CHAPTER 6

FLUID
MECHANICS
 LESSON OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to :

 distinguish the phase of matter (and able to define fluid)

 understand the concept of density & specific gravity

 determine the pressure in a fluid (including atmospheric pressure & gauge

pressure)

 explain & applied the Pascal’s Principle to solve the problems

 understand the measurement of pressure (using various measuring
devices)

 explain & applied the Archimedes’ Principle to solve the problems

 PHASE OF MATTER
Matter is made up of many particles called molecules.
Matter can exist in one of the three states :

A material can change from one state to another for example :

ice (solid) water (liquid) steam (gas)
 PHASE OF MATTER
Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids
GAS LIQUID SOLID
 assumes the shape and  assumes the shape of  retains a fixed volume
volume of its container the part of the container and shape
(particles can move past one which it occupies (rigid - particles locked into
another) (particles can move/slide past place)
one another)

 compressible  not easily compressible  not easily compressible

(lots of free space between (little free space between (little free space between
particles) particles) particles)

 flows easily  flows easily  does not flow easily

(particles can move past one (particles can move/slide past (rigid - particles cannot
another) one another) move/slide past one
another)
 FLUID
Liquids and gases do not maintain a fixed shape, they both have
the ability to flow.

They are thus referred to collectively as fluids.

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when subjected
to shear stress
 DENSITY & SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density, ρ - mass per unit volume

m
 SI unit : kg/m3
V

Specific Gravity (Relative Density)

- a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the
substance to the density of water at a specified temperature

density of a substance
SG 
density of water

 water
1000 kg / m 3
Example 1

A solid iron wrecking ball has a relative density of 7.8 and a radius of 18 cm.
Determine the mass of the ball.

Solution :

Ans: 190 kg
 PRESSURE
Pressure is define as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area .

F
P
A
SI unit : N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)

Other units : bar, standard atmosphere, and kilogram-force per square

centimetre
Pressure is the same in every direction in a fluid
at a given depth; if it were not, the fluid would flow.
 PRESSURE IN A FLUID

F W mg  V  g Ahg
P      hg
A A A A A

P  hg

where :
P = pressure
h = depth below the surface
of the liquid (or altitude
in air)
 = liquid’s density
g = gravitational
acceleration
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted against a surface by the
weight of the air above the surface (pressure due to air).
Any free surface open to the atmosphere has atmospheric
pressure, Patm

Patm = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

If atmosphere pressure is taken into consideration, total pressure

(absolute pressure) in a fluid is :

Pabs  Patm  Pgauge

Pabs  Patm  hg
Example 2

A submarine is operating at 100 m below the surface of the ocean.

Calculate the the gauge pressure and the total pressure experienced by the
submarine.

Solution :

Ans: 9.81 x 105 Pa, 1.08 x 106 Pa

 PRESSURE IN A LIQUID AT REST
If the density is constant, the pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly
with depth from the free surface.
The pressure is the same at all points with the same depth from the free
surface regardless of geometry, provided that the points are
interconnected by the same fluid.
However, the thrust due to pressure is perpendicular to the surface on
which the pressure acts, and hence its direction depends on the
geometry.
 PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH
Pressure is measured based on the homogeneous fluid (constant
viscosity), the variation in depth and the gravitational constant.

• If you can draw a continuous line through the same fluid from
point 1 to point 2, then P1 = P2 if h1 = h2.
• P4 = P5 if point 4 and point 5 are at the same elevation.
• Pressure P2 does not equal P3 due to different in viscosity.
PRESSURE VARIATION WITH DEPTH
The shape of a container does not matter in hydrostatics.

P1 = P2 = P3 = Patm + ρgh
Example 3

An open tank contains water up to a depth of 2 m and above it an oil of

SG = 0.9 for a depth of 1 m. Determine the pressure :
a)at the interface of the two liquids
b)at the bottom of a tank

Solution :

Ans : 8.829 kPa, 28.4 kPa

 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
Pascal’s principle says that :
If external pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the change in
pressure is transmitted equally to all point within a fluid
without loss.

