Chapter 2

Fluids at Rest - Pressure

and its Effect
 Fluid Statics
• Fluid Statics deals with problems
associated with fluids at rest.

• In fluid statics, there is no relative

motion between adjacent fluid layers.

• Therefore, there is no shear stress in

the fluid trying to deform it.

• The only stress in fluid statics is

normal stress
– Normal stress is due to pressure
– Variation of pressure is due only to the
weight of the fluid → fluid statics is only
relevant in presence of gravity fields.

• Applications: Floating or submerged

bodies, water dams and gates, liquid
storage tanks, etc.
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal
force exerted by a fluid per unit
area --- normal stress

• Units of pressure are N/m2, which

is called a pascal (Pa).

• Since the unit Pa is too small for

pressures encountered in practice,
kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and
megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are
commonly used.

• Other units include bar, atm,

kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.
 Pressure at a Point
Pressure ?

Indicating the normal force per unit

area at a given point acting on a
given plane within the fluid mass of
interest.

How the pressure at a point varies

with the orientation of the plane
passing through the point ?

 In fluid at rest, pressure at any point

is the same at all direction.
 Consider the free-body diagram within a
fluid mass.

 In which there are no shearing stress, the

only external forces acting on the wedge are
due to the pressure and the weight.
Consider force in x axis:

Force due to Px = Px x Area of ABFE = Pxdzdy

Component Force due to Ps = - (Ps x Area ABCD) Sin q
= - Ps dsdz(dy/ds)
= - Psdydz

No component Py in x axis

In Equilibrium
Pxdzdy - (Psdydz ) = 0
Px = Ps

Consider force in y axis:

Force due to Py = Py x Area of CDEF = Pydxdz

Component Force due to Ps = - (Ps x Area ABCD) Cos q

= - Ps dsdz(dx/ds)
= - Psdxdz
Force due to weight = - Specific weight x Volume
= - r g x (1/2) (dx dy dz)
No component Px in y axis
In equilibrium

Pydxdz + (- Psdxdz ) + (- 1/2 (dx dy dz))= 0

Since dx, dy and dz is small than result of it

multiplies become too small and can be
negligible. Therefore

Pydxdz + (- Psdxdz ) = 0

Py = Ps

So,

PZ  Py  PS
The pressure at a point in a fluid at
rest, or in motion, is independent of
the direction as long as there are no
shearing stresses present.

• Pressure at any point in a fluid is the

same in all directions.

• Pressure has a magnitude, but not a

specific direction, and thus it is a
scalar quantity.

The result is known as Pascal’s law

named in honor of Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662).
 Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures
• Actual pressure at a give point
is called the absolute pressure.

• Most pressure-measuring
devices are calibrated to read
zero in the atmosphere, and
therefore indicate gage
pressure, Pgage=Pabs - Patm.

• Pressure below atmospheric

pressure are called vacuum
pressure, Pvac=Patm - Pabs.
Absolute, gage, and
vacuum pressures
 Atmospheric Pressure Pa

o Pressure due to weight of air above it

o Impossible to measure since it is compressible

and varies in density

o Standard value
10.35 mH2O water (34 ftH2O)
760 mmHg
14.7 psi
101.3 kN/m2

can be measured by

P = rgh

o Fluid pressure at free surface is equal to

atmospheric pressure
 Standard Atmosphere
Standard atmosphere was first
developed in the 1920s. The currently
accepted Standard atmosphere is based
on a report published in 1962 and
updated in 1976: U.S Standard
Atmosphere
 Standard Atmosphere
 For example, in the
troposphere (nearest to
earth surface), the
temperature variation
is of the form
T = Ta– βz

where Ta is the
temperature at sea
level (z=0) and β is the
lapse rate (the rate of
change of temperature
with elevation).

g / R
 z 
p  pa 1  
 Ta 
Pa is the absolute pressure at z=0.
 Gauge Pressure Pt

o Measured through pressure gauge

o Can be positive (above atm pressure) or negative

(below atm pressure)

o Gauge negative pressure is referred to suction

pressure or vacuum pressure

o Zero pressure means the pressure is equal to

atmospheric pressure

o Gauge pressure is measured relative to a local

atmospheric pressure

o Gauge pressure units:

N/m2 gauge
psig
kPa gauge
barg
 Absolute Pressure Pm

o Gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure

o There are two cases

Case 1
Pa

h
P2 = rgh

P2 = Pg = rgh
Pm = Pa + rgh

Case 2

PB = Pg = -rgh
Pm = Pa – rgh
Measurement of Pressure:
Absolute and Gage
Absolute pressure: measured with
respect to vacuum.
Gage pressure: measured with respect
to atmospheric pressure.

pgage  pabsolute  patmosphere

 Pressure Head of Fluid

O Pressure head of fluid is a pressure and

its interpreted as the height of a column of
fluid of specific weight γ required

O A basic equation is a relationship among

pressure, density and depth.

O Consider an element of fluid as shown

below.
dA : Cross sectional area of element
r : Fluid density
P : Pressure
In equilibrium

Upward Force = Downward Force

(P + dP) dA = PdA + mg
dPdA = mg

but
m = r v (v = element volume = dA dh)

dPdA = rvg = rgdAdh

dP = rgdh

Integrated it

 dP  r g  dh
P2 h2

P1 h1

P2 - P1 = r g (h2 - h1)
 But
h2 - h1 = h
Then
P2 - P1 = r g h

If h1 = 0 and P1 = 0 (atmospheric pressure), than

P2 = rgh

Based on the above equation, pressure is proportional

to depth ( P a h ) regardless of shape of container.

O In pressure head, the above equation become

p1  p2
h

and its measure in mmHg or mmH20
Variation of Pressure
with Depth
• In the presence of a
gravitational field,
pressure increases with
depth because more
fluid rests on deeper
layers.
• To obtain a relation for
the variation of pressure
with depth, consider
rectangular element
– Force balance in z-
direction gives
F z  maz  0
P2 Dx  P1Dx  r g DxDz  0
– Dividing by Dx and
rearranging gives

DP  P2  P1  r gDz   s Dz
• Pressure in a fluid at rest is
independent of the shape of the
container.
• Pressure is the same at all points on
a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
 Scuba Diving and
Hydrostatic Pressure
 Scuba Diving and
Hydrostatic Pressure
1 • Pressure on diver at
100 ft?
 kg  m  1m 
Pgage,2  r gz   998 3  9.81 2  100 ft   
 m  s   3.28 ft 
 1atm 
100 ft  298.5kPa    2.95atm
 101.325 kPa 
Pabs ,2  Pgage,2  Patm  2.95atm  1atm  3.95atm

2 • Danger of emergency
ascent? Boyle’s law

1 1  PV
PV 2 2
If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung V1 P 3.95atm
volume would increase by a factor of 4, which  2  4
would result in embolism and/or death. V2 P1 1 atm
Example

Change a pressure of 350 kN/m2 gauge into pressure

head of water and mercury

Water

P 350 x 103 N / m 2
h   35.68 m H 2O
r water g 1000 kg / m x 9.81 m / s
3 2

Mercury

P 350 x 103 N / m 2
h   2.62 m Hg
r mercury g 13600 kg / m x 9.81 m / s
3 2
Example
What is a water pressure at 35 ft depth in a vessel
shown in figure below.

