Society

 What is Society?
 Defining Society
 Features of Society
 Types of Society
 Rural Society
 Urban Society
 Civil Society

What is Society?
According to sociologists, a society is a group of people with common
territory, interaction, and culture. Social groups consist of two or more
people who interact and identify with one another. The term society is
derived from a Latin word “socius” which means association,
togetherness, gregariousness, or simply group life.

The concept of society refers to a relatively large grouping or collectivity

of people who share more or less common and distinct culture, occupying
a certain geographical locality, with the feeling of identity or
belongingness, having all the necessary social arrangements or
insinuations to sustain it. Society has become an essential condition for
human to arise and to continue. Human life and society always go
together. According to MacIver society is a web of relationship. Society is
the largest group of people inhabiting a common way of life as a result of
interacting on a regular, continuous basis and because they have acquired
patterns of behaviour on which all more or less agree.

The common tendency in sociology has been to conceptualize society as a

system, focusing on the bounded and integrated nature of society. Great
founders of sociology had also focused on the dynamic aspect of society.
Such early sociologists as Comte, Marx and Spencer grasped the concept
of society as a dynamic system evolving historically and inevitably
towards complex industrial structures.
Defining Society
"A society is an autonomous grouping of people who inhabit a common
territory, have a common culture (shared set of values, beliefs, customs
and so forth) and are linked to one another through routinized social
interactions and interdependent statuses and roles." Calhoun et
al

"Society is a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid,

of many groupings and divisions, of human behaviour and of liberties"
Maclver and
Page

"Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions within

the community"
G.D.H. Cole

“Society is a complex of forms or processes each of which is living and

growing by interaction with the other, the whole being so unified that
what takes place in one part affects all the rest". CH
Cooley

Features of Society
Man is a social animal. He always lives in society. Like him, other
creatures such as, ants, birds, monkeys, apes, etc., also live in society.
Human society in comparison with other societies is unique in several
respects. In order to interpret society in a wider sense, it is necessary to
examine the basic features which constitute society.

1. Society consists of people

Society is composed of people. Without people there can be no society, no

social relationship and no social life at all.

2. Mutual awareness and mutual interaction

Society is a group of people in continuous interactions with each other. A
social interaction is made possible because of mutual awareness. Society
is understood as a network of social relations. Thus, social relationship
implies mutual awareness.

3. Society depends on likeness

The principle of likeness is essential for society. Maclver points out,

Comradeship, intimacy, association of any kind or degree would be
impossible without some understanding of each by the other and that
understanding depends on the likeness which each apprehends in the
other. Likeness is the one element which must have strongly stimulated
the group feelings in bringing men, women and children together.
Likeness is the link-up for mutuality.

4. Society rests on differences too

If men are exactly alike, their social relationships would be very limited
people differ from one another in their looks, personality, ability, talent,
attitude, aptitude, interest, taste, faith and so on. People pursue different
activities because of these differences.

5. Co-operation and division of labour

Division of labour involves the assignment to each unit or group a specific

share of a common task. For example: Common task of providing the
banking service involves counter services, accountancy, loan lending etc.
division of labour is possible because of co-operation. Thus, divisions of
labour and co-operation have made social solidarity in the society.

6. Society functions interdependently

Social relationships are characterized by interdependence of elements of

society. Family is an example of interdependence of member for its
smooth functioning. Today, not only individuals are interdependent upon
one another, but communities, social groups and nations are also
interdependent.
 7. Society is dynamic

Society is not static, but it is dynamic. Changeability is an inherent quality

of human beings. No society can even remain constant for any length of
time. Changes may take place slowly and gradually or suddenly and
abruptly.

8. Social control

Absolute freedom makes man’s life like other animal beings. So society
has its own ways of controlling the behaviour of its members. For this,
society has formal and informal means of social control. Customs,
traditions, mores folkways, manners are the informal means of social
control, whereas law, police, constitution, police are formal means of
social control.

Types of Society
Sociologists classify societies into various categories depending on certain
criteria. One such criterion is level of economic and technological
development attained by countries. Another important criterion for
classifying societies may be that which takes into account temporal
succession and the major source of economic organization. When
societies modernize they transform from one form to another. Human
groups begin as hunter gatherers, move toward pastoralism and/or
horticulturalist, develop toward an agrarian society, and ultimately end up
undergoing a period of industrialization. Societies can be sub- classified as
pre-industrial society and industrial society.

