VI: Emotion, Motivation and

Stress
Emotion
• Nature
• Types
• Functions of emotion
• Theory of emotion
• James-Lange theory
• Cannon-Bard theory and
• Schachter-Singer theory
• Emotion and Health
 Meaning and definition of emotion

• Latin word emovere= stir up, to agitate or to excite.

• Emotions are experiences of feelings such as fear, joy, or

surprise. It is the feeling aspects of our consciousness.

• Emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or

something. -Feldman
Meaning and definition of emotion
Basic Elements of Emotion
All emotions consist of three elements:
1. Physiological: e.g. heart rate increase, breathing

2. Behvaioural: e.g facial expressions, smile, crying, yelling

3. Subjective feeling: anger, fear, happiness, sadness, shame

etc.
 Nature and Features of Emotion
• Universal: prevalent in every living organism.
• Uniqueness: differ from individual to individual
• Innate and learnt: Innate-joy, anger, fear; Learnt-shame,
guilt.
• Temporary: rise abruptly but goes slowly
• Displacement/shift: (boss scolds -angry with your spouse in
home).
• One emotion-many stimuli (e.g. happiness)
• One may generate many others (e.g. sadness to anger)
 Types
1. Positive vs Negative
• Positive: The pleasant emotions like
love, curiosity, joy and happiness -
essential to the normal
development

• Negative: Unpleasant emotions like

fear, anger, jealousy -harmful to the
well-being and development
 Types
2. Felt versus Displayed emotions
1. Felt emotions: actual emotions that you
show (spouse comes home late; you yell).

2. Displayed emotions: Sometimes, you

many not show the actual emotion It is learnt
and important in organisation and work place
(you are sad but you are smiling).
 Functions of emotions
1. Preparing us for action
• Gives extra energy to deal with that difficult
• Ex. Fear prepares you for escaping danger

2. Shaping our future behavior

• We learn from our previous emotions/experience
• you failed in exam and had bad feeling-you work
hard to avoid such feeling in future.
 Functions of emotions
3. Helping us interact more effectively with others
• expressions of emotion can act as signals to others
• help us to understand how someone is feeling
• we can predict their future behavior and interact
accordingly
4. Other Functions
• also helpful in memory-memories are attached with
emotions.
• emotions also influences our intelligence, decision
making and also health.
 Theories of emotions
Which comes first: the emotion or the reaction?

1. emotions derive from physical changes (physiological approach),

2. emotions result from mental processes or both physiological and

mental (cognitive approach).

Are we afraid because we run, or do we run because we are afraid?

 Theories of emotions
1.Physiological Theory of emotions
a. The James-Lange Theory (William James and G.G. Lange).
• emotions spring from physiological reactions (e.g. increase in heart
beat, breathing).

• our body reacts and we feel emotion after the brain interprets that
physiological changes.

• Physiological changes occur before the emotion.

• Our emotion doesn’t cause the physiological changes.

 Theories of emotions
b.The Cannon-Bard Theory (also called ‘Thalamic theory’)
• Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard

• Thalamus send emotion creating stimulus simultaneously to

the cerebral cortex and the internal organs of the body.

• emotional experience and the bodily responses occur

simultaneously but independently.
 Theories of emotions
2. Cognitive Theory of emotions
The Schachter-Singer Theory (Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer)
• emphasizes the importance of cognition (thinking process) on
emotion.

• emotional experience and physiological changes are determined by

the way we interpret the situation.

• cognition or interpretation of physiological changes are more

important in emotion.
Theories of emotions
Example
• An event occurs (you see a snake)
• You interpret (cognitively) situation (snake is
poisonous).
• You feel an emotion (you are afraid).
• You demonstrate observable behavior (your face is
pale and you run away.
 Emotion and Health
• Emotion can be a cause of different physiological and
psychological illnesses too.

• Positive emotions -positively contribute to health. But

negative emotions affect health negatively.

• Healthy people always have proper emotion over particular

activities.
Emotion and Health
• Repressed emotions (fear) -can destroy mental energy
and lead to health problems, such as high blood
pressure or digestive disorders.

• poorly managed anger -hypertension,

cardiovascular/heart disease, digestive disorders etc
 Motivation

• Nature and characteristics of motivation

• Theories of motivation
• Instinct
• Drive-reduction approach
• Arousal approach
• Incentive approach of motivation
• Cognitive approach to motivation
• Physiological need and motivations (hunger and sex)
• Socio-psychological motivation (need for achievement and power)
Meaning and Definition
Derived from Latin word movere = to move.

internal and external forces that leads us to move.

something which compels or encourages us to act or behave in

a certain manner to achieve a specific goal.