At point 2

P2  P1  r gh
 (62.4 lb / ft 3 )(35 ft)
 2187 lb / ft 2
15.17 lb / in 2 ( psi )
Example
Oil with specific gravity of 0.8 form a layer of 0.9 m
thick above water in an open vessel as shown in figure
below. If the total depth of oil and water in the vessel is
3 m, what is the pressure at the bottom part of the vessel.

Oil
0.9 m

Water

T = 15oC 2.1 m

P2  P1  r m gh ( p1  atmospheric pressure )

P2  0.8(9.8 x103 N / m3 )(0.9 m)

 7056 N / m2 or Pa

P3  P2  r w gh
 7956 N / m 2  (9.8 x 103 N / m 3 )(2.1 m)
 27636 N / m 2
Example
Below vessel is containing fluids at temperature of
20oC ( = 9790 N/m3). Gauge A indicate of 350 kPa
absolute. Determine
a) Height of h in cm
b) Pressure indicate by gauge B in kPa absolute

Air 180 kPa abs

h Water

Mercury 80cm
A B
Solution
PA  PAir  9790h  133100(0.8)  350000
h  6.49 m
 649 cm

PB 180000  9790(6.49  0.80)

 252000 Pa abs
 252 kPa abs
 Example

Gauge in figure below shows at 300 kPa absolute.

Determine pressure at point 1, 2, 3 and 4 in SI unit.
Given, atmospheric pressure is 110 kPa.

Oil
1 SG 0.889 4
6m 600 cm

5m Water 1200 cm
Water
3m 300 cm
2 3

Solution
PGauge  300 kPa 110 kPa
190 kPa 190 kN / m3
P1 190 x10 3  9810(5)  0.889(9810)(6)
 88623 N / m 2
P2 190 x10 3  9810(3)
 219430 N / m 2
 300   1200   600 
P3 190 x 103   water   P4 190 x 103   water     oil  
 100   100   100 
190 x 103  9810(3) 190 x 103  9810(12)  0.889(9810)(6)
 219430 N / m 2 19953 N / m 2
 Transmission of Fluid Pressure

O In a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal

direction, the pressure applied to a confined fluid
increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.
This is called Pascal’s Law.

O The transmission of fluid pressure throughout a

stationary fluid is the principle upon which many
hydraulic devices are based.

P 1 = P2

A2
F1  pA1 F2  pA2  F2  F1
A1

Note : The pressure force exerted by the fluid is

always normal to the surface at the
specified points
Pascal’s Law

• Pressure applied to a
confined fluid
increases the pressure
throughout by the
same amount.
• In picture, pistons are
at same height:

F1 F2 F2 A2
P1  P2    
A1 A2 F1 A1
• Ratio A2/A1 is called
ideal mechanical
advantage
Example
Dimension of hydraulic jack is shown in figure below.
If a pressure of 100 N applied onto the jet handle,
determine a maximum force F2 would be support.

Free Body Diagram of handle

100 N

F1

Moment at C

100 x 33 cm - F1 x 3 cm = 0

F1 = (100 N x 0.33 m/0.03 m) = 1100 N

Pressure at small piston (left site)
F1 1100 N
P1   2  6.22 x 10 6
N / m 2

A1  d
4

Based on transmission principle

P1 = P2 = 6.22 x 106 N/m2

Therefore
2
d
F2  P2 A 2  6.22 x 10 x  12.22 kN
6

4
Example

Oil with a specific gravity of 0.9 is used

in a hydraulic apparatus as shown in
figure below. If a gauge indicate that a
pressure of 2.15 bar, determine the
value of W so that the system is in
equilibrium condition.
At x - x‘

Px '  Pt  r m gh
 2.15 x 105 N / m 2  0.9 (1000 kg / m 3 )(9.81m / s 2 )(2 m)
 232658 N / m 2

Based on transmission principle

Px = Px' = 232658 N/m2

Force  Pr essure x Area

 2
 232658 N / m 2 x (2)
4
 730916.66 N

730916.66 N
W 2
 74507.30 kg
9.81m / s
Example

Compressed air is compressed into an automobile lift

system at pressure of 150 kN/m2. Given a specific of oil
and piston radius is 0.9 and 80 mm, respectively.
Determine a maximum mass of car can be lift up. Give
answer in SI unit.
Valve
Piston
Compressed air

1.5 m
Oil
SG = 0.9

Solution
Pair  0.9(9810)(1.5)  Ppiston
Ppiston 150 x 103 13244
136756 Pa
2
 80 
Piston Area  r  
2
  0.02 m
2

 1000 

F  PA 136756 x 0.02
 2735 N
Maximum mass of car
W 2735
M   279 kg
g 9.81
Exercise

Given F = 850 N, A1 = 15 cm2, and A2 = 150

cm2. Determine W
 Exercise

Chapter 2

2.1, 2.3, 2.5, 2.10, 2.12, 2.13

 Types of Pressure Gauges

Gauges

Tube Gauges Mechanical Gauges

Bourden Diaphragm
Tube Gauges Tube Death Weight
Piezometer Tube Manometer Pressure
Gauge

Simple U Tube Differential Inverted Differential

Micro Manometer
& Manometer Inverted Leg Manometer Manometer
 Mechanical and
Electronic Devices
Manometers are not well suited for
measuring very high pressures, or
pressures that are changing rapidly
with time.
To overcome some of these
problems numerous other types of
pressure-measuring instruments have
been developed. Most of these make
use of the idea that when a
pressure acts on an elastic
structure, the structure will
deform, and this deformation can
be related to the magnitude of the
pressure.
 Bourdon Pressure Gage
Bourdon tube pressure gage uses a
hollow, elastic, and curved tube to
measure pressure.

As the pressure within the tube

increases the tube tends to straighten,
and although the deformation is
small, it can be translated into the
motion of a pointer on dial.

Connected
to the
pressure
source
 Aneroid Barometer
The Aneroid barometer is used for
measuring atmospheric pressure.
The Aneroid barometer contains a
hallow, closed, elastic elements which
is evacuated so that the pressure inside
the element is near absolute zero.

As the external atmospheric pressure

changes, the element deflects, and this
motion can be translated into the
movement of an attached dial.
 Bourdon Gage + LVDT
 Combining a linear variable differential
transformer (LVDT) with a Bourdon
pressure gage, converts the pressure into
an electric output.
 The core of the LVDT
is connected to the free
end of the Bourdon so
that as a pressure is
applied, the resulting
motion of the end of the
tube moves the core
through the coil and an
output voltage develops.

 This voltage is a linear

function of the pressure
and could be recorded
on an oscillograph or
digitized for storage or
processing on a
computer.
 Manometry
A standard technique for measuring
pressure involves the use of liquid
column in vertical or inclined tubes.