Pre-industrial societies
The pre-industrial societies were characterized by attributes relevant
during early centuries before industrial revolution.

It refers to specific social attributes and forms of political and cultural

organization that were prevalent before the advent of the Industrial
Revolution. It is followed by the industrial society.

Some of the features of pre-industrial societies are as follows:-

 Use of simplest technology developed locally with the help of

indigenous knowledge.
 They are pro-literate knowledge.
 There were low division of labour as production was relatively
simply and the number of specialized crafts was limited.
 Joint family structure is prevalent.
 Dominance of religious and superstitions beliefs over peoples day to
day life activities

Pre-industrial societies are further sub classified as follows:-

1. Hunting and Gathering Societies

Before the Industrial Revolution and the widespread use of machines,

societies were small, rural, and dependent largely on local resources.
Economic production was limited to the amount of labour a human being
could provide, and there were few specialized occupations. The very first
occupation was that of hunter-gatherer.

For most of human history, our ancestors have lived in hunting and
gathering societies. For about 5 million years, this type of society was the
dominant form of social organization. Only 10,000 to 12,000 years ago did
other types of societies started to appear. In other words, for 99.75% of
hominid history, humans have been hunters and gatherers. There are still
hunting and gathering societies today, but they are rapidly disappearing,
displaced by more complex societies. There are today only about 250,000
people living in such societies, that is, 0.001% of the world’s population.
Hunting and gathering societies are still found among the Aborigines of
Australia, the Bushmen of Southwestern Africa, and the Pygmies of
Central Africa.

One can find such societies also in the Amazonian rainforest region. But
there too, there subsistence is threatened by commercial interests
involved in clearing the rainforest for a variety of business, be it timber
trade or land clearing for cattle rearing.

2. Horticultural and Pastoral Societies

The period between 12,000 and 7,000 years ago marks the end of the
hunting and gathering era and the emergence of the era of horticultural
and pastoral societies. Although this shift is referred to as the first social
revolution, it was actually gradual and unfolded over thousands of years.
However, the changes were so deep in the major areas of social life that
this shift truly was revolutionary.

Research shows that hunters and gatherers did not simply decide one day
to abandon their traditional lifestyle to become horticulturalists and
pastoralists. Hunting and gathering societies had belief systems and
structures that made them resistant to change. A more likely explanation
is that they were compelled to do so for several reasons

 population growth
 environmental change
 change in technology

As population grows, more food is needed to sustain the group. At the

same period, the global warming that marked the end of the last ice age
provoked a rise in ocean levels and a corresponding shrinking in available
land.

Those societies that lived in dry and mountainous areas with low rainfall
turned to pastoralism, the domestication of herd of animals for food.
Those that lived in areas with more rainfall turned to horti-culturalism,
that is, the cultivation of gardens for food using hand tools, such as hoes.
Pastoral societies remained nomadic whereas horticultural societies
established permanent settlements. A good example of a contemporary
horticultural and pastoral society is the Masai people, who live mostly in
Kenya. The Masai live without electricity. In order to cook and heat, they
need fire.

3. Agricultural Societies

5000 years ago started a very fertile period of innovation in human

history. The large number of innovation again radically changed most
aspects of human life and societies throughout the world. The innovation
in subsistence technology with the greatest impact on the organization of
societies was the plow. Settlements become permanent since soil
nutrients do not get depleted, as they would in a horticultural system. The
use of the plow also made cultivation possible on different types of soil.

The production of a food surplus had far-reaching consequences for the

rest of society and triggered further innovation beyond food production.
For instance, the invention of the wheel that could be attached to wagons
improved transportation technology so that it became easier to get the
food surplus to urban areas. The invention of writing and number allowed
careful record keeping of harvest quantities. The discovery and mastery of
various metals gave birth to money which replaced the bartering system
in favour of monetary trade.

The most direct result of great food productivity is the dramatic increase
in population size, increase in numbers of communities as well as the
development of urban centers which became the first identifiable large
cities unified under a single political authority or ruler.

In agrarian societies, the vast majority of the population is still composed

of peasants, children work alongside adults in gender-differentiated tasks.
As resources became more plentiful, social classes became more divisive.
Those who had more resources could afford better living and developed
into a class of nobility. Difference in social standing between men and
women increased. As cities expanded, ownership and preservation of
resources became an important concern.