‘Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and

other organisms’. -Feldman
Meaning and Definition
Three key elements of motivation:

• Direction – It is the effort that is targeted towards a goal (or

goals).

• Intensity – It is about how hard a person tries.

• Persistence – It is about how long a person can maintain

effort?
 Nature and characteristics of motivation
• Abstract: can't be directly observed, inner state of mind.

• Based on needs: fulfil certain needs.

• Goal directed: continued till the achievement of the goal.

• Innate and Learned: innate-biological needs (food), Learned- social

needs (prestige).

• Force within an individual –Compel to act

• Linked with emotion: happy-motivated, sad-demotivated

 Approaches or Theories of motivation
Why we are motivated or not?
1. Instinct approach:
All animals including humans are driven/motivated by a variety of
instincts
 1.Instinct approach
Instinct approach
• we are born to be motivated or our motivation is instinctive.
• Instincts are the inborn (not learnt) tendencies- essential to our
survival
• instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behaviour
• instinct for territorial protection- aggressive behaviour.
• Important instincts: curiosity, parental love, sociability, and
sympathy.
 2.Drive-reduction approach

• All human motives are extensions of basic biological needs

Concept of Homeostasis and drive
• Homeostasis: tendency of the body to maintain a balance (e.g. temperature,
fluid etc.).
Drive and Need:
• A need is a requirement of some material (food or water) that are essential for
survival of the organism.
• Need leads to a psychological tension that motivates the organism to act in
order to fulfil the need. This tension is called drive (thirst, hunger, warmth)
 Drive-reduction approach

• A drive creates an unpleasant state; a

tension that needs to be reduced.

• So, people always act (eat) in order to

reduce the drive (e.g. tension caused by
hunger) and maintain homeostasis.
3.Arousal approach
Why do people bungee jump/adventure (what drive to reduce)?

Rather than trying to reduce a drive, people are motivated to

maintain or increase excitement.
3.Arousal approach
• if levels of stimulation and activity are too low, we will try to increase
them by stimulating (having party with friends -arousal state).

• if it become too high, we try to reduce it (taking a nap, reading a book

or doing meditation

• Motivation is to seek balance of arousal.

4. Incentive approach
• Behavior is motivated by a desire for
incentives (hard study-good grade or job)

• go to work each day for salary and benefits.

• The stimuli or rewards are external (grades, money, praise,

affection, food).
4. Incentive approach
• While drives push us to reduce needs, incentives pull us to
obtain them.

• People are motivated to obtain positive incentives and to

avoid negative incentives.

• our actions are directed toward gaining rewards (motivated

because of rewards)
 5.Cognitive approach

• motivations are the product of deliberate thought processes

• E.g. our thinking of how well studying will pay affect your
motivation to study hard.
Cognitive approach
• Extrinsic motivations arise from outside of the
individual and include tangible rewards such as
trophies, money, social recognition, praise etc.

• Intrinsic motivations arise from within the individual,

such as doing a complicated crossword puzzle,
completing an adventurous journey etc.
Physiological needs and motivations
• Main physiological Needs: air, food, water, shelter, clothing, sleep,
sex etc.

• Motivations for meeting these needs are biologically influenced.

Hunger
• condition of energy need which are fulfilled by various types of
foods.

• Our body requires food to grow, to repair itself, and to store

reserves.
 Physiological needs and motivations: hunger
• Hunger motives is regulated by different mechanism such as
stomach contraction, blood sugar level and blood fat levels.

• According to Maslow, biological needs are primary needs. people

pay attention to higher needs only when lower needs or
physiological needs are satisfied.

• So, hunger is important to be fulfilled also for other motivations.

 Physiological needs and motivations: Sex
Sex
• Sex motive is not as important as food and water for an
individual’s survival.

• But it is still a highly powerful psycho-physical motive.

• Its satisfaction results in happiness and wellbeing to an

individual.

• Sexual behavior have been motivated also by biological factors

especially for the continuity of the gene.
 Socio-psychological motivation
• Called acquired, secondary and learned motives.

• targeted towards higher needs.