Pressure measuring devices based on

this technique are called manometers.
The mercury barometer is an example
of one type of manometer, but there are
many other configuration possible,
depending on the particular application
Piezometer Tube.
U-Tube manometer.
Differential U-Tube manometer.
Inverted U-Tube manometer
Micro manometer
 Piezometer Tube

O The simplest manometer is piezometer

O Consist of
- Vertical tube
- Open at both end
- Attached into a vessel that containing liquid need to
measure the pressure

O Liquid level will rise up relative to pressure level

O Measure in gauge pressure

Pressure at A, PA = r gh1

Pressure at B, PB = r gh2
 The fundamental equation is

PA = P0 + γh >> PA = γ1 h1

PA : gage pressure ( P0=0)

γ1 : the specific weight of the liquid in the
container
h1: measured from the meniscus at the upper
surface to point(1)

Only suitable if the pressure in the container is

greater than atmospheric pressure, and the
pressure to be measured must be relatively small
so the required height of the column is reasonable.
The fluid in the container must be a liquid
rather than a gas.
 Simple U-Tube Manometer

O Tube with U shape with open at one end

O Filled up with a gauge fluid that a density is
higher than a measured fluid as well as
immiscible.
D

The pressure at point (2) is equal to the

pressure at point (3) – transmission principle

P2 = P3

P2 = Pressure at A + Pressure due to h1

= PA + r1gh1
P3 = Pressure at D + Pressure due to h2
= PD + r2gh2

but
PD = Atmospheric pressure = 0
P3 = r2gh2

Since P2 = P3,

PA + r1gh1 = r2gh2
or

PA  r2 gh2  r1gh1
 Simple U-Tube Manometer

A(1)(2)(3)Open
PA + γ1 h 1 – γ2h 2 = 0
>> PA =γ2h 2 –γ1 h 1
If pipe A contains a gas
then γ1h 1≒0
>> PA =γ2h 2
 Example

Manometer tube U as shown below used to measure a

gage pressure of fluid N with density of 800 kg/m3. If
the density of manometer fluid is 13.6 x 103 kg/m3,
determine a gage pressure at A, if
a) h1 = 0.5 m and h2 = 0.9 m above BC
b) h1 = 0.1 m and h2 = 0.2 m above BC

PA  r m gh 2  r N gh 1
13.6 x 103 x 9.81 x 0.9  800 x 9.81(0.5)
116.15 x 103 N / m 2

PA 13.6 x103 x 9.81 x (0.2)  800 x 9.81 x 0.1

  27.45 x103 N / m2 (ve : PA below atm)
 Example
A closed tank contains compressed air and oil
(SGoil = 0.90) as is shown in Figure below. A
U-tube manometer using mercury (SGoil =
13.6) is connected to the tank as shown. For
column heights h1 = 36 in., h2 = 6 in., and h3 =
9 in., determine the pressure reading (in psi)
of the gage.
 Solution
The pressure at level (1) is

p1  pair   oil(h1  h 2 )  p2
As we move from level (2) to the open end, the
pressure must decrease by γHgh3, and at the
open end the pressure is zero. Thus, the
manometer equation can be expressed as

p1  p2   Hgh 3  pair   oil (h1  h 2 )   Hgh 3  0

or

pair  (SGoil )(  H2O )( h1  h 2 )  (SG Hg )(  H2O )h3  0

The value for pair

 36  6  9 
pair  (0.9)( 62.4 lb/ft 3 ) ft   (13.6)( 62.4 lb/ft 3 ) ft 
 12   12 
So that

pair  440 lb/ft 2

The pressure reading (in psi) of the gage

2
440 lb/ft
pgage  2 2
 3.06 psi
144 in. /ft
b) Differential Manometer
O This type of manometer is having close end of both
side
O Used to measure differential pressure in between two
points

PP  PQ

PP  PA  r1 gh 1
PQ  PB  r 3 gh 3  r 2 gh 2
So

PA  PB  r 3 gh 3  r 2 gh 2  r1 gh 1
If fluid A is the same with fluid B (same density), then
PA  PB  r 2 gh 2  r1 g(h 3  h 1 )
Differential U-Tube Manometer

A(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)B
PA＋γ1h1－γ2h2 －γ3h3＝ PB
The pressure difference is
PA－ PB＝γ2h2＋γ3h3－γ1h1
Example

Manometer tube- U is used to

measure a differential pressure
between two points which is A
and B in a pipeline containing
water with density of 1000 kg/m3.
Point B is 0.3 m above A.
Determine the differential
pressure if h is 0.7 m.
 Pc  PD

Pc  PA  r w g a PD  PB  r w g(b  h )  r m g h
PA  r w g a  PB  r w g(b  h )  r m g h
PA  PB  r w g (b  h )  r m g h  r w g a
 r w g(b  a )  gh ( r m  r w )
 (103 x 9.81 x 0.3)  (9.81 x 0.7)(13.6 x 103 103 )
 89.47 x 103 N / m 2
 Example
a) Determine an equation for pA － pB in terms of the
specific weight of the flowing fluid, γ1, the specific
weight of the gage fluid, γ2, and the various heights
indicated.

(b) For γ1= 9.80kN/m3 , γ2 = 15.6 kN/m3 , h1 = 1.0m, and h2

= 0.5m, what is the value of the pressure drop, pA － pB?
 Solution
we start at point A and move vertically upward
to level (1), the pressure will decrease by γ1h1
and will be equal to pressure at (2) and (3). We
can now move from (3) to (4) where the
pressure has been further reduced by γ2h2 . The
pressure at levels (4) and (5) are equal, and as
we move from (5) to B the pressure will
increase byγ1(h1 + h2)
pA  1h1   2 h 2  1 ( h1  h 2 )  p B
 p A  p B  h 2 ( 1   2 )

(A
ns)
c) Inverted Manometer

Used to measure a fluid differential pressure

Normally the above tube is fill up with air

Liquid density = r1

Pressure at x-x is the same

Left arm:

Pxx  PA  r1ga  r 2 gh
Right arm:

Pxx  PB  r1g(b  h )
 So that

PA  r1ga  r 2 gh  PB  r1g (b  h )
PA  PB  r1gb  r1gh  r1ga  r 2 gh
PA  PB  r1g (b  a )  gh ( r1  r 2 )

Or, if A and B at the same level, then,

PA  PB  gh ( r1  r 2 )
Example

Used the above figure, If fluid A and B is a water with

density of 1000 kg/m3 and difference level h of 0.3 m,
a = 0.25 m and b = 0.15 m, determine a differential
pressure PB-PA if the above part of manometer is fill up
with (a) air, (b) oil with specific gravity 0.8.

From the above equation

PA  PB  r w g(b  a )  gh ( r w  r )
a) Fill up with air (density negligible)
PA  PB 103 x 9.81(0.15  0.25  0.3)
1.962 x 103 N / m 2

b) Fill up with oil of SG = 0.8

PA  PB 103 x 9.81(0.15  0.25)  9.81 x 0.3 (0.2 x 103 )
  392.4 N / m 2
d) Micro Manometer

O Created since simple U tube is

having problem on determination
of differential pressure

O Required to read both points or

liquid level at manometer arm
due to liquid movement.

O Overcome by providing a large

diameter of one arm compared to
other

O Only required to read (liquid

level) at one arm - small
diameter arm.
Let say the above manometer is used to measure
differential pressure P1 - P2.