4. Feudal Societies

The ninth century gave rise to feudal societies. These societies contained
a strict hierarchical system of power based around land ownership and
protection. The nobility, known as lords, placed vassals (A vassal or
feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or
monarch in the context of the feudal system) in charge of pieces of land.
In return for the resources that the land provided, vassals promised to
fight for their lords.

These individual pieces of land, known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by the

lower class. In return for maintaining the land, peasants were guaranteed
a place to live and protection from outside enemies. Power was handed
down through family lines, with peasant families serving lords for
generations and generations. Ultimately, the social and economic system
of feudalism would fail, replaced by capitalism and the technological
advances of the industrial era.

Industrial Societies

The industrial mode of prediction began some 250 years ago in Britain
and from there it spread to the entire world. In the simplest sense an
industrial society is a social system whose mode of production focuses
primarily on finished goods manufactured with the aid of machinery.
Industrial society refers to a society driven by the use of technology to
enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high
capacity for division of labour.

Features of industrial societies are as follows:-

  With the industrial technology, societies began to change faster and
industrial societies transformed themselves more in one century
than they had during the past thousand years.
 Industrialization draws people away from home to factories situated
near energy sources.
 Occupation specialization has become more prominent
 It led to the rise of very large cities and surrounding suburban areas
with a high rate of economic activity.
 Division of labour becomes over exhibited.
 Rapid change and movement from place to place also generate
anonymity, cultural diversity and numerous sub-cultures and
counter cultures.

Post Industrial Societies

According to sociologist Daniel Bell (1973), post-industrial or information

societies have emerged in the past three decades in the United States,
Western Europe and Japan and represent the latest social revolution and
post-industrial societies are still developing.

Economic production is no longer based on industrialism and the mass

production of manufactured goods. Rather post-industrial societies are
based on the production, storage, and use of information which is why the
post-industrial economy is often also called the Information Age.

This decline in industrial economy is accompanied by the rise of a service

economy, such as banking and financial services, law, education, and
health care. In a service economy, people sell their knowledge and
expertise to others. Because post-industrial societies and their
occupational structure are based on knowledge, education, especially
higher education maintains a key institutional role.

Computer technology becomes an essential component of practically

every aspect of people’s lives and the social structure as a whole.
Communication technologies, such as the World Wide Web, emails as well
as satellite communications, have expanded dramatically, connecting
people throughout the world. Just as the Industrial Revolution gave rise to
the nation-state, such technologies gave birth to the Global Village.

Other forms of production (agriculture and manufacturing) do not

disappear but it witness a global division of labour where different regions
of the world engage in different forms of production (fruits from the
Caribbean area, electronic manufacturing from Southeast Asia, high tech
software from Silicon Valley).

Rural Society
Rural Society means society that lives in village, and is dependent on
natural resources and environment. It rests predominately on agriculture
and allied activities. These societies have low density of population,
intimate group relationships and have intimate traditions. Marked by a
high regard for intimacy and traditional values, they were often regulated
by kinship customs and ritual, and, in particular, the ownership and care
of productive land was strictly guarded by tradition. They are rich in
culture and traditions. However, from the contemporary point of view,
they are considered to be socio-economically less developed. Therefore,
several development activities have been undertaken in our country to
improve their socio-economic conditions.

In spite of the growth of cities, the population of the world is largely rural.
In India, more than 50 crores of people live in villages. More than 70% of
Indians live in more than five lakh villages in India. The urban life still
depends on the farm and its produce.

Characteristics of Rural Society

 1. Rural Society is Homogeneous

Rural society showcases social homogeneity. They life is simple and

traditional. Unity and uniformity is largely visible. There is similarity in in
the ways of thinking, behaving, dressing, action and living. There is
consensus or agreement among people in regards to habits, opinions,
morals, customs, values, religious beliefs etc.

2. Dominance of primary relations

They are characterized as primary group. The people of rural society have
face to face relations among the each other. Every person knows every
other and hence interested in other’s welfare. They are relatively small
and frequently meet and maintain regular contacts. A sense of belonging
to the community holds them together.