• Maslow’s higher needs:

• belongingness and to give and receive love,
• acquire esteem (self respect) through competence and
achievement
• self actualization (achieving what one wants to be)
 Socio-psychological motivation
Achievement
• Every human being has a strong desire to achieve some or other things like
money, fame, reputation, degree, merit position, medals, etc.

• Motivation of raising his/her status in the eyes of others

• satisfaction he/she gets out of his/her own accomplishment.

• Some are also motivated by a fear of failure.

 Socio-psychological motivation
Power:
Need of achieving power also influence our lives.

Political leaders are governed by this power need.

If your fantasies include becoming

• Prim-minister or president of Nepal
• or running a reputed business

your dreams may reflect a high need for power.

Motivation Cycle
 Motivation Cycle
1.Each action is first initiated because of a particular need (need of food).

2.The need drives the person into taking actions (drive is tension- caused by
hunger).

3.Positive results of taking actions acts as an incentive (release of tension)

4. So, it motivates a person towards the goal (removing the tension).

But the individual can never stop after achieving a certain goal, and this
phenomenon continues on and on.
Stress
• Stressor
• The cost of stress
• General adaptation syndrome model
• Psychoneuroimmunology of stress
• Coping stress
• Style and learned helplessness
• Social support
 Meaning and Definition
General meaning: things or event that produces tension or worry in us.

Psychology: our mind and body’s response or reaction to a real or imagined threat

Two aspects:
• the psychological perception of pressure and
• the mind and body's response to it.

Responses:
• physical responses (e.g. increased heartbeat, breathing rate and blood pressure).
• psychological responses (e.g. anxiety, hopelessness, depression, irritability)
 Stressors: The cause of stress

Stressor: stress-producing event or situation.

• Stressors can be internal (thoughts, beliefs, attitudes) or

external (loss, tragedy, change).

Three types of stressors:

1.Catastrophic events: Large earthquakes, floods, plane
crash, terror attacks and other
2.Major life events: Personal stressors and related with
include major life events or changes such as the death of
family member, failing exam, loss of job or even getting
married

3.Hassles: related with daily life activities such as standing in a

long line at a bank and getting stuck in a traffic jam etc.
 Stressors: The cause of stress

1.Positive Stress (Eustress) which motivates, focuses energy, increase

excitement and improves performance.
• Example, exam pressure encourage us to work hard, new job, marriage

2.Negative Stress (Distress) affects our mind, body and life negatively.
• It can causes anxiety or concern.
• short-term or long-term.
• It can lead to mental and physical problems.
Example: Death of family member, losing your job etc.
 Stressors: The cause of stress
Stressors in Workplace: Some Examples
• Excessive job demands.
• Job insecurity.
• Conflicts with teammates and supervisors.
• Inadequate authority necessary to carry out tasks.
• Lack of training necessary to do the job.
• Making presentations in front of colleagues or clients.
• Unproductive and time-consuming meetings.
• Commuting and travel schedules.
The cost of stress (negative effects)

Biological, psychological, cognitive and social consequences of

the stress.

1. Physical/health costs:
• decline of body tissues such as blood vessels and the heart,
• weakened immunity,
• health problems including difficulty in breathing, insomnia,
migraine headaches, muscle aches, fatigue etc.
The cost of stress (negative effects)

2. Psychological Costs:

• anxiety disorder, depression, panic attack and many other

psychological and behavioral problems.

• easily becoming irritated, angry, violent, unhappy and hopeless.

• Negative habits- smoke or drink more, take drugs.

 The cost of stress (negative effects)
3. Cognitive costs:

• difficulty in concentrating,
• recurring thoughts,
• poor decision making,
• confusion, trouble learning new information etc
 The cost of stress (negative effects)
4. Social costs:
Stress related behavioral problems which affects work and social
life.

• decreased interest in self-care,

• low self-esteem and powerlessness,
• lack of punctuality,
• reduced work efficiency or productivity,
• social withdrawal and isolation.
 General adaptation syndrome model
Hans Selye identified three stages in the body’s response or adaptation to
stress.

His idea is know as General Adaptation Syndrome

1. Alarm stage:
• When the body first reacts to a stressor, the sympathetic nervous system is
activated.
• The adrenal glands release hormones that increase heart rate, blood
pressure, and the supply of blood sugar.
• As a reaction fever, nausea and headache will be caused.
 General adaptation syndrome model
2. Resistance stage
If the stressor continues to be present, the stage of resistance
begins.