At liquid level x-x , DP = 0.

If pressure applied at a bigger diameter then the liquid

level in the small arm will rise with Z.

Liquid volume displaced to the right arm (small arm)

= Z x (p/4)d2
Then, the reduction of liquid level in the big arm will
be Volume Displaced

Area of Big Arm
 2
Z d 2
4  d 
 Z  
 2 D
D
4
PA  PB
PA  P1  r g g (height of gas head )  P1
2 2
d d
PB  P2  r g ( Z  Z   )  P2  r gZ (1    )
D D
Since D >>> d, then (d/D)2 can be
negligible
P1  P2  r gZ
P1  P2  r gZ

If the small arm is inclined position

q
Z

P1  P2  r gZ  r g x sin q
 Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure change, an
inclined-tube manometer is frequently
used:
PA +γ1h1 –γ2l2sinθ –γ3h3 = PB

PA – PB =γ2l2sinθ +γ3h3 –γ1h1

If pipe A and B contain a gas then γ3h3≒γ1h1≒0

>> l2 = ( PA – PB ) /γ2 sinθ

Example

Determine a gage pressure of air at the upper part of

water in a tank as shown in figure below. Assume the
density of water and mercury is 1000 kg/m3 and 13600
kg/m3 respectively.

Water
Air

1 m

2m
0.75 m
0.5 m Water

Mercury

Solution
 Water
Air

1 m

D
2m C
0.75 m
0.5 m Water
G
F
B
A

Mercury

PA  PB
PA  Patm  rgh PB  PA  r raksa gh
PC  PB  r air g (0.75)
 2 r raksa g  0.75 r air g
PC  PD  PF  r mercury g (0.5)
PF  2.5 r mercury g  0.75 r water g
PF  PG
PG  Pair  r water g (1.5)
2.5 r mercury g  0.75r water g  Pair  r water g (1.5)
Pair  2.5 r mercury g  2.25r water g
 311.4675 kN / m 2
Example

Water with specific weight of 62.4 Ib/ft3 is flowing in a

horizontal pipe that equipped with a differential
manometer as shown in figure below. Manometer is
containing mercury with specific gravity of 13.6 as a
manometer fluid. Determine the differential pressure of A
and B.

Water

A
x ft 2 7 ft
y ft
4 ft B
1

Mercury, SG 13.6
Method 1
P1  PA  62.4(4  x)
 PA  249.6  62.4 x

P2  P1  (13.6)(62.4)( 4)
 PA  249  62.4 x  3394.5

PB  P2  62.4(7  x)
 PA  249  62.4 x  3394.5  436.8  62.4 x

PA  PB  2708.16 lb / ft 2

Method 2

PA  (62.4)( x)  (62.4)( 4)  (13.6)(62.4)( 4)  (62.4)( y )  PB

x y7
x7 y
PA  (62.4)(7  y )  249.6  3395  (62.4)( y )  PB
PA  4368  62.4 y  249.6  3395  62.4 y  PB
PA  PB  2708 lb / ft 2
Example

Figure below shows a manometer with gage pressure at

A is -10.89 kPa. Calculate the SG of the gage liquid B
Solution

PA   SG 1.6 0.457    air 0.686    B 0.381  Patm

Patm  0 and PA  10.89kPa and  air  0

 10.89 x103  0.457  SG 1.6   B 0.381  0

98101.60.457   0.381 B 10.89 x 103
0.381 B  10.89 x 103  7173
3717
B 
0.381
 9756 N / m 3
9756
SGB   0.994  1.00
9810
 Exercise
Chapter 2

2.24, 2.25, 2.26, 2.27, 2.29,

2.31, 2.33, 2.35, 2.36, 2.40, 2.41

Submission Date:
 Forces on Submerge Surface

Force is acts normal or perpendicular to the

surface. Force at small element dA is PdA
(since P = F/A).
R

In fluid pressure is different at a different

points so as force.

On a flat surface all forces act in the same

direction and may represent by a single force
called Resultant Force.

Resultant Force will act at a point called

Center of Pressure
Resultant Forces R = Total Forces on each element
= P1dA1 + P2dA2 + …… PndAn
= S PdA

For curve surface force acts on each element is not in the

same direction

Resultant Force may be measured through component

force concept or integration method.

For a horizontal plane surface the forces are same at all

points and acts downward (normal to surface)

If A is an area of surface then

Resultant Force R = PA

act straight downward and center of pressure is equal to

centroid of the surface..
 Hydrostatic Forces on a Plane
When a surface is submerged in a
fluid, forces develop on the surface
due to the hydrostatic pressure
distribution of the fluid.
The determination of these forces is
important in the design of storage
tanks, ships, dams, and other
hydraulic structures.
F = PA = rghA

Pressure distribution and Pressure distribution on the

resultant hydrostatic force on ends of an open tank.
the bottom of an open tank.
 Objective

Specifying the magnitude of the

force : Plane and Curve Surface

Specifying the direction of the

force.

Specifying the center of

pressure
 On a Submerged Surfaces
 The hydrostatic force on any element of the
surface acts normal to the surface dF = pdA.
 The resultant force

FR   hdA   y sin qdA Where h= ysinq

A A

For constant  and q

FR   sin q ydA
A
First moment of the area at the x-axis >>>
 ydA  y
A
C A
 Resultant Force

The magnitude of the resultant force

is equal to pressure acting at the
centroid of the area multiplied by the
total area.

FR  Ay c sin q  hc A

yc = Centroid coordinate
yc sin q = hc = Centroid depth
Location of Resultant Force
How to determine the location (xR,yR)
of the resultant force ?
The moment of the resultant force must
equal the moment of the distributed
pressure force.
FR y R   ydF    sin qy2dA FR  Ay c sin q  hcA
A A

yR 
 A
y2dA

Ix

I xc
 yc
yc A yc A yc A

The resultant force does not pass

through the centroid but is always
below it.

Ix is the second moment of the area (moment of

inertia). By parallel axis theorem…

Ix  Ixc  Ay c
2
FR xR   xdF    sin qxydA FR  Ayc sin q  hc A
A A

xR 

A
xydA

I xy

I xyc
 xc
yc A yc A yc A

Ixy is the product of inertia wrt the x and y.

By parallel axis theorem…

I xy  I xyc  Ax c yc

Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an

orthogonal coordinate system passing through
the centroid of the area and formed by a
translation of the x-y coordinate system.

If the submerged area is symmetrical with

respect to an axis passing through the centroid
and parallel to either the x or y axes, Ixyc=0.
Geometric Properties of
Common Shapes
 Example
A rectangular body of 10 m width and 35 m length
submerge in water at 25 m depth under surface as shown
in figure below. Determine a resultant force and its
centre of pressure.

Depth of Centroid

Resultant force onto the body

Center of Pressure
Example
Repeat the above example but the body position is
inclined with an angle of 30o to surface water.

Depth of Centroid

Resultant force onto the body

Example
A water gate with rectangular shape as shown in figure
below. Calculate a required force P to maintain a gate in
close condition. Given Ixc = bd3/12 which b and d is
width and length respectively and density of water is
1000 kg/m3.