3. Informal Social Control

Control of social behaviour of people in rural society is simple and less

problematic. Predominance of face to face relationship has made it
simpler to regulate relations. Customs, traditions, group standards and
morals are themselves effective as social pressures. Any social
disobedience is easily noticed and effective consequences are
determined. Formal means of social control such as law, legislation,
police, and court are not resorted to in normal situations to maintain
social order.

4. Occupations

The rural community is marked by a predominant type of occupation of

agriculture. It is associated with different crafts like pottery, basket
making, spinning, oil grinding, toy making etc. There is less division of
labour and specialization in rural society. Opportunities for specialization
are also limited.

5. Importance of family
They are built around the institution of family. They are very cohesive and
lives together as a unit. The family provides the greatest part of economic
and social needs of the family members. People are bound to family
customs and traditions.

6. Role of neighbourhood

A neighbourhood can be defined as an area in which residents are

personally well acquainted with each other and are in the habit of visiting
each other for exchanging greetings and well- wishes and in general doing
things together. In rural society, neighbourhood plays a very important
role. They share joys and sorrows together. They have the spirit of
comradeship. They participate in all common ceremonies, functions and
festivals.

7. Faith in religion

People of rural society are religious in their outlook. They have awe and
reverence and more than that the fear of God. Their main occupation is
greatly dependant on the mercy of nature. They believe in the righteous
of God for better functioning of their occupation. Their faith in god has
minimised their mental tension and disturbance.

8. Conservatism and Dogmatism

They are said to be highly conservative, traditional and dogmatic in their

approach. Their social attitudes and behaviour patterns are dictated by
traditions. They are sceptical in their attitude.

9. Social Stratification

In rural society, social stratification is a traditional characteristic based on

caste. The rural society is divided into various strata on the basis of caste.
These caste have sub divided the whole society into their distinctive
characteristics.
 10. Social Interaction

The frequency of social interaction in rural areas is comparatively lower

than in urban areas. However, the interaction level possesses more
stability and continuity. The relationships and interactions in the primary
groups are intimate. The family fulfills the needs of the members and
exercises control over them.

Urban Society
Urban society can be explained as a phenomenon which has steadily
progressed toward a conception of cities and urban cultures that is free of
ethnocentrism, with broad cross-cultural and historical validity. It includes
towns, cities and metros with a specific way of life. It can defined as an
area having higher density of population, people engaging mostly in the
occupation other than agriculture and domestication of animals, having a
distinct ecology and culture different from that of a large society’s culture.
Social interaction is fast and formal in urban society. The rate of social
change is faster due to education in technology, industry and
urbanisation. A complex social life is found in which people of different
races, professions, castes and religion live together.

Characteristics of urban society

1. Social heterogeneity

If villages are the symbol of cultural homogeneity, the cities symbolize

cultural heterogeneity. The cities are characterized by diverse peoples,
races and cultures. There is great variety in regard to the food habits,
dress habits, living conditions, religious beliefs, cultural outlook, customs
and traditions of the urbanites.

2. System of interaction

The social structure of urban communities is based on interest groups.

The circles of social contact are wider in the cities than in the country.
There is a wider area of interaction system per man and per aggregate.
This makes city life more complex and varied. The city life is characterized
by the predominance of secondary contacts, impersonal, casual and short-
lived relations.

3. Anonymity in city life

Urban groups have a reputation for namelessness. By virtue of its size and
population, the urban community cannot be a primary group. Here nobody
knows anybody and nobody cares for anybody. The urbanites do not care
for their neighbours and have nothing to do with their miseries or
pleasures.

4. Social distance

Social distance is the result of anonymity and heterogeneity. Most of one’s

routine social contacts in a town or city are impersonal and segmentary in
character. In the urban community social responses are incomplete and
halfhearted. There is utter lack of personal involvement in the affairs of
others.

5. Materialism

In the urban community the social existence of man revolves round

wealth and material possessions. The worth of an urbanite today is being
judged not by what he is but by what he has. Status symbols in the form
of financial assets, salaries, costly home appliances count a lot for the
urbanites.

6. Large scale Social Mobility

An urban community is characteristized by intense social mobility. It

refers to movement of people from one social status into another from
lower status to higher status. In urban areas the social status of an
individual is determined not by heredity or birth but by his merit,
intelligence and perseverance. Urbanity and mobility are positively
correlated.
 7. Voluntary associations

The urban community is characterized by impersonal, mechanical and

formal social contacts occurring among the people. They have a strong
desire for developing genuine social relationships to satisfy their hunger
for emotional warmth and sense of security. They form associations,
clubs, societies and other secondary groups.

