� Cellular Respiration – process by which

L1 Transport Mechanisms biological fuel are oxidized in the

process of an inorganic electron
� All cells have cell membrane, all are semi acceptor (oxygen) to the production of
– permeable. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
☞ Semi-permeable (Selectively
Permeable) – a type of synthetic or
biologic, polymeric membrane that � Osmosis – process by which the
allows certain molecules or ions to pass molecules of a solvent pas from a
through it by osmosis. solution of low concentration to a
solution of high concentration through a
● Ingestion – consumption of a substance
semi-permeable membrane.
by an organism. An act/process of taking
in something for. � Diffusion – physical process that refers
to the next movement of molecules
● Digestion – process of making food
from a region of high concentration to
absorbable by mechanically and one of lower concentration.
enzymatically breaking down into
simpler chemical compounds.

Carbohydrates Glucose (C6H12O6) - � 2 Kinds of Transport Material in Cells

simplest building block of carbohydrates.
[mouth] ☞ Passive Transport – type of membrane
transport that does not require energy
● Central to nutrition are found in a wide to move substances across cell
variety of natural and processed foods. membranes. From higher concentration
to lower concentration. Instead of using
Food Mouth Stomach Small
cellular energy, like active transport,
Intestine
passive transport relies on the 2nd law of
Thermodynamics to drive the
movement across cell membranes.
● Simple Diffusion – passive
● Villi – small, finger – like projections that movement of substances from
high to low concentration
extend into the lumen of small intestine.
(continues until it achieves the
● Lacteal – central blunt – ended long state of equilibrium), requiring no
lymphatic vessels located in the energy. The rate is influenced by
intestinal villi in the small intestine that the concentration gradient,
absorbs dietary fats. molecule size, temperature and
solvent density. Can happen with
or without a semi – permeable
� Assimilation – process of absorption of
membrane
vitamins, minerals and other chemicals
from food as part of the nutrition of an ● Facilitated Diffusion – a type of
organism. passive transport in which
molecules diffused trough
� Circulation – continuous movement of
specialized protein channels.
blood throughout the body, driven by The protein channels allows the
the pumping action of the heart. substances in or out of the cell.
 From high to low concentration molecules (e.g., glucose, amino
gradient. Generally happens with acids) against their gradient.
particles a bit larger than those
� Concentration Gradient – occurs when a
that can seek through the cell
membrane. solute is more concentrated in one are
than another. A concentration gradient
● Osmosis – happens with water is alleviated through diffusion, though
molecules. From high membranes can hinder diffusion and
concentration to low maintain concentration gradient.
concentration. Diffusion of water
through the cell membrane.
Water can leave or enter the cell
� Cell Transport and Solutions
through the membrane until the
cell achieves the state of ⮚ Solutions outside cells may be:
equilibrium.
☞ Hypertonic – cell solution is 10% salt
☞ Active Transport – movement of
and 90% water. Solution in the beaker
molecules or ions across a cell
20% salt and 80% water. Concentration
membrane from a region of lower
of water is lower than inside the cell and
concentration to a region of higher
its concentration of solute is higher
concentration against the
than inside the cell. Water molecule
concentration gradient. Active
diffuses out of the cell through osmosis
transport requires cellular energy to
causing the cell to shrivel a bit. It can
achieve this movement.
shrivel to the point of imploding. The
● Primary Active Transport - This shriveling of red blood cell is called
process directly uses energy, Crenation. Plasmolysis causes the plant
typically from ATP, to transport to wilt.
ions or molecules across a ☞ Isotonic – the concentration gradient
membrane against their
outside the cell is equal to the
concentration gradient. A
concentration gradient inside the cell.
transporter protein, often
Cell solution and beaker solution is 90%
referred to as a pump, binds to
water and 10% salt (has the same
the substrate (e.g., ions like Na⁺,
amount of solution). The rate of the
K⁺, Ca²⁺) and uses the energy
water molecules entering the cell is
from ATP hydrolysis to change
equal to the rate of water molecules
shape and move the substrate
exiting the cell. Does not shrink or swell,
across the membrane.
it remains its size.
● Secondary Active Transport - his
☞ Hypotonic – the concentration of
process relies on the
solution outside the cell is greater than
electrochemical gradient
the solution inside the cell. Cell solution
created by primary active
is 20% salt and 80% water, beaker
transport to move other
solution is 10% salt and 90% water. The
substances against their
water molecules move into the cell until
concentration gradient. Instead
the state of equilibrium is reach. It
of using ATP directly, secondary
causes the cell to swell up with water. If
active transport utilizes the
the water solution outside the cell is
energy from the movement of
high enough, the cell can swell to the
ions (typically Na⁺ or H⁺) down
point of bursting this is called Cytolysis.
their gradient to transport other
 Cytolysis in red blood cell is called Circular Respiration
Hemolysis. 1. Definition/Description
Circular respiration refers to the cyclic
processes in cellular respiration that
produce energy (ATP) by breaking down
glucose and other molecules in the
presence or absence of oxygen. It includes
glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the
electron transport chain.
2. Organisms Involved

