels the water into the downstream
river bed.
 Powerhouse – contains the synchronous
generators, transformers, circuit breakers, etc., and
associated control apparatus. Instruments, relays,
and meters are contained in a central room where
the entire station can be monitored and controlled.

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Advantages of Hydropower Stations

 Water source is readily available. No fuel is required to be burnt. It is

also called as “the white coal”.
 The running costs of hydropower installations are very low as
compared to thermal or nuclear power stations.
 No air pollution, i.e. hydropower does not produce any greenhouse
effect.
 The hydraulic turbine can be switched on and off in a very short time.
 The hydropower plant is relatively simple in concept and self-
contained in operation. It is more reliable than other plants.
 Modern hydropower equipments have a greater life expectancy and
can easily last 50 years or more.
 It provides ancillary benefits like flood control and aqua-culture.

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Disadvantages of Hydropower Stations

 Hydropower projects are capital-intensive with a low rate of return.

 The construction period of hydropower projects is long. The gap
between the foundation and completion of a project may extend from
10 to 15 years.
 Power generation is dependent on the quantity of water available,
which may vary from season to season and year to year.
 The hydropower plants are often far way from the load centre and
require long transmission lines to deliver power. Thus, the cost of
transmission lines and losses in them are more.
 Large hydropower plants disturb the ecology of the area, by way of
deforestation and destroying vegetation.

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Introduction

 Nuclear stations produce electricity from the heat released by nuclear

reaction.
 When the nucleus of an atom splits in two (a process called atomic
fission), a considerable amount of energy is released.

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 A nuclear station is identical to a thermal station, except that the
boiler is replaced by a nuclear reactor.
 A nuclear station, therefore, contains a synchronous generator, steam
turbine, condenser, cooling system, etc.
 The overall efficiency is also similar to thermal station, i.e. between 30
and 40%.
 Owing to these similarities, we will only examine the operating
principle of the reactor itself.
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Basic Theory of Nuclear Energy

Atomic Nucleus – Isotopes

 The nucleus of an atom contains two types
of particles – protons and neutrons.
 The number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus depends upon the element.
 Number of electrons = number of protons.
 Isotope of an element has same number of
protons and electrons but different in the
mass number (neutrons + protons).
Example: two isotopes of uranium –
uranium 238 and uranium 235, each
contains 92 protons, but 238U has 146
neutrons and 235U has 143.

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Nuclear Fission What is
 Fission is the splitting of atoms into smaller Fission?
pieces, caused by neutrons hitting each other.
 These smaller pieces strike other atoms,
releasing energy and emit gamma radiation.
 When this process continues, it is called a chain
reaction.
 The energy released according to
Einstein’s equation:
E = mc2
where E = energy released [J] A loss in mass of only
1 gram produces 9 X 1016
m = loss of mass [kg] J, which is equivalent to
the heat given off by
c = speed of light [3 X 108 burning 3000 tons of coal

m/s]

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Chain Reaction

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 BEE 3243 – Electric Power Systems – Module 3

Types of Nuclear Reactors

 There are several types of reactors, but the
following are the most important:
1) Pressure-Water Reactor (PWR) – The water which flows through the
reactor core is isolated from the turbine. The obvious advantage to
this is that a fuel leak in the core would not pass any radioactive
contaminants to the turbine and condenser.

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2) Boiling-Water Reactor (BWR) – The coolant in this reactor is ordinary
water boiling under high pressure and releasing steam. The same
water loop serves as moderator, coolant for the core, and steam
source for the turbine. The disadvantage of this is that any fuel leak
might make the water radioactive and that radioactivity would reach
the turbine and the rest of the loop.

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3) High-Temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR) – This reactor uses an inert
gas coolant such as helium or carbon dioxide. Due to the high opera-
ting temperature (typically 750°C), graphite is used as a moderator.

32
4) Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) – This reactor has remarkable ability to both
generate heat and create additional nuclear fuel while it is in operation. The
cooling and heat transfer is done by a liquid metal.

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Nuclear Fusion
 We can also produce energy by combining
the nuclei of two atoms in a process called
nuclear fusion.
 For example, energy is released by the
fusion of an atom of deuterium with an
atom of tritium.
 Two nuclei (both are +ve) only unite (fuse)
when they approach each other at high
speed.
 The required velocity is close to the speed of
light and corresponds to the temperature of
several million degrees.
 Hydrogen bomb is a good example.

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Introduction
All renewable energy
(except tidal and
geothermal power), and
even the energy in fossil
fuels, ultimately comes
from the SUN.

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Wind Energy

 The wind is a by-product of solar

energy.
 Approximately 2% of the sun's
energy reaching the earth is
converted into wind energy.
 The surface of the earth heats and
cools unevenly, creating atmospheric
pressure zones that make air flow
from high to low pressure areas.
 A minimum wind speed of 10 km/hr
is required for the operation of wind
turbine.