Water 3m
Hinged
Gate

4m
P

Solution
F  r g hc A hc  yc
4
hc  3  5
2
F  1000 x 9.81 x 5 x (3 x 4)
 588600 N
I XC
YR   yc
yc A
Take moment at hinged :  M  0
F x YR  3  P x 4
P  ......................
Exercise

A water gate was designed in a combination shape of

rectangular and semi circular as shown in figure below.
Calculate a required force P to maintain a gate in close
condition. Given a centroid of semi circular is 0.4244r
and Ixc = 0.1098r4 and density of water is 1000 kg/m3.

Water 3m
Hinged
Gate
2.5m
4m
P
1.5m
Example
A rectangular water gate AB was made by steel and
hinged at B as shown in figure below. If the gate width
and length is 2 m and 3 m respectively,
a) Calculate thickness of the gate to maintain in
close condition
b) What is the required moment to be imposed at the
gate to keep the gate closed if water level at right
side is reduced form 3m to 2.6m. (rwater = 1000
kg/m3, SGsteel=7.85, Ixc=bd3/12)

4m water A
water 3m
60o B
 hc1=2.7m
A
4m hc2=1.7
1.5 m
R1
R2 m 3m
1.5 m
60o W

B
hc1
hc1  4 1.5 sin 60  2.7 m yc1  3.12 m
sin 60
h
hc 2  3  1.5 sin 60 1.7 m yc 2  c 2 1.96 m
sin 60
R1  r g hc A  (1000)(9.81)( 2.7)( 2 x3)
158922 N
I bd 3 2 x33
YR1  xc  yc1 I xc    4.5 m 4
yc1 A 12 12
4.5
  3.12  3.36 m
3.126
Dis tan ce from B, BCP1
4
  3.36  1.26
sin 60
R2  r g hc 2 A  (1000)(9.81)(1.7)(6)
100062 N
4.5
YR 2   1.96  2.34 m
1.966
Dis tan ce from B, BCP2
3
  2.34 1.12 m
sin 60
 W  r g V  (7.85)(1000)(9.81)(6t )
 462051t N
At equilibriu m M B 0
W (0.75)  R2 BCP2   R1 BCP1   0
462051t (0.75)  100062(1.12)  158922(1.26)  0
t  0.25

From the top

R1 = 158922N BCP1 = 1.26m
W = 462051(0.25) = 115512.75N
hc 2 1.3
hc 2  2.6  1.5 sin 60  1.3 m yc 2    1.5 m
sin 60 sin 60
R2  r g hc 2 A
 (1000)(9.81)(1.3)(6)
 76518 N
4.5
YR 2   1.5  2 m
1.56
Dis tan ce from B, BCP2
2.6
  2 1 m
sin 60
Re quired Moment
M  R1 BCP1   R2 BCP2   W 0.75
1589221.26  765181  115512.750.75
 37089.16 Nm
Example

Figure below indicated that a plug with cone shape used

to plugged a hole of 45 cm radius at one side of a tank
that containing X fluid (SG=0.8). The cone is 1.5 m
height and 1.1 m of it bottom diameter. Depth of cone
center point to the surface liquid is 10m.
a) Draw the distribution of pressure onto the plug
b) Determine the force acts onto the plug

Cone 10 m

Solution
a)

90 cm

Plug portion of unbalance pressure is equal to

d=90cm (hole diameter)

D 2   90 
2

A  x   0.636 m
2

4 4  100 
F  r g hc A hc 10 m
 (0.8)(1000)(9.81)(10)(0.636)
 49.9 kN
Example

Half circular shape of water gate is hinged at the bottom

part of a dam as shown in figure below. Diameter of
water gate is 2.5 m. Determine a force F required to keep
a gate closed.

water
15m F

Water gate

Solution
FR  r g hc A
D 2  2.5
2

A 4  4  2.454 m 2
2 2 F
To find hc
 2.5 
4 x  1.25m
    0.531m FR
4R 2
y
3 3x 0.523m
hc 15  0.531 14.469m
Then
FR  (1000)(9.81)(14.469)( 2.454)  348323 N
4
I  2.5 
YR  xc  yc I xc  0.1098R 4  0.1098   0.268 m
4

yc A  2 
0.268
  14.469
14.4692.454
14.477 m
Dis tan ce FR to hinge
15 14.477  0.523 m
M hinge 0
 2.5 
F   FR 0.523
 2 
F
3483230.523
1.25
145.7 kN
Example

Figure below shows a water gate with 2 ft width

perpendicular to the drawing. It will freely rotate at
hinge H. Given weight of gate is 500 lb and center of
gravity is 1.2 ft to the right and 0.9 ft above H. What is
a depth X of water above H to keep the gate closed?
Neglect an effect of friction and thickness of the gate.
Draw a distribution of forces onto the gate.

Water
x

60o
E
H
4 ft
 W

O
Fs

x
60o

E
H

Fv

hcv  x
x
ys 
cos 30
x 0.5 x
ycs  
2 cos 30 cos 30

hcs 
x
cos 30  x
2 cos 30 2
Av  (4)( 2)  8 ft 2
 x 
As   2 
 cos 30 

Fv  hcv A   ( x)(4 x2)  8x

  x  x 
Fs  hcs A      . 2  1.155x 2
 2  cos 30 
I xc
yR   yc
yc A
3
1  x 
 bd 3   2 
1
I xcs 
12  12   cos 30 

3
1  x 
 2  
I
yRs  xc  yc 
  
12 cos 30    2 x   0.577 x  0.77 x
yc A  0.5 x   x    12 cos 30 
  2  
 cos 30   cos 30 

Therefore, the distance between centers of pressure of Fs

to the point H is
 x 
    0.770 x  0.385x
 cos 30 
For system in equilibrium conditions, sum of the moments of
all forces is equal to zero. Let’s take moments at point H.

M H 0
Fs 0.385 x   Fv 2  W 1.2)   0
1.155x 2 0.385 x   8x2  5001.2  0
Substituting
lb
  62.4
ft 3
Gives

27.73x 3  998.4 x  600  0

We can solve this equation by trial and error method.

Through the method, we can use linear interpolation or
extrapolation to estimate the actual values. Therefore,
the results are:
x1  0.607
x 2  5.67
x3   6.28 (meaningless)

Therefore the gate will remain closed when the water

depth above H is

0.607 ft  x  5.67 ft
 Example

Gate with triangle shape CDE as shown in figure below

is hinge through CD in a pool that containing oil with a
specific gravity of 0.8. The gate will open whenever
normal force P applied at E. If weight of gate is
negligible, density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and Ixc =
(1/36)bh3, determine
a) Magnitude of force acts onto the gate
b) Center of pressure
c) Magnitude force P
O
x

P 30o
Minyak
SG = 0.8 C

y
D
2.5 m

C
E 4.0 m

3.0 m 5.0 m

Solution
a) F  r g h A
c

y c  4  2.5  6.5 m hc  6.5 sin 30  3.25 m

1
F 1000 x0.8 x9.806 x3.25 x (5 x3)
2
191217 N

b) I xc 1 1
YR   yc I xc  bh 3  x5 x33  3.75
yc A 36 36
3.75
  6.5
6.5 x7.5
 6.577 m

c) Moment at CD
F C
P

D
3 x = h/3 = 3/3 = 1 m

P x 3  F x1
191217 x 1
P
3
 63739 N
Example

UTM company was flowed a friendly chemical solution

into an open pool as shown in figure below. The
inclined pool wall is installed with a gate of 400kg mass
and semi circular shape of 6m diameter. Company
noticed that a force of 500 kN is required at the bottom
edge to keep the door closed. If the depth of chemical
solution is 6 m, determine specific gravity of chemical
solution.