❖ Additional
● Prokaryotes: Bacteria and archaea
� Active Transport (aerobic and anaerobic types).
● Eukaryotes: Plants, animals, fungi, and
☞ Endocytosis - is the process by which
protists perform aerobic respiration,
cells engulf external substances, pulling
while some can switch to anaerobic
them into the cell by forming vesicles. processes.
This mechanism allows cells to uptake
nutrients, signaling molecules, and even 3. Description of Processes
larger particles like bacteria.
☞ Exocytosis - is the process of vesicles Process Location Key Features
fusing with the cell membrane to release Breakdown of
their contents outside the cell. This glucose into 2
process is essential for the secretion of pyruvate
hormones, neurotransmitters, and Glycolysi molecules,
Cytoplasm
waste products, facilitating s producing 2 ATP
communication and maintaining cellular and 2 NADH. Does
function not require
☞ Protein Pumps - are specialized oxygen.

membrane proteins that actively Pyruvate is further

transport ions or molecules across cell oxidized,
membranes against their concentration Krebs Mitochondri producing CO₂,
gradient. This process requires energy, Cycle al Matrix NADH, FADH₂, and
typically from ATP. Protein pumps play 2 ATP per glucose
crucial roles in various cellular functions, molecule.
including maintaining ion balance,
NADH and FADH₂
regulating cell volume, and facilitating
donate electrons
nutrient uptake. Examples include Electron Inner
to generate a
sodium-potassium pumps and calcium Transpo Mitochondri
proton gradient,
pumps, essential for nerve function and rt Chain al
producing ~34
muscle contraction. (ETC) Membrane
ATP and water.
Requires oxygen.

4. Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

ASSIGNMENT
 Aerobic Anaerobic Photosynthesis
Feature Respiration Respiration
1. Description of the Process
Oxygen Does not
Requires Photosynthesis is the process by which
Requireme require
oxygen green plants, algae, and some bacteria
nt oxygen convert light energy into chemical
High (36–38 energy stored in glucose. It occurs in
Low (2 ATP two stages:
ATP per
ATP Yield per glucose o Light-dependent reactions (light
glucose
molecule) reactions): Capture sunlight to
molecule)
produce ATP and NADPH.
End Lactic acid or o Light-independent reactions
CO₂ and water (dark reactions or Calvin cycle):
Products ethanol + CO₂
Use ATP and NADPH to convert
Some CO₂ into glucose.
Most plants,
bacteria, 2.
Organisms animals, and
yeast, and
fungi
muscle cells

5. What Happens to Humans if Oxygen is

Cut Off?
Without oxygen, the ETC halts, leading to
a decrease in ATP production. Cells switch
to anaerobic respiration, producing lactic
acid, which accumulates and causes
muscle fatigue, organ failure, and
eventually death if oxygen is not restored.
6. Alcoholic Fermentation

● Performed by: Yeast and some bacteria.

● Process: Pyruvate is converted into

ethanol and CO₂.
● Uses: Bread-making and alcoholic
beverage production.

7. Lactic Acid Fermentation

● Performed by: Certain bacteria and

human muscle cells under low oxygen
conditions.
● Process: Pyruvate is converted into
lactic acid.
● Impact: Causes muscle fatigue but
provides temporary energy during 3. Does the Light Reaction of
intense activity. Photosynthesis Require Light All the
Time to Happen?
Yes, the light reaction depends on
sunlight to excite chlorophyll and drive
 the production of ATP and NADPH.
Without light, the process halts.
4. Does the Dark Reaction Happen When
Light Is Available?
Yes, the dark reaction can occur when
light is available because it uses ATP
and NADPH produced during the light
reaction. The term "dark reaction" refers
to its independence from light, not its
occurrence in darkness.
5. Can Photosynthesis Happen at Night?
No, photosynthesis cannot happen at
night because the light reaction, which
generates the energy (ATP and NADPH)
required for the dark reaction, cannot
occur without sunlight.