8. Individuation

The secondary and voluntary character of urban association, the

multiplicity of opportunties and social mobility have forced individuals to
make their own decisions. The concentration of people in limited space
has the effect of emphasising individuality. They take their own decisions
on education, marriage, occupation, enterprise and so on. They are more
selective in their chioce and more individualistic in their references.

9. Formal social control

Social control in urban community is essentially formal in nature.

Individual’s behaviour is regulated by such agencies as police, jails, law
courts etc.

10. Rationality in approach

In urban community there is emphasis on rationality. People are inclined

to reason and argue. Their relationship with others is governed, for the
most part, by the consideration of gain or loss. Relationship takes place on
a contractual basis. Once the contract is over, human relationship
automatically comes to a close.

Civil Society
A civil society can be considered as a community of citizens linked by
common interests and collective activity. In civil society, citizens
participate and organise service and programs for themselves and others
without consideration of their own hopes and objectives.
Systems of economic exchange that promote patterns of civil society
depend on the sustainable availability and equitable use of natural and
social resources necessary for constructing a satisfying life by present and
future generations.

Sustainable economic development is necessary for the health and

longevity of any society. It requires a mutually supportive, symbiotic
relationship between the natural economy of ecosystems and human
social economies, with a particular concern for the poor.

The formation of civil society usually partners with an identifiable system

of political governance, characterized by open, public decision-making for
all community members through governmental structures that permit
legitimate access to and use of civic space and resources and maintain
fairness within the existing political and judicial systems by promoting and
protecting the welfare of the people, with particular concern for the
privilege of right to vote for all.

Social relationships within a civil society are characterized by strong,

active, vibrant, diverse community-based groups and networks that

 facilitate open, voluntary participation

 enable community stakeholders to hold economic and political
factors accountable for outcomes of policy decisions
 provide a context for mutual benefit and exchange
 seek to promote the “common good,” with a particular concern for
inclusion of those currently marginalized ( including all strata of
society)

Characteristics of Civil Society

1. To be accountable or Accountability

The citizens carrying out activities based on society interest have all
essential basic rights (free speech, fair elections, access to information,
etc.). They can hold the member citizen of governance of policies,
programs accountable for any outcome of the process.
 2. Common social right

The citizens of the civil society have a social common right of access to
resources produced, used and exchanged through the society. They can
contribute and take benefits from the resources equally and fairly.

3. Self-Governance

Every citizen can exercise the right of self-governance by participating in

activities of political, social and economic in origin. They have equal right
and opportunity to hold positions and be part of public decision making
and leadership.

4. Equal share of resources

Civil society exercises the right of equity where every citizen is given
equal access to use of resources and get benefit from it from better life. It
is essential to have equitable resources right for producing and sustaining
an improved quality of life for all citizens.

5. Network of association

Every citizen has a fundamental right to be part of any voluntary

association of social affiliations, groups, networks and structure. They
have right to gather in any social area to gather and interact with others
for sharing of ideas, opinions and share a sense of belongingness.

6. Decision making power

The citizens have the right to participate in decision making process to

increase transparency and strength the responsibility towards societal
resources. Responsibility in systems exists when citizens enjoy the
authority of resource trusteeship.

7. Social Justice

The rule of law can be used by the citizens for fulfilment of their civil
obligations, political process and use it as an advocate for unjust laws. It
can be accomplished by citizens serving to rights of law.
Conclusion

Society usually refers to group of people who lives and work together or
who share social norms and values. It is simply a web of social
relationship. People interact in a defined territory and share a culture.
Today the structure of social has been changed from hunting and
gathering societies and agrarian societies to industrial society. But still we
need society from birth to till death for the performance of social values
norms etc.

Questions:-

1. Define the term "society".

2. "In a broader perspective, the people of the planet earth maybe
regarded as a society." Explain.
3. Mention the criteria for classifying societies into different categories.
4. Discuss about hunting and food gathering society.
5. Explain the characteristics of Agricultural or Feudal societies.
6. Industrial society existed in the late 18 century – discuss
7. How is post-industrial society different from industrial society?
8. Explain the features of rural society.
9. What is civil society and describe its features?
10. Describe the features of urban society.