500kN 7m
Chemical
6m
solution

Solution
 6
Sin q 
7
q  59 o
4 R (4)(3)
X   1.273 m
3 3
y c  7  3  1.273  5.273 m
hc  5.273 sin 59  4.520 m
I xc  0.1098 R 4  0.1098(3) 4  8.893 m 4
 2  2
A R  x 3  14.14 m 2
2 2
W  mg  400 x 9.81  3924 N
I 8.893
YR  xc  y c   5.273
yc A 5.273(14.14)
 5.392 m 500 000

M hinge 0 W
FR
FR (5.392  4)  3924(1.273 cos 59)  500000(3 cos 59)
FR  556,846 N
FR  r g hc A   h c A
FR 556846
   8712 N / m 3
hc A 4.520(14.14)
 chemical solution 8712
SGchemical Solution  
 water 9810
 0.89
 Pressure Diagram

Resultant force and centre of pressure can be determined

through pressure diagram (alternative method) – flat
surface

Consider distribution of pressure onto a vertical flat wall of

tank which width b and containing liquid with density of r.

The resultant fluid force on

the surface is that due only
to the gage pressure
contribution of the liquid
in contact with the
surface – the atmospheric
pressure does not
contribute to this resultant.

Fluid with r
Resultant force acts onto surface

h
R  r g hc A where hc 
2
So that

h
Rr g A but A  b x h
2
Then
rgh b 2

R
2

or resultant force per unit width

rgh 2

R
2
It means that resultant force is equal to
pressure prism volume or resultant force per
unit width is equal to area of pressure prism
R would acts through pressure prism centroid which is
h/3 from the bottom (based on centroid of pressure
triangle)

So that

2
hR  h  hc
3

Same method used for fully immersed surface –

trapezoid shape
Total resultant force per unit width
R = R1 + R2
1
 r g h 1 (h 2  h 1 )  r g (h 2  h 1 )(h 2  h 1 )
2
 1 
 r g (h 2  h 1 ) h 1  (h 2  h 1 )
 2 

Then, center of pressure can be determined through

moment concept. Let say at A

Ry A  R 1 y1  R 2 y 2

So that
R 1 y1  R 2 y 2
yA 
R
Pressure Prism

h
FR  pav A     A
2
1 h
 volume  ( h )( bh )    A
2 2

FR  F1  F2
FR y A  F1y1  F2 y 2

h1  h2
y1 
2
2( h2  h1 )
y2   h1
3
 Similar if two liquid involve.

Resultant force per unit width

R = R1 + R2 + R3

1 1
 ( r1gh 1 x h 1 )  r1gh 1 x (h 2  h 1 )  ( r 2 g(h 2  h 1 )(h 2  h 1 )
2 2
1 1
 r1gh 1 ( h 1  (h 2  h 1 ))  ( r 2 g(h 2  h 1 ) 2
2 2

Position of center of pressure

R 1 y1  R 2 y 2  R 3 y 3
hR 
R
Pressure Prism for inclined
plane area

The pressure developed

depend on the vertical
distances.
Example

A closed rectangular tank with 1.8

height and containing water of
1.2m depth. Air was pumped into
the tank until a pressure reached
35 kN/m2. If the tank wall is 3 m
width, calculate a resultant force
acts on the wall and the height of
center of pressure respect to
bottom part of the tank.
Resultant Force R = Ru + Ra

1
 35 x 103 x 1.8 x 3  rgh(1.2)(3)
2
1
189 x 103  (1000)(9.81)(1.2)(1.2)(3)
2
 210.19 kN

R u yu R a ya 189 x 0.9  21.189 x 1.4

hR    0.95 m
R 210.19

CP from bottom of the tank

1.8 - 0.95 = 0.85 m

 On a Curved Surfaces
 Consider the curved section BC of the open
tank.
FH  F2 FV  F1  W
FR  FH  FV
2 2

F1 and F2 can be determined from the

relationships for planar surfaces.

The weight W is simply the specific weight of

the fluid times the enclosed volume and acts
through the center of gravity (CG) of the mass
of fluid contained within the volume.
Hydrostatic Force onto Curve Surface

Force acts on each element is not in same direction

Need to combine through vector theorem. Easier to

calculate through component forces : Horizontal and
vertical direction

Lets consider a figure below.

 AB is immersed curve surface
RV : Vertical force
RH : Horizontal force

Figure (a): Pressure acts from the top surface

Figure (b): Pressure acts from the below surface

Horizontal Component:

Figure (a): ACE is vertical plane and BC is horizontal

plane. Then, resultant force P acts onto AC is equal to
RH (in equilibrium). So that

h 2  h1
R H  rgh c A dengan h c  h 1  (A  h 1 x 1)
2
 (h 2  h 1 ) 
 rgA  h 1  
 2 
or per unit of width
1
R  rgh 1 (h 2  h 1 )  rg(h 2  h 1 ) 2
2
 1 
 rg(h 2  h 1 ) h1  (h 2  h 1 )
 2 
 And coordinate of RH is at CP of AC.
I xc
hR   hc hc  yc since vertical plane
hc A
Same with ABF element in figure (b)

RH = Resultant force on BF surface and acts at its CP

Vertical Component

RV = Weight of fluid in ABDE area

Then
RV = r g x Volume ABDE

Or per unit width

RV = r g x Area of ABDE
RV would acts through center of gravity G of ABDE.

Resultant Force

 RV 
R  RH  RV2 2
dan q  tan  
1

 RH 
Example

Figure below is shown a semi circular shape of body

immersed in fluid. Determine a resultant force act onto
curves surface and its direction respect to horizontal axis.
Given a density of fluid is 1500 kg/m3

But yc = hc
for AC surface

For per unit width

per unit width

Area ABDE

Area of ABDE per unit width

per unit width

per unit width

Example

Figure below is shown a cross section of a

parabolic water dam. Calculate a resultant force
and its direction respect to vertical axis as well
as the distance of intersect point from point A.
Given centroid of semi parabolic is 4.75 from
OA.
 Solution

Vertical Force

Rv per unit width

Horizontal Force
h h
FH  r g hc A   A   h (1)
2 2
h2

2
d2

2
1000 x9.81x52 2

2
13.26 x 106 N / m
FR  FV2  FH2  4.415 2

 13.26 2 x106
13.98 x106 N / m
FH 13.26
Tanq  
FV 4.415

FV
R

cp G
FH q
cp
 I xc
YR   yc
yc A
bd 3 1x523 52
I xc   A  52 x1 yc 
12 12 2
1
x1x523
52
y R  12   34.66 m 4
52 2
x52
2