• body resists the effects of the continuous stressor by continuing

release the stress hormones
• Body’s defenses become weaker, as it needs to allocate energy
to the repair of damaged muscle tissues
• body lower the production of the stress hormones
General adaptation syndrome model
3. Exhaustion stage
when the body’s resources or energies to resist stressors
empties, the resistance ends.

• body’s capacity to respond to both continuous and new

stressors become weak.
• body and mind are not able to repair the damage caused by
stress
• Cause stress- related diseases and even death.
Psychoneuroimmunology of stress
 Psychoneuroimmunology of stress
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is the study relationship
among psychological, immunity and brain.

It work sin combination of three systems of human body:

Endocrine system, Nervous system and Immune system.

PNI studies show that stress can affect immune and health
in three ways:
 Psychoneuroimmunology of stress
First, stress directly cause increased blood pressure, an increase in
hormonal activity, and an overall decline in the functioning of the
immune system.

Second, stress leads to behaviors that are harmful to health,

including increased nicotine, drug, and alcohol use; poor eating
habits; and decreased sleep.

Finally, stress affects health indirectly -less interest in seeking

medical advice and not following the advice (even if the advice is
sought).
 Coping with Stress: Stress Management
Efforts to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead
to stress.

How people react to stress depends on their personality type,

their perception of control over stressors, and the social support
they receive.

Our body and minds are unconsciously responding to minor

stresses automatically. But there are major stresses which need
conscious efforts
Coping with Stress: Stress Management
There are two main ways of stress management: problem
focused coping and emotion focused coping.

1. Problem-focused coping
changing or removing the source of stress or stressor itself.

tackling the problem or stressful situation that is causing

stress.
 Coping with Stress: Stress Management
Problem-solving, time-management, obtaining social
support are the ways one can cope with certain stresses.

You are stressed because you don’t have money to pay your
tuition fee. You ask for support with your friends and pay it.

Your source of stress is removed and stress is reduced.

Coping with Stress: Stress Management
• It works best when the person can control the source of
stress (e.g. exams, work based stressors etc.).

• It will not work in any situation where it is beyond the

individual’s control to remove the source of stress.

• For example, stress caused by death of family members

cannot be managed by this approach. It needs another
apparoach.
Coping with Stress: Stress Management
2. Emotion-focused coping
involves changing the way a person feel or emotionally reacts to a
stressor.

This reduces the emotional impacts and makes it possible to deal

with the problem more effectively.

Examples/methods: accepting sympathy from others (e.g. in the

case of stress caused by death of someone).
 Coping with Stress: Stress Management
Looking at the bright side of the stressful situation or problem

Making person to view the stressor as challenge rather than a

threat.

Ignoring is also useful when there is no possibility to change or

remove the problem (e.g. you cannot revive the dead person).

Using humour or laughter is also a good idea.

Coping with Stress: Stress Management
Some other effective ways of stress Management
• Body relaxation training (e.g. deep breathing)
• Physical exercises (yoga and other)
• Meditation
• Counseling
Learned helplessness
 Learned helplessness

• when we feel like we can’t escape the problem or pain, and we

eventually stop trying to avoid them.

• For example, a child who performs poorly on math tests

repeatedly, he or she will quickly begin to feel that nothing will
change his math performance.

• When later faced with any type of math-related task, he may

experience a sense of helplessness.
Attribution style
• Helplessness also depends on how they perceive the negative
situations which is called attribution style.

• Attribution style is the way we think about why a bad thing

has happened to you. For example, say you fail the first
semester exam.

a.Positive Attribution Style: If you have a positive attribution

style you might say something like: “I didn’t study well for this
one. I’ll just make sure that next time I’ll study a bit more.”
Attribution style
b. Negative Attribution Style: If you have a negative
attribution style, you’re more likely to say something like:

“I’m bad in study. This result shows what a bad student I am.
Nothing is going to change. I’m not going to do well at
college.”
Social Support
• Social support is defined as the information and support that
leads someone to believe that he or she is cared for, loved,
respected, and part of a network.

• Researchers have found that social support enables us to

experience lower levels of stress and better cope with the
stress we face.
 Social Support
Three Major Types of Social Support
• Emotional: It is about offering encouragement, comfort, consolation
etc.

• Informational: The stressed persons is offered assistance on

understanding and decision making.

• Practical: helping the personal practically to reduce the stress

(helping in work, financial assistance, providing place for living, work
schedule adjustment etc).