Pressure and Fluid Statics

Pressure

Pressure is defined as a normal force

exerted by a fluid per unit area.
Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called
a pascal (Pa).
Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa =
103 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa)
are commonly used.
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2,
lbf/in2=psi.
Fluid Statics
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

Actual pressure at a give point is called

the absolute pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage= Pabs - Patm.
Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, Pvac= Patm - Pabs.

Fluid Statics
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures

Fluid Statics
Pressure at a Point

Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same

in all directions.
Pressure has a magnitude, but not a
specific direction, and thus it is a scalar
quantity.

Fluid Statics
Variation of Pressure with Depth

In the presence of a gravitational

field, pressure increases with
depth because more fluid rests on
deeper layers.
To obtain a relation for the
variation of pressure with depth,
consider rectangular element
Force balance in z-direction gives
∑F z = maz = 0
P2 Δx − P1Δx − ρ g ΔxΔz = 0
Dividing by Δx and rearranging gives

ΔP = P2 − P1 = ρ g Δz = γ s Δz

Fluid Statics
Variation of Pressure with Depth

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of

the shape of the container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a given fluid.

Fluid Statics
Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure

Fluid Statics
 Scuba Diving and Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure on diver at
100 ft? 1
" kg #" m# " 1m #
Pgage ,2 = ρ gz = $ 998 3 %$ 9.81 2 % (100 ft )$ %
& m '& s ' & 3.28 ft '
" 1atm #
= 298.5kPa $ % = 2.95atm
100 ft & 101.325kPa '
Pabs ,2 = Pgage ,2 + Patm = 2.95atm + 1atm = 3.95atm
Danger of emergency
ascent?
2 PV
1 1 = PV
2 2 Boyle’s law

V1 P2 3.95atm
= = ≈4
V2 P1 1atm
If you hold your breath on ascent, your lung
volume would increase by a factor of 4, which
would result in embolism and/or death.

Fluid Statics
Pascal’s Law

Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases
the pressure throughout
by the same amount.
In picture, pistons are at
same height:
F1 F2 F A
P1 = P2 → = → 2= 2
A1 A2 F1 A1

Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage

Fluid Statics
The Manometer

An elevation change of Δz
in a fluid at rest
corresponds to ΔP/ρg.
A device based on this is
called a manometer.
A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or
oil.
Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large P1 = P2
pressure differences are
anticipated. P2 = Patm + ρ gh

Fluid Statics
Multi-fluid Manometer

For multi-fluid systems

Pressure change across a
fluid column of height h is
ΔP = ρgh.
Pressure increases
downward, and decreases
upward.
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous
fluid are at the same
pressure.
Pressure can be
determined by adding and
subtracting ρgh terms.
P2 + ρ1 gh1 + ρ 2 gh2 + ρ3 gh3 = P1
Fluid Statics
Measuring Pressure Drops

Manometers are well-

suited to measure
pressure drops across
valves, pipes, heat
exchangers, etc.
Relation for pressure drop
P1-P2 is obtained by
starting at point 1 and
adding or subtracting ρgh
terms until we reach point
2.
If fluid in pipe is a gas,
ρ2>>ρ1 and P1-P2= ρgh

Fluid Statics
The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.
PC can be taken to be zero
since there is only Hg vapor
above point C, and it is very low
relative to Patm.
Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation has
many effects: Cooking, nose
bleeds, engine performance,
aircraft performance.
PC + ρ gh = Patm
Patm = ρ gh
Fluid Statics
Fluid Statics

Fluid Statics deals with problems associated

with fluids at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid → fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged bodies,
water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
Fluid Statics
Water Dam

Fluid Statics
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

On a plane surface, the

hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces
For many applications,
magnitude and location of
application, which is called
center of pressure, must
be determined.
Atmospheric pressure Patm
can be neglected when it
acts on both sides of the
surface.

Fluid Statics
Resultant Force

The magnitude of FR acting on a plane surface of a

completely submerged plate in a homogenous fluid is
equal to the product of the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface and the area A of the surface
Fluid Statics
Center of Pressure
Line of action of resultant force
FR=PCA does not pass through
the centroid of the surface.
In general, it lies underneath
where the pressure is higher.
Vertical location of Center of
Pressure is determined by
equation the moment of the
resultant force to the moment of
the distributed pressure force.
I xx ,C
y p = yC +
yc A
Ixx,C is tabulated for simple
geometries.