Thus;

P1  P2

F1 F2

A1 A2
 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
A piston with a small area A1 exerts a force F1 on a fluid, which
connects a larger piston of area A2,

A2 >> A1.

The pressure is the same in both cylinders, so

 PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
• The volume of fluid pushed down on the left side equals the
volume of fluid that is lifted up on the right side, the following
formula is also true :
V1 = V2

V1 = volume displacement at piston = A1 * x1

V2 = volume displacement at ram = A2 * x2
 THE APLICATION OF PASCAL’S
PRINCIPLE
Hydraulic Brake

A small force acts at the pedal can transmit a large force to all wheels
simultaneously to stop the car. It is because the pressure will be
transferred through the pedal brake liquid to car’s tire.
Example 4

A car of weight 14500 N car is raised with a hydraulic lift. If the radius of
the small piston is 4.0 cm, and the radius of the large piston is 17 cm, find
the force that must be exerted on the small piston to lift the car.

Solution :

Ans : 800 N
Example 5

A force of 250 N is applied to a hydraulic jack piston that is 0.01 m in

diameter. If the piston that supports the load has a diameter of 0.10 m,
approximately how much mass can be lifted by the jack? Ignore any
difference in height between the pistons.

Solution :

Ans : 2550 kg
Example 6

Based on the information given, calculate

i)the displacement of x2 .
ii)calculate the force F1 (ignore any difference in height between the
pistons.)

Ans: 83.3 N, 0.5 mm

Solution :
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
PIEZOMETER

• A tube, open at the top, which is attached to a vessel or a pipe

containing liquid at a pressure (higher than atmospheric) to be
measured.
• This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and
only when the liquid height is convenient to measure.
• It must not be too small or too large and pressure changes must
be detectable.

P1 = ρgh1
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
U-TUBE MANOMETER

• A glass tube bent into the shape of a "U", and is used to measure the
pressure in a tank.

• Since pressure in a fluid does not vary in the horizontal direction

within a fluid, the pressure at point 2 is the same as the pressure at point 1.

• Then the pressure at point 2 :

P2 = Patm + ρhg
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
OPEN ENDED MANOMETER

Pgas = Patm Pgas = Patm + PHg Pgas = Patm - PHg

Pgas > Patm

Pgas < Patm
gas pushes Hg up
atm pushes Hg down

26
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER

• Used to measure the difference in pressure between two

containers or two points in the same system.

P2 = P3

PA + ρ1h1g = PB + ρ3h3g + ρ2h2g

PA - PB = ρ2h2 g + ρ3h3g – ρ1h1g

 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
INCLINED-TUBE MANOMETER

• Used to measure very small pressure difference.

• To increase the sensitivity of the differential reading, one leg of the

manometer can be inclined at an angle θ, and the differential reading is
measured along the inclined tube. As shown above, h2 = l2sinθ, and
hence
PA - PB = ρ2g l2sinθ + ρ3gh3 – ρ1gh1
 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
MULTI-FLUID MANOMETER

•Used to measure the pressure in the pressurized tank.

Pair + ρwaterh2g + ρoilh1 g = Patm + ρmercuryh3 g

Pair = Patm + (ρmercuryh3 – ρoilh1 – ρwaterh2) g

Example 7

A column of water of height 70 cm supports a column of an unknown liquid

as suggested in the figure. Assume that both liquids are at rest and that the
density of water is 1.0 x 103 kg/m3.
Determine the density of the unknown liquid.

Solution :

Ans : 2.6 x103 kg/m3

Example 8

A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid uses has
a specific gravity of 0.85 and the manometer column height is 55 cm. If the
local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure
within the tank.