FV
R
34.66
52 cp G
17.34 FH q
cp

A Q
4.75 Z

AQ  4.75  Z
Z  17.34 tan q

13.26
AQ  4.75  17.34 x
4.415
 56.8 m
 Exercise

Chapter 2

2.49, 2.50, 2.51, 2.52, 2.57,

2.58, 2.59, 2.65, 2.70, 2.75,
2.78, 2.79

Submission Date:
 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy: The net vertical force acting
on any body which is immersed in a
liquid, or floating on its surface due
to liquid pressure. FB

Consider a body of arbitrary shape,

having a volume V, that is immersed in
a fluid,
 FB  F2  F1  W Specific weight
constant
F2  F1   ( h2  h1 ) A
FB   ( h2  h1 ) A   ( h2  h1 ) A  V 
FB is the force the body is exerting on the fluid.
W is the weight of the shaded fluid volume
A is the horizontal area of the upper (or lower) surface

For a submerged body, the buoyancy

force of the fluid is equal to the weight
of displaced fluid
FB  rgV
 h1
1
h2
h

2
Based on the above figure buoyancy

F1  r g h1 A
F2  r g h2 A
In equilibrium condition buoyancy force is

FB  F2  F1
 r g Ah2  h1 
r gh
 r gV
r = Fluid density
g = gravity force
V = Volume of immerse body or volume
of fluid displaced

Buoyancy Force = Weight of body in fluid

= Weight of fluid displaced

r s gV
r s gV
r w gV    r w gV
SG rs
rw
Archimedes’ Principle
For a submerged body, the buoyancy
force of the fluid is equal to the
weight of displaced fluid and is
directly vertically upward.

FB  rgV

The relation reportedly was used by

Archimedes in 220 B.C. to determine
the gold content in the crown of King
Hiero II.
• Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced
by a body.

FB=rf gV

• Archimedes principal : The buoyant

force acting on a body immersed in a
fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body, and it acts
upward through the centroid of the
displaced volume.
Example: Galilean
Thermometer
• Galileo's thermometer is made of a
sealed glass cylinder containing a clear
liquid.
• Suspended in the liquid are a number of
weights, which are sealed glass
containers with colored liquid for an
attractive effect.
• As the liquid changes temperature it
changes density and the suspended
weights rise and fall to stay at the
position where their density is equal to
that of the surrounding liquid.
• If the weights differ by a very small
amount and ordered such that the least
dense is at the top and most dense at the
bottom they can form a temperature
scale.
 Stability
Stability? Stable? Unstable?

A body is said to be in a stable

equilibrium position if, when
displaced, it returns to its
equilibrium position. Conversely, it
is an unstable equilibrium position if,
when displaced (even slightly), it
moves to a new equilibrium position.
• Three scenarios possible

1. rbody<rfluid: Floating body

2. rbody=rfluid: Neutrally buoyant

3. rbody>rfluid: Sinking body

 Stability of Immersed Bodies

• Rotational stability of immersed bodies

depends upon relative location of
center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.

– G below B: stable

– G above B: unstable

– G coincides with B: neutrally stable.

 Stability of Floating Body

The determination of stability depends

in a complicated fashion on the
particular geometry and weight
distribution of the body.
 Stability of Floating
Bodies

• If body is bottom heavy (G lower than B), it is

always stable.
• Floating bodies can be stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in location of center
buoyancy and creation of restoring moment.
• Measure of stability is the metacentric height
GM. If GM positive, ship is stable.
 The Line of Action of FB
and C.G.
The line of action of buoyancy force,
which may be found using the method
of “hydrostatic force on submerged
surfaces,” acts through the centroid
of the displaced volume.

The point through which the buoyant

force acts is called the center of
buoyancy.

C.G: The body force due to gravity

on an object act through its center
of gravity (C.G.).
Based on figure

a) Stable
b) Stable
c) Unstable
Metacentric Point or Height
Based on figure below

Oy : Straight to the surface of object

Ox : Level of buoy
Oz : Vertical downward axis in equilibrium condition
q : Angle of displaced

Whenever the object is displaced then the shape of

immersed volume will changed. But it has the same
volume since the weight of object is similar. Therefore

Weight of floated ORS = Weight of immersed OPQ.

According to moment concepts

F y '   y.dF   y 2 r g sin q dA since F   r g y sin q dA

Similar method to the immersed volume

dV = z dA

and the total volume of immersed

V   dV   z dA
A

We know that buoyancy force FB = r g V. And if the

force is acts at  respect to yz then the relationship
become x o

 

x FB  x r g V   x r g dV  r g  x z dA
o o (a)

If the both portions is symmetrical (respect to yz) then


x = 0.
o
After displaced anew buoyancy centre is B‘
and distance of x to xy.

Depth of body immersed

Existing :Z
New : Z + x tan q

So that

x r gV  r g  x ( z  x tan q ) dA
A

or
(b)

xV   x ( z  x tan q ) dA
A

From equation (a) and


(b), the distance in
between B and B’ ( x - x o )

 
( x  x o ) V   x ( z  x tan q ) dA   x z dA
A A

  x 2 tan q dA  tan q  x 2 dA
A A

 tan q I cc

Icc = Second area moment

 M
  
 
 X  X o   BM tan q

 
B q

xo B’

x

Therefore,

V (BM tan q )  tan q I cc

or
I cc
BM 
V

where BM is called metacentric height

Example

Cylinder with diameter of 1.35 m

and 1.8 m height has a mass of
770 kg is floated. Proved that the
cylinder is not float in a vertical
position in a brine with a density
of 1025 kg/m3. If the bottom part
of the cylinder is tie up with chain,
determine a force required to make
it in vertical position. Center of
gravity of the cylinder is 0.9 m
from the bottom.
a) Without Chain

Displace volume V = m/r = 770/1025 = 0.75 m3

Depth of immersed d = V/A = 0.75/R2 = 0.75/( x 0.6752) = 0.524 m

Height of center of buoyancy from bottom = d/2 = 0.262 m

Height of center of gravity from bottom = 0.9 m

BG = 0.9 – 0.262 = 0.638 m

R 4
I
BM   4  0.218 m
V 0.75

Metacentric height GM = BM – BG = -0.42 m

(-ve sign indicated as an unstable condition)

b) Tie up with chain

 770
V  0.75 m 3
1025
V 0.75
d   0.524 m
r  0.675
2 2

d 0.524
OB    0.262 m
2 2
OG  0.9 m
BG  0.9  0.262  0.638 m
r 4
I
BM   4  0.218 m
V 0.75
GM  BM  BG  0.218  0.638  0.42 m
Upward force R = T + W

New displace volume = R/rg = R/(1025 x 9.81)

New depth of float = R/(1025 x 9.81 x  x 0.6752) = R/14400 m

Height of center of buoyancy above A = R/28800m

and

For equilibrium, take moment at G

T = 12200 – 7560 = 4640 N

 Example

A 6 inch cubic is fully immersed in water and it

equalize by 10 lb weight as shown in figure below.
Determine,
a) Buoyancy force of the cubic
b) Specific gravity of cubic