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Properties of the Wind

 The wind have energy by its mass and

speed. For example, the kinetic energy
produced by 1 m3 (equivalent to a mass
of about 1.2 kg) of air moving at a
speed of 10 m/s is
Ek = ½ mv2 = ½ X 1.2 X 102 = 60 J.
 Wind turbine is used to produce
mechanical power output that can be
used to drive an electric generator. The
power of the wind is given by:
Pa = 0.6 v3
where Pa = power per m2 facing the
wind [W/m2]
v = speed of wind [m/s]
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Main Components of A Wind Turbine System

1. Blades
2. Rotor
3. Pitch
4. Brake
5. Low-speed shaft
6. Gear box
7. Generator
8. Controller
9. Anemometer
10. Wind vane
11. Nacelle
12. High-speed shaft
13. Yaw drive
14. Yaw motor
15. Tower

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Solar Energy from Photovoltaics (PV) Array

 Solar power is produced using solar cells, also known as

photovoltaics.
 Like batteries, solar cells generate direct current (DC) which is then
converted to alternating current (AC) using inverters.

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 Solar Thermal Electric Technology

Sunlight
2.7 MWh/m2/yr

System Boundary
Substation
Solar Field Steam
Solar
Turbine
Super
HTF heater
Heater Boiler
Stirling Engine
and ALternator
Receiver Concentrator Conden-
ser
Fuel

Thermal
Fuel
Energy
Storage Steam
Generator
Solar
Preheater Low
Deaerator Pressure
Solar Preheater
Reheater
Expansion
Vessel
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 Future Satellite Solar Power Stations
• Transmit solar energy using a
satellite to the earth.
• The transmission systems could
either via microwave or laser.
• Efficiency of transmission:
microwave (85%), laser (33%).
• For transmitting 10 GW of power,
microwave system needs 10 km for
width of beam at its receiver, while
laser beam system just needs 0.1
km.
• Not yet goes for practical as both
give dangerous effects due to
exposure of human beings as well
as radio-frequency interference.
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 Geothermal Energy

• Geo (Earth), Thermal (Heat).

• Heat flows outward from the center
as a result of radioactive decay.
• Temp at base of crust about 1000oC,
increasing slowly into the core.
• Hot spots located 2 to 3 km from the
surface.
• Types of geothermal energy:
1) Dry steam system
2) Wet steam system
3) Binary cycle systems

42
 Dry Steam Systems
• Uses direct steam that shoots up
through a well and rock catcher, directly
into the turbine.
• Dry steam fields are rare.
• Water boils underground and generates
steam at temps of 165oC and pressure of
about 100 psi. Most conventional fossil-
fuel power plants run at 550oC and 1000
psi.
• Dry steam field of The Geysers were
discovered in 1847 by a hunter. At first,
he thought he had discovered the gates
of hell. Used for therapeutic hot springs
and later for electric power in 1920.

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 Wet Steam Systems (Flash Steam)

• Pulls high pressure hot water into

low pressure cool water tanks,
resulting in “flash steam” used to
power turbines.
• Geothermal wells tap wet steam
fields deep in the earth’s surface.
• Taking a look at Yellowstone’s Old
Faithful,” allows us to see the
principles behind periodic geysers.
• Temperatures in a wet steam
system can reach up to 370oC with
boiling.

44
 Binary Cycle Systems

• High temperature water brought

from geothermal reservoirs, is
passed through heat exchanger,
containing pipe with secondary
fluids (Iso-butane) with a lower
boiling point.
• The resulting flash steam power
turbines, creating an electrical
current.
• The geothermal water is never
exposed to the air and is injected
back into the periphery of the
reservoir.

45
 Biomass Energy

• Biomass is any sorts of vegetation-trees,

grasses, plants parts such as leaves, husks,
and ocean plants. Examples of biomass
resources: wood waste, rice husks, oil palm
residue waste, etc.
• Biomass energy is a form of solar energy.
• Solar energy is captured via
photosynthesis as carbon dioxide is
incorporated as fixed carbon during the
growth stage of all biomass.
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What is Biomass?

BIO-FUELS
Primary Conversion
•Direct combustion
Primary sources •Pyrolisis
•Woody plant •Gasification
•Sugar beet for ethanol production •Anaerobically digestion
•Rape-seed as bio-diesel •Aerobic decomposition
•Fermentation
Secondary sources
(by product of agri/forestry industries) Secondary Conversion
•Palm oil residues •Internal combustion engines
•Bagasse •Steam turbines
•Paddy husks •Steam engines
•Waste-water effluent
•Animal dung

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Biomass Power Station

48
 Biomass Energy for Generating Electricity
Direct Combustion
• Burned to produce steam, the steam turns a turbine and the turbine
drives a generator, producing electricity. Because of potential ash
build-up (which fouls boilers, reduces efficiency and increases costs),
only certain types of biomass materials are used for direct combustion.

49
Gasafication
•Gasifiers are used to convert biomass into a combustible gas (biogas).
The biogas is then used to drive a high-efficiency, combined-cycle gas
turbine.

50
 Advantages of Biomass Energy
• Environmentally friendly.
• Uses renewable plant material such as sawdust, tree trimmings, rice
husks, oil palm residues; poultry litter and other animal wastes;
industrial waste; and the paper component of municipal solid waste.
• Can be used in a wide variety of processes such as the production
of clean transportation fuels, electricity and chemicals.
• With proper use, it can reduce the Malaysian need to fossil fuels,
and it can help to reduce the production of harmful greenhouse gases.

51
 BEE 3243 – Electric Power Systems – Module 3

Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

• Commercialization of biomass is costly. Government subsidies are
necessary for businesses to survive, due to expensive pretreatment.
• The pretreatment process, a necessary step to convert the biomass
into a standard fuel.
• Ethanol, the resulting fuel from gasifier process of biomass, has lower
energy content than gasoline. It requires 15-30% more volume for
the same amount of energy as gasoline.

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