Solution :

Ans : 100.6 kPa

 BUOYANCY
•Buoyancy is the tendency of an object to rise or float when immersed in a
fluid (either a liquid or a gas).
•Buoyant force is an upward force exerted by the fluid on the submerged
object.
•The strength of the force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
(pushed aside) by the object; this principle is known as Archimedes'
Principle.
•This principle explains why less effort is required to lift an object
submerged in water than to lift the same object when it is out of water.
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
Archimedes’ Principle state that :
When an object is immersed (fully or partially) in a fluid, the buoyant
force on the object is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the
object
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
Buoyant Force, FB = Weight of fluid displaced
= mf g
= ρf Vf g

where :
ρ = density of fluid
V = volume of fluid displaced or the volume of the object that
immersed in the fluid.

OR

FB = Weight of submerged object

OR
THINK !!
THINK !!
 ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

• If Buoyant force = weight ⇒ the object floats and stationary

• Buoyant force > weight ⇒ the object moves up
• Buoyant force ˂ weight ⇒ the object moves down
Example 9

The mass of a block of aluminum is 25 g.

a) what is its volume?
b) what will be the tension in a string that suspends the block when the block is totally submerged in water?
Given the density of aluminum is 2700 kgm-3

Solution :
Volume = mass / density, but first convert grams to kg to stay consistent.
V=.025kg / 2700kg/m3 = 9.26 x10-6 m3
Might be more reasonable to express that volume as cm3, so multiply by 1003 cm3/m3 to convert.
Volume = 9.26 cm3

The tension on a the string will be equal to the weight force (assuming near-Earth gravity) minus the buoyant force.
T=W-B
W = .025kg * 9.8m/s2 = .245 N
B = 1g/cm3 * 9.26cm3 * 9.8m/s2 / 1000g/kg = 0.0908 N

Total tension force = 0.154 N.

Ans : 9.26 x 10-6 m3, 0.154 N

Example 10

A life preserver floats with one-fifth of its volume submerged in water.

What is the density of the material out of which the life preserver is
made?

Solution :

FB = Weight of Body

ρwater g V immersed= ρbody g Vbody

ρwater 1/5Vbody = Vbody ρbody

ρbody = (1/5Vbody)/(Vbody) xρwater

ρbody = 1/5 1000kg/m3 = 200 kg/m3

Ans: 200 kg/m3

Example 11

A solid cube is 0.75 cm on each side. It floats in oil density 800 kg/m3 with
one third of the block out of the oil. What is the buoyant force on the cube?

Solution :

FB = ρoil g Vimbeded

FB = (800 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(0.75 x2/3x10-2)(0.75 x10-2 (0.75

x10-2)

FB = 2.207 x 10-3 N

Ans : 2.205 x 10-3 N

Example 12

A rock whose mass is 9.28 kg has an apparent mass of 6.18 kg when

totally submerged in water. What is the volume of the rock?
(density of water = 1000 kg/m3)

Solution :

ρrock = mrock/Vrock

ρH2O = mH2O/VH2O

Vrock = Vdisplaced water = m displaced water/ ρH2O

Vrock = 9.28 – 6.18 kg / 1000 kg/m3 = 0.0031 m3 = 3.1 x 10-3 m3

Ans : 3.1x 10-3 m3

Example 13

A rectangular pontoon has a width B of 6 m, a length l of 12 m, and a draught

D of 1.5 m in fresh water (density 1000 kg/m3). Calculate :

 a) the weight of the pontoon in fresh water

b) its draught in sea water (density 1025 kg/m3)
c) the load (in kiloNewtons) that can be supported by the pontoon in
fresh water if the maximum draught permissible is 2 m.

Solution :

Ans: 1059.48kN, 1.46 m, 353.1 kN

a)
FB = ρ g V = ρ g B l D
FB= 1000 x 9.81 x 6 x 12 x 1.5 N = 1059.5 kN

b)
D = W/ρ g B l
D = 1059.5 x 103/1025 x 9.81 x 6 x 12
D = 1.46 m

c)
Total uptrust = weight of water displaced
=ρgBlD
= 1000 x 9.81 x 6 x 12 x 2
= 1412.6 kN
Load which can be supported = Upthrust – weight of pontoon
= 1412.6 – 1059.5
= 353.1 kN