1 ft 1.5 ft

Solution
10
FBD T

FB
T A
W
Find T value by taking moment at A

T x 1 = 10 x 1.5
T = 15 lb

Force in equilibrium, F 0
T  FB  W  0
FB   waterVwater   waterVcubic
 63 
 62.4  
 1728 
 7.8 lb
Therefore

W  T  FB
 15  7.8
 22.8 lb
So
W 22.8 lb
 cubic    182
Vcubic  63  ft 3
 
 1728 
Then
 cubic 182
SG    2.92
 water 62.4
Example

A cylinder with diameter of 120 mm and height of 200

mm is hanged with cable and immersed in fluid as
shown in figure below. Neglect of any friction.
a) If fluid is water and W = 2kg, determine specific
gravity of the cylinder
b) If the cylinder is float at 50 mm height above
water, calculate W
c) If the cylinder is immersed in brine (SG = 1.025),
calculate W

W
200mm

120 mm

Solution
a)
T
W

FB

Downward Force = Upward Force

Cylinder weight = Object weight + Buoyancy force
 mg  rgV

 2 x 9.81  9810  0.12  0.2 
2

4
 41.81N
So, Cylinder mass M
Weight
M  4.262 kg
Gravity
Then
M
 
r cylinder  V  cylinder
SG    1.884
r water 1000
b)
T
W

FB
 Upward force = Downward force
Object weight + Buoyancy force = Cylinder Weight

Mg  rgV  41.81

41.81  9810  0.12 0.15) 
2

M  4
9.81
 2.57 kg

c) T
W

FB

Downward force = Upward force

Object weight + Buoyancy force = Cylinder weight

Mg  rgV  41.81

41.81  10251000 0.12 0.2) 
2

M  4
9.81
1.944 kg
Example

Figure shows a spherical object is full immersed in water.

Object is tied up by a cable at the bottom part in a pool. If
a cable force is 1280 N and spherical diameter is 1 m,
calculate a specific gravity of object when the system is
in equilibrium. Neglect weight of cable.

Air Object

Cable

Solution
FB
FBD
W

T
T  W  FB
W  FB  T  FB  1280
FB   waterV
4 3
 9.811000   0.5 
3 
 5140 N
Then
W  5140  1280  3860 N
We know that
W  Mg
3860
M  393.5 kg
9.81
So,
M 393.5 kg
r   751 3
V 0.524 m
Therefore
r object 751
SG    0.751
r water 1000
Example

A balloon of 85 g/m2 mass filled up with helium gas at

pressure of 135 kPa and tied up with a cable as shown in
figure below. Take density of helium and air is 0.2218
kg/m3 and 1.1892 kg/m3 respectively. Determine,
a) Cable tensile
b) Air density at location where the balloon is in
equilibrium after the cable is cut off

D = 10 m

Cable

Solution

FBD Whe Wbal

T
B
  3
W he r he gVbal  0.2218 x9.81 10  
6 
 1139 N
Wbal  mg  0.85 x9.81x x10 
2

 262 N
 3
B  r air gVbal  1.1892 x9.81x 10  
6 
 6108 N
Based on FBD
T  B  Whe  Wbal
 6108  1139  262
 4700 N
Equilibriu m reached whenever
Buoyancy  Weight
Weight  1139  262 1401 N
Therefore
r air gV  1401
1401 kg
r air   0.273 3
 3
9.81 10  
m
6 
Example

The piston of the ball valve shown in figure below

has a diameter of 10 mm. The valve just closes when
quarter of the volume of the float is submerged.
Calculate the pressure in kN/m2 of the mains supply.
Solution
R R1
25 mm

D = 10 mm

D = 150 mm

FB

FB  rgV  V
V  4
3
 
 r 
4 43 
 9810 xx 0.075  4.3334 N
1 3

3
 M engsel  0
FB 0.25   R0.025
4.3334 x0.25
R   43.334 N
0.0025
R  R1 same magnitude, opposite direction
R1  43.334 N

R1 43.334
P   552 kN / m 2
A 
0.012
4
Example

Figure below shows hemispherical shells are bolted

together using eight bolts that are symmetrically
located around the circumference and the resulting
mass is 220 kg. The resulting spherical shell is vented
at the top and supported by a cable. If the spherical
shell is half-fitted with a liquid and the tension in the
cable is 3000 N, determine the SG of the liquid. The
outer diameter of the spherical shell is 500 mm and the
thickness is 300 mm
Solution
OD  500 mm  0.5 m
t  30 mm  0.03 m
ID  OD  2t  0.5  2(0.03)  0.44 m
3
4 4  0.44 
VSpherical   R 3      0.0446 m
3

3 3  2 
 water 1000 x 9.81  9810 N / m 3 T

F v 0

T  Wspherical  Wliquid (1)

Wspherical  mg  200 x 9.81  2158.2 N ( 2)
 0.0446 
Wliquid   liquidV   liquid    0.02236 liquid (3)
 2 
Substitute (2) and (3) int o (1), then

300 N  2158.2 N  0.02236 liquid

841.8
 liquid   37748.8 N / m 3
0.0223

37748.8
SG   3.85
9810
Example

A cylindrical buoy 2 m in
diameter, 1.5 m high and
weighing 15 kN float in salt water
of specific gravity 1.025. Its
center of gravity is 0.45 m from
the bottom. If a pyramid load of 3
kN is placed on the top, find the
maximum height of the center of
gravity of this load above the
bottom if the buoy is to remain in
stable equilibrium.
Solution
W2
W1

G2
G2

G1 G
G
G1
h
B B
O
O
q
FB

For equilibriu m
FB  W1  W2 15  3 18 kN
 2
FB  V  SG w Ah 1.025 x9810 x 2 h  31589.5h
4
18 x10 3
h  0.5698 m
31589.5
h 0.5698
OB    0.2849 m
2 2
If the load and buoy are just is stable equilibrium.
M must coincide with the centre of gravity G (buoy + load)

GM = 0 then BG = BM
  4  4
 R  1
I 4 4
BG  BM     0.4388 m
R h  1 x0.5698
2 2
V

OG  OB  BG  0.2849  0.4388  0.7237 m

M O 0

W1 OG1   W2 OG2   FB OG 

Maximum height of load above bottom,

FB OG   W1 OG1  18 x103 x0.7237  15 x103 x0.45

OG2  
W2 3 x103
 2.0922 m
Exercise

Figure is shows a cylinder floater shape with 2 m

diameter, 1.5 m height and 15 kN weight float in a brine
with specific gravity of 1.025. It center of gravity is 0.45
m height from the bottom. If a cubic of 3 kN weight is
loaded onto the floater, calculate the maximum height of
center of gravity of cubic from the bottom whenever
floater is in stable equilibrium.

3 kN

1.5 m

D=2m
Exercise

A rode with a diameter of 4 cm and 8 m length is

hinged at point B in a water pool. The rode is in an
equilibrium at an angle of 30o when tied up with 2 kg
object and it specific gravity of 11.4 as shown in
figure below. Determine the rode specific gravity .
Given specific weight or water is 9790 N/m3.

30o

8m

M = 2 kg
SG = 11.4

ANS : SG = 0.636
 Exercise

Chapter 2

2.83, 2.87 and 2.88

Submission Date: