Cell Structures and their Functions  The polar region is exposed to water around

the membrane.
Cell Structure
 The nonpolar region is facing the interior of
 Organelles the membrane.
 Specialized structure in cells that
Movement through the Cell Membrane
perform specific functions.
 Cytoplasm  The cell membrane has selective
 A jelly-like substance that holds permeability, which allows only certain
organelles. substances to pass in and out of the cell.
 Cell Membrane  Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and
 Also called plasma membrane potassium are found in higher
 Structure that encloses the cytoplasm concentrations inside the cell.
 Substances such as sodium, calcium, and
Functions of the Cell
chloride are found in higher concentrations
 Smallest units of life. outside the cell.
 Cell metabolism and energy use.
Cell Membrane Passage
 Synthesis of molecules.
 Communication  Some substances, like O2, and CO2 can pass
 Reproduction and Inheritance directly through the cell membrane's
phospholipid bilayer.
Cell Membrane
 Some substances must pass through
 Outermost component of the cell transmembrane protein channels, such as
 Forms boundary between material inside an Na+ through its channels.
outside of the cell  The route of transport through the
 Materials inside the cell are membrane depends on the size, shape, and
intracellular and those outside are charge of the substance.
extracellular.  Some substances require carrier
 It acts as a selective barrier. molecules to transport them across the
cell membrane, such as glucose.
Cell Membrane Structure  Some substances require a vesicular
 The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to transport across the membrane.
describe the cell membrane structure.  The vesicle must fuse with the cell
 The membrane contains phospholipids, membrane for transport.
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Active Transport and Passive Transport
 Phospholipids form a bilayer.
 Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and  Passive membrane transport
nonpolar  does not require the cell to expend
energy.
Phospholipid Structure
 mechanisms include diffusion,
 A phospholipid molecule has a polar head osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail  Active membrane transport
region that is hydrophobic.  does require the cell to expend
energy, usually in the form of ATP.
  mechanisms include active transport,  Two classes of cell membrane channels
secondary active transport, include leak channels and gated channels.
endocytosis, and exocytosis.  Leak channels
- constantly allow ions to pass
through
Diffusion  Gated channels
- limit the movement of ions across
 Diffusion generally involves movement of the membrane by opening and
substances in a solution down a closing.
concentration gradient.
 Solution Osmosis
 generally composed of two major  Diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
parts, solutes, and the solvent. selectively permeable membrane from a
 Solutes region of higher water concentration to one
 substances dissolved in a predominant of lower water concentration.
liquid or gas.  Exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure,
 Solvents which is the force required to prevent
 Liquid or gas substance that dissolves movement of water across cell membrane.
the solute.
 Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
move from an area of higher concentration
 Osmotic pressure depends on the
of a solute to an area of lower
difference of solution concentrations inside
concentration of that same solute in
a cell relative to outside the cell.
solution.
 A cell may be placed in solutions that are
 This movement from high concentration to
either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic
a low concentration is diffusion.
compared to the cell cytoplasm.
Concentration Gradient
Solutions
 A concentration gradient is the difference in
 Hypotonic
the concentration of a solute in a solvent
 A hypotonic solution has a lower
between two points divided by the distance
concentration of solutes and a higher
between the two points.
concentration of water relative to the
 The concentration gradient is said to be
cytoplasm of the cell.
steeper when the concentration difference
 Water moves by osmosis into the cell,
is large and/or the distance is small.
causing it to swell.
Leak and Gated Channels
(If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
 Lipid soluble substances process called lysis.)
 can diffuse directly through the
 Isotonic
phospholipid bilayer.
 A cell immersed in an isotonic solution
 Water-soluble substances has the same solute concentrations
 such as ions, can diffuse across the cell inside and outside the cell.
membrane only by passing through cell  The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
membrane channels.
 Hypertonic
  Usually has a higher solute greater than those on the other
concentration of solutes and a lower side.
concentration of water than the
cytoplasm of the cell.
 Water moves by osmosis from the cell Sodium-Potassium Pump
into the hypertonic solution, resulting
in cell shrinkage, or crenation.  A major example of active transport is the
action of the sodium-potassium pump
Carrier-Mediated Transport present in cell membranes.
 The sodium-potassium pump moves Nat
 Some water-soluble, electrically charged or
out of cells and K+ into cells.
large sized particles cannot enter or leave
 The result is a higher concentration of Na+
through the cell membrane by diffusion.
outside cells and a higher concentration of
 These substances include amino acids,
K+ inside cells.
glucose, and some polar molecules
produced by the cell. Secondary Active Transport
 Carrier molecules
 proteins within the cell membrane  Secondary active transport uses the energy
involved in carrier-mediated transport. provided by a concentration gradient
established by the active transport of one
Carrier-Mediated Transport substance, such as Na+ to transport other
substances.
 Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms
 No additional energy is required above the
include facilitated diffusion and active
energy provided by the initial active
transport.
transport pump.
 Facilitated diffusion
 Cotransport
- does not require ATP for energy.
- the diffusing substance moves in
- Moves substances across the cell
the same direction as the initial
membrane from an area of higher
active transported substance.
concentration to an area of lower
 Counter transport
concentration of that substance
- the diffusing substance moves in a
- Because movement is with the
direction opposite to that of the
concentration gradient, metabolic
initial active transported
energy in the form of ATP is not
substance.
required.
 Active transport Endocytosis
- does require ATP for transport.
- Process requiring ATP, that moves  Endocytosis is a process that that brings
substances across the cell materials into cell using vesicles.
membrane from regions of lower  Receptor-mediated endocytosis
concentration to those of higher - occurs when a specific substance
concentration against a binds to the receptor molecule
concentration gradient. and is transported into the cell.
- Accumulate necessary substances  Phagocytosis
on one side of the cell membrane - is often used for endocytosis when
at concentrations many times solid particles are ingested.
  Pinocytosis  During most of a cell's life, the
- has much smaller vesicles formed, chromosomes are loosely coiled and
and they contain liquid rather collectively called chromatin.
than solid particles.  When a cell prepares to divide, the
chromosomes become tightly coiled
Exocytosis
and are visible when viewed with a
 Exocytosis involves the use of microscope.
membranebound sacs called secretory  Within the nucleus are nucleoli, which
vesicles that accumulate materials for are diffuse bodies with no surrounding
release from the cell. membrane.
 The vesicles move to the cell membrane  There are usually one to several
and fuse, ultimately releasing the nucleoli within the nucleus.
material_by exocytosis.  The subunits of ribosomes, a type of
 Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed
digestive enzymes. within a nucleolus.
 These ribosomal components exit the
General Cell Structure nucleus through nuclear pores.
 The interior of a cell is composed of the  Ribosomes
cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that  components are produced in the
surrounds the organelles. nucleolus.
 Organelles are specialized structures that  are the organelles where proteins are
perform certain functions. produced.
 Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes,  may be attached to other organelles,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria,  not attached to any other organelle are
cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and called free ribosomes.
microvilli.  Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a
Parts of the Cell series of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extends from the outer
 Cell Nucleus
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
 The nucleus is a large organelle usually
 Rough ER
located near the center of the cell.
- involved in protein synthesis and
 The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear
is rough due to attached
envelope, which consists of outer and
ribosomes.
inner membranes with a narrow space
 Smooth ER
between them.
- no attached ribosomes and is a
 The nuclear membrane contains
site for lipid synthesis, cellular
nuclear pores, through which materials
detoxification, and it stores
can pass into or out of the nucleus.
calcium ions in skeletal muscle
 The nuclei of human cells contain 23
cells.
pairs of chromosomes which consist of
 Golgi Apparatus
DNA and proteins.
 The Golgi apparatus, also called the
Golgi complex, consists of closely
 packed stacks of curved, membrane- and contains enzymes and
bound sacs. mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
 It collects, modifies, packages, and  Cells with a large energy requirement
distributes proteins and lipids have more mitochondria than cells that
manufactured by the ER. require less energy
 The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles,  Cytoskeleton
some of which are secretory vesicles,  gives internal framework to the cell.
lysosomes, and other vesicles.  It consists of protein structures that
 Lysosomes support the cell, hold organelles in
 Lysosomes are membrane-bound place, and enable the cell to change
vesicles formed from the Golgi shape.
apparatus.  These protein structures are
 They contain a variety of enzymes that microtubules, microfilaments, and
function as intracellular digestive intermediate filaments.
systems.  Microtubules
 Vesicles formed by endocytosis may  hollow structures formed from protein
fuse with lysosomes to breakdown subunits.
materials in the endocytotic vesicles.  The microtubules perform a variety of
 One example is white blood cells roles, including helping to support the
phagocytizing bacteria. cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell
 Peroxisomes division, and forming essential
 Peroxisomes are small, membrane- components of certain organelles, such
bound vesicles containing enzymes as cilia and flagella.
that break down fatty acids, amino  Microfilaments
acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).  small fibrils formed from protein
 Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of subunits that structurally support the
fatty acid and amino acid breakdown cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
and can be toxic to a cell.  Microfilaments in muscle cells enable
 The enzymes in peroxisomes break the cells to shorten, or contract.
down hydrogen.  Intermediate Filaments
 Mitochondria  fibrils formed from protein subunits
 (Singular mitochondrion) are small that are smaller in diameter than
organelles responsible for producing microtubules but larger in diameter
considerable amounts of ATP by than microfilaments.
aerobic (with 0,) metabolism.  They provide mechanical support to
 They have inner and outer membranes the cell.
separated by a space.  A specific type of intermediate filament
 The outer membranes have a smooth is keratin, a protein associated with
contour, but the inner membranes skin cells.
have numerous folds, called cristae,  Centrioles
which project into the interior of the  The centrosome is a specialized area of
mitochondria. cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
 The material within the inner microtubule formation occurs.
membrane is the mitochondrial matrix
  It contains two centrioles, which are DNA
normally oriented perpendicular to
 Contains the information that directs
each other.
protein synthesis; a process called gene
 Each centriole is a small, cylindrical
expression.
organelle composed of microtubules.
 Consits of nucleotides joined together to
 The centriole is involved in the process
form two nucleotide strands.
of mitosis.
 The two strands are connected and
 Cilia
resemble a ladder that is twisted around its
 project from the surface of certain
long axis.
cells.
 Each consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a
 They are responsible for the movement
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
of materials over the top of cells, such
as mucus.  Each nucleotide_on one DNA strand has a
 Cylindrical structures that extend from specific bonding pattern to another
the cell and are composed of nucleotide on the opposite strand.
microtubules.  Gene
 Flagella  sequence of nucleotides that provides
 Flagella have a structure like that of a chemical set of instructions for
cilia but are much longer, and they making a specific protein.
usually occur only one per cell. Gene Expression
 Sperm cells each have one flagellum,
which propels the sperm cell.  Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
 Microvilli involves transcription and translation.
 Specialized extensions of the cell  Transcription
membrane that are supported by  copying DNA into messenger RNA.
microfilaments.  takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
 They do not actively move as cilia and  DNA determines the structure of
flagella do. mRNA through transcription.
 Numerous on cells that have them and  During transcription, the double
they increase the surface area of those strands of a DNA segment separate,
cells. and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair
 They are abundant on the surface of with RNA nucleotides that form the
cells that line the intestine, kidney, and mRNA.
other areas in which absorption is an  DNA contains one of the following
important function. nucleobases: thymine, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine. Messenger RNA
Whole Cell Activity (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine,
A cell's characteristics are determined by the cytosine, or guanine.
type of proteins produced.  Nucleotide pairs:
o Adenine - (DNA) Thymine, (RNA)
The proteins produced are in turn determined Uracil
by the genetic information in the nucleus. o Guanine - Cytosine
Information in DNA provides the cell with a code  Translation
for its cellular processes.
  messenger RNA being used to produce  The two strands of DNA separate from each
a protein. other, and each strand serves as a template
 occurs in the cell cytoplasm after to produce a new strand of DNA.
mRNA has exited the nucleus through  Nucleotides in the DNA of each template
the nuclear pores. strand pair with new nucleotides that are
 The mRNA attaches to a ribosome. subsequently joined by enzymes to form a
 Codons new strand of DNA.
- (3 nucleotide bases which code for  The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA
specific amino acids) on the mRNA template determines the sequence of
are read by anticodons (3 nucleotides in the new strand of DNA.
nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA  Replication of DNA gives two identical
(TRNA). chromatids joined at a centromere: both
 A series of 3 nucleotides of each tRNA form one chromosome.
molecule (the anticodon), pairs with
the codon of the mRNA. Cell Genetic Content
 Transfer RNA transports specific amino  Each human cell (except for the gamete/sex
acids from the cytoplasm to the cells) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a
ribosome-mRNA complex and initiates total of 46 (diploid).
formation of the polypeptide chain.  The sperm and egg (gamete/sex cells)
 The process continues until the entire contain 23 chromosomes (haploid) total.
polypeptide is completely formed.  One pair of chromosomes are the sex
(Note: Some codons do not code for amino chromosomes, which consist of two X
acids (AA) but perform other functions such as chromosomes if the person is a female or
the stop codon. A stop codon codes for no AA, an X and Y chromosome if the person is a
this also acts as a signal for stopping the male.
addition of AA to a protein.) 2nd Major Phase of the Cell Cycle
The Cell Cycle Mitosis
 During growth and development, cell  Involves formation of 2 daughter cells from
division occurs to increase the number of a single parent cell.
cells or replace damaged or dying ones.  Divided into four phases: prophase,
 This cell division involves a cell cycle. metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 The cell cycle includes two major phases:  Prophase
 Interphase - Chromatin condenses to form
- nondividing phase visible chromosomes.
 Mitosis - Microtubules, termed spindle
- cell dividing phase fibers, form to assist in breaking
 A cell spends most of its life cycle in the centromere between the
interphase performing its normal functions. chromatids and move the
 During interphase, the DNA (located in chromosomes to opposite sides of
chromosomes in the cell's nucleus) is the cell.
replicated. - Nuclear membrane dissolves.
 Metaphase
 - Chromosomes align near the  Apoptosis, termed programmed cell
center of the cell. death, is a normal process by which cell
- Movement of the chromosomes is numbers within various tissues are
regulated by the attached spindle adjusted and controlled.
fibers.  In the developing fetus, apoptosis
 Anaphase removes extra tissue, such as cells
- At the beginning of anaphase, the between the developing fingers and toes.
chromatids separate, and each  In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
chromatid is called a excess cells to maintain a constant
chromosome. number of cells within the tissue.
- Each of the two sets of 46
chromosomes is moved by the
spindle fibers toward the centriole
at one of the poles of the cell.
- At the end of anaphase, each set Cellular Aspects of Aging
of chromosomes has reached an  There are various causes for cellular aging.
opposite pole of the cell, and the  Existence of a cellular clock
cytoplasm begins to divide.  Presence of death genes
 Telophase  DNA damage
- Chromosomes in each of the  Formation of free radicals
daughter cells become organized  Mitochondrial damage
to form two separate nuclei, one
in each newly formed daughter Tumors
cell.
 Tumors are abnormal proliferations of
- Begin to unravel and resemble the
cells.
genetic material during
 They are due to problems occurring in the
interphase.
cell cycle.
- Following telophase, cytoplasm
 Some tumors are benign, and some are
division is completed, and two
malignant (cancer).
separate daughter cells are
 Malignant tumors can spread by a
produced.
process, termed metastasis.
Differentiation

 A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a

Apoptosis