6. Table Comparing Light and Dark

Reactions

Featur Light Dark Reaction

e Reaction (Calvin Cycle) cc Biomolecules

Light,
Raw
water � Biomolecules
Materi CO₂, ATP, NADPH
(H₂O), ADP, -Biomolecules are the organic molecules
als
NADP⁺ that constitute living organisms. They
are essential for all biological processes
End Oxygen
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), and can be broadly classified into four
Produc (O₂), ATP,
ADP, NADP⁺ major categories:
ts NADPH

Locati Thylakoid � Carbohydrates

on of membrane -These are composed of carbon,
Stroma (chloroplasts)
Reacti (chloroplast hydrogen, and oxygen, and are the
on s) primary source of energy for living
organisms. They are classified based on
Enzym 2 main
Many enzymes: their structure and complexity.
es enzymes:
☞ Monosaccharides: Simple sugars, such
- Ribulose-1,5-
- as glucose, fructose, and galactose, are
bisphosphate the basic building blocks of
Photosyste
carboxylase/oxygena carbohydrates. They have the general
m II
se (RuBisCO) formula (CH2O)n, where n is typically 3
to 7.
- - Phosphoglycerate
Photosyste kinase, G3P ● Glucose: The most common
mI dehydrogenase, etc. monosaccharide, it is a primary
source of energy for cells.
 ● Fructose: Found in fruits and ☞ Fats and Oils: These are triglycerides,
honey, it is sweeter than glucose. composed of glycerol and three fatty
acids. Fats are typically solid at room
● Galactose: Found in milk, it is a
temperature, while oils are liquid.
component of lactose.
● Fatty Acids: Long chains of
☞ Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides
hydrocarbons with a carboxyl
joined together, such as sucrose group at one end. They can be
(glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + saturated (no double bonds) or
galactose), and maltose (glucose + unsaturated (one or more double
glucose). bonds).
● Sucrose: Common table sugar, it ● Saturated Fats: Typically solid at
is found in plants and is a major room temperature, they are
source of dietary sugar. found in animal products like
● Lactose: The sugar found in milk, butter and lard.
it is broken down by the enzyme ● Unsaturated Fats: Typically liquid
lactase. at room temperature, they are
● Maltose: Found in germinating found in plant oils like olive oil and
grains, it is produced by the canola oil.
breakdown of starch. ☞ Phospholipids: These are similar to
☞ Polysaccharides: Long chains of triglycerides but have a phosphate
monosaccharides, such as starch group attached to glycerol. They are the
(storage form of glucose in plants), primary components of cell membranes,
glycogen (storage form of glucose in forming a bilayer with their hydrophobic
animals), and cellulose (structural tails facing inward and their hydrophilic
component of plant cell walls). heads facing outward.

● Starch: A branched polymer of ☞ Steroids: These are lipids with a

glucose, it is the primary storage characteristic four-ring structure.
form of carbohydrates in plants. Cholesterol is a vital steroid that is a
component of cell membranes and is a
● Glycogen: A highly branched precursor to other steroids like
polymer of glucose, it is the hormones.
primary storage form of
carbohydrates in animals. � Proteins
● Cellulose: A linear polymer of -These are complex molecules
glucose, it is the most abundant composed of amino acids. They play a
organic compound on Earth and wide range of roles in cellular function,
forms the structural component including:
of plant cell walls.
☞ Enzymes: Catalyze biochemical
� Lipids reactions by lowering the activation
-These are a diverse group of molecules energy required for the reaction to
that are hydrophobic (water-repelling). occur.
They serve as energy storage, structural ☞ Structural Components: Provide
components of cell membranes, and
signaling molecules. support and shape to cells and tissues.
For example, collagen is a structural
protein found in connective tissues.
 -Photosynthesis is the process by which
☞ Hormones: Act as chemical
plants, algae, and some bacteria convert
messengers, regulating various light energy into chemical energy in the
physiological processes. For example, form of glucose. This process occurs in
insulin is a protein hormone that two main stages:
regulates blood sugar levels.
☞ Antibodies: Protect the body from ☞ Light-Dependent Reactions
disease by recognizing and binding to -These reactions occur in the thylakoid
foreign antigens. membranes of chloroplasts. Light
energy is captured by chlorophyll and
� Nucleic Acid used to generate ATP and NADPH,
-These are complex molecules which are energy carriers.
composed of nucleotides. They carry ● Raw Materials
genetic information and are involved in
protein synthesis. ▪ Light energy