Fluid Statics
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

FR on a curved surface is more involved since

it requires integration of the pressure forces
that change direction along the surface.
Easiest approach: determine horizontal and
vertical components FH and FV separately.
Fluid Statics
Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Horizontal force component on curved surface:

FH=Fx. Line of action on vertical plane gives y
coordinate of center of pressure on curved
surface.
Vertical force component on curved surface:
FV=Fy+W, where W is the weight of the liquid in
the enclosed block W=ρgV. x coordinate of the
center of pressure is a combination of line of
action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and
line of action through volume (centroid of volume).
Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2
Angle of force is α = tan-1(FV /FH)

Fluid Statics
Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a

body. FB=ρf gV.
Archimedes principal : The buoyant
force acting on a body immersed in a fluid
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, and it acts upward through the
centroid of the displaced volume.

Fluid Statics
Examples of Archimedes Principle: The
Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of Syracuse
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.
Hiero, 306-215 B.C.
Hiero learned of a rumor
where the goldsmith replaced
some of the gold in his crown
with silver. Hiero asked
Archimedes to determine
whether the crown was pure
gold.
Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method
Fluid Statics
The Golden Crown of Hiero II, King of
Syracuse
The weight of the crown and
nugget are the same in air:
Wc = ρcVc = Wn = ρnVn.
If the crown is pure gold, ρc=ρn
which means that the volumes
must be the same, Vc=Vn.
In water, the buoyancy force is
B=ρH2OV.
If the scale becomes
unbalanced, this implies that
the Vc ≠ Vn, which in turn
means that the ρc ≠ ρn
Goldsmith was shown to be a
fraud!

Fluid Statics
Examples of Archimedes Principle:
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing
What is the best way to
measure body fat?
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing
using Archimedes Principle!
Process
Measure body weight
W=ρbodyV
Get in tank, expel all air, and
measure apparent weight Wa
Buoyancy force B = W-Wa =
ρH2OV. This permits
computation of body volume.
Body density can be computed
ρbody=W/V.
Body fat can be computed
from formulas.

Dr. Sina Kuseyri

Buoyancy and Stability

Buoyancy force FB is
equal only to the
displaced volume
ρf gVdisplaced.
Three scenarios possible
1. ρbody<ρfluid: Floating body
2. ρbody=ρfluid: Neutrally
buoyant
3. ρbody>ρfluid: Sinking body

Fluid Statics
Example: Galilean Thermometer
Galileo's thermometer is made of a sealed
glass cylinder containing a clear liquid.
Suspended in the liquid are a number of
weights, which are sealed glass
containers with colored liquid for an
attractive effect.
As the liquid changes temperature it
changes density and the suspended
weights rise and fall to stay at the position
where their density is equal to that of the
surrounding liquid.
If the weights differ by a very small
amount and ordered such that the least
dense is at the top and most dense at the
bottom they can form a temperature scale.

Fluid Statics
Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast

Submarines use both static and dynamic

depth control. Static control uses ballast
tanks between the pressure hull and the
outer hull. Dynamic control uses the bow
and stern planes to generate trim forces.

Fluid Statics
Example: Submarine Buoyancy and Ballast

Ballast Control Panel: Important station for controlling depth of submarine

Fluid Statics
Stability of Immersed Bodies

Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative

location of center of gravity G and center of buoyancy B.
G below B: stable
G above B: unstable
G coincides with B: neutrally stable.

Fluid Statics
Stability of Floating Bodies

If body is bottom heavy (G

lower than B), it is always
stable.
Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center
buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.
Measure of stability is the
metacentric height GM. If
GM>0, ship is stable.

Fluid Statics
Rigid-Body Motion
There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-body
motion: linear acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical container.

In these cases, no shear is developed.

Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of
motion for a fluid that acts as a rigid body
! !
∇P + ρ gk = − ρ a

In Cartesian coordinates:
∂P ∂P ∂P
= − ρ ax , = −ρ ay , = − ρ (g + a x )
∂x ∂y ∂z

Fluid Statics
Linear Acceleration
Container is moving on a straight
path
ax ≠ 0, a y = az = 0
∂P ∂P ∂P
= ρ ax , = 0, = −ρ g
∂x ∂y ∂z
Total differential of P

dP = − ρ ax dx − ρ gdz
Pressure difference between 2
points
P2 − P1 = − ρ ax (x2 − x1 ) − ρ g (z2 − z1 )
Find the rise by selecting 2 points
on free surface P2 = P1
ax
Δzs = zs 2 − zs1 = − (x2 − x1 )
g

Fluid Statics
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Container is rotating about
the z-axis
ar = −rω 2 , aθ = az = 0
∂P ∂P ∂P
= ρ rω 2 , = 0, = −ρ g
∂r ∂θ ∂z

Total differential of P
dP = ρ rω 2 dr − ρ gdz

On an isobar, dP = 0
dzisobar rω 2 ω2 2
= → zisobar = r + C1
dr g 2g

Equation of
2
the free surface
ω
zs = h0 −
4g
(R 2 − 2r 2 )

Fluid Statics