▪ water
☞ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The
● End Products
genetic material of all living organisms.
It is a double helix structure composed ▪ ATP
of two strands of nucleotides held
together by hydrogen bonds. Each ▪ NADPH
nucleotide consists of a deoxyribose
▪ oxygen
sugar, a phosphate group, and one of
four nitrogenous bases: ● No. of ATP generated: 0 (but ATP
● adenine (A) is used to power the Calvin Cycle)

● guanine (G) ● Enzymes needed

● cytosine (C) ▪ Photosystem I

● thymine (T). ▪ Photosystem II

☞ RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): Plays a crucial ▪ ATP synthase

role in protein synthesis. It is a single- ▪ NADP+ reductase
stranded molecule composed of
nucleotides that contain a ribose sugar,
a phosphate group, and one of four ☞ Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin
nitrogenous bases: Cycle)
● adenine (A) -These reactions occur in the stroma of
chloroplasts. Carbon dioxide is
● guanine (G) incorporated into organic molecules using the
energy from ATP and NADPH, ultimately
● cytosine (C) producing glucose.
● uracil (U). ● Raw Materials:

▪ Carbon dioxide

▪ ATP
cc Photosynthesis
▪ NADPH

� Photosynthesis ● End Products

 ▪ Glucose ▪ 2 NAD+

▪ ADP ● End Products

▪ NADP+ ▪ 2 pyruvate

● No. of ATP used 18 ATP per ▪ 4 ATP

glucose molecule
▪ 2 NADH
● Enzymes needed
▪ 2 H+
▪ Rubisco
● Net ATP generated: 2 ATP
▪ phosphoglycerate kinase
● Enzymes needed
▪ glyceraldehyde-3-
▪ Hexokinase
phosphate
dehydrogenase ▪ Phosphoglucoisomerase
▪ triosephosphate ▪ Phosphofructokinase
isomerase
▪ Aldolase
▪ aldolase
▪ Triosephosphate
▪ fructose-1
isomerase
▪ 6-bisphosphatase ▪ Glyceraldehyde-3-
▪ sedoheptulose-1 phosphate
dehydrogenase
▪ 7-bisphosphatase
▪ Phosphoglycerate kinase
▪ transketolase
▪ Phosphoglyceromutase

▪ Enolase
cc Cellular Respiration ▪ Pyruvate kinase

� Cellular Respiration ☞ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

-Cellular respiration is the process by -This stage occurs in the mitochondrial
which cells break down glucose to matrix and involves the oxidation of
release energy in the form of ATP. This pyruvate to carbon dioxide. This
process occurs in three main stages: process generates ATP, NADH, and
FADH2.

☞ Glycolysis ● Raw Materials

-This stage occurs in the cytoplasm and ▪ 2 pyruvate
involves the breakdown of glucose into
pyruvate. This process generates a ▪ 6 NAD+
small amount of ATP and NADH.
▪ 2 FAD
● Raw Materials
▪ 2 ADP
▪ Glucose
▪ 2 Pi
▪ 2 ATP
● End Products
 ▪ 6 NADH ● Enzymes needed

▪ 2 FADH2 ▪ NADH dehydrogenase

▪ 2 ATP ▪ Succinate
dehydrogenase
▪ 4 CO2
▪ Cytochrome b-c1
▪ 2 H+
complex
● No. of ATP generated: 2 ATP ▪ Cytochrome c oxidase
● Enzymes needed ▪ ATP synthase
▪ Citrate synthase

▪ Aconitase � Raw Materials and End Products of

Respiration
▪ Isocitrate dehydrogenase
● Raw Materials
▪
-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase ▪ Glucose

▪ oxygen
▪ Succinyl CoA synthetase
● End Products
▪ Succinate dehydrogenase
▪ Carbon dioxide
▪ Fumarase
▪ Water
▪ Malate dehydrogenase
▪ ATP
☞ Electron Transport Chain
-This stage occurs in the inner
mitochondrial membrane and involves
the transfer of electrons from NADH and
FADH2 to oxygen, generating a proton
gradient that drives ATP synthesis.
● Raw Materials

▪ 10 NADH

▪ 2 FADH2

▪ 6 O2

▪ 32 ADP

▪ 32 Pi

● End Products

▪ 10 NAD+

▪ 2 FAD

▪ 6 H2O

▪ 32 ATP

● No. of ATP generated: 32 ATP