FIRST SEMESTER

SOCIOLOGY (BL 102)

 UNIT-I

BAIC CONCEPTS

Society

The term society is the most fundamental one in sociology. It is derived from the Latin
word ‘socius’, which means companionship or friendship. Man is social animal’, said
Aristotle centuries ago. Man needs society for the attainment of his optimum happiness
and where he can work and enjoy his life.

Definitions

The term society refers not to a group of people, but to the complex pattern of the
norms of interaction, that arise among and between them. (Lapiere)

Society is a web of social relationships. (Mac Iver )

Characteristics of Society

  Society consists of people: Society is composed of people. Without people there

can be no society, no social relationship and no social life at all.

 Mutual awareness and mutual interaction: Society is a group of people in

continuous interactions with each other. Social interaction is made possible because of
mutual awareness.

  Society depends on likeness: The principle of likeness is essential for society. It

exists among those who resemble one another in body and mind to some extent.

 Society rests on differences too: If men are exactly alike, their social
relationships would be very limited people differ from one another in their looks,
personality, ability, talent, attitude, aptitude, interest, taste, faith and so on. People
pursue different activities because of these differences.

 Co-operation and division of labor: Division of labour involves the assignment

to each unit or group a specific share of a common task. Division of labour is possible
because of co-operation. Thus, divisions of labor and co-operation have made social
solidarity and social cohesion.
 Society implies interdependently too. Social relationships are characterized by
interdependence of elements of society. Today, not only individuals are interdependent
upon one another, but communities, social groups and nations are also interdependent.

 Society is dynamic: Society is not static, but it is dynamic. No society can even
remain constant for any length of time. Changes may take place slowly and gradually.

 Social Control: society has its own ways of controlling the behavior of its
members. For this, society has formal and informal means of social control. Customs,
traditions, mores folkways, manners are the informal means of social control, whereas
law, police, constitution, police are formal means of social control.

 Culture: Every society is unique because it has its own way of life.

Animal v/s Human Society

 Society is not limited to human beings alone. There are also animal societies of
varying degrees. Ants, termites, birds, monkeys, apes and countless other animals also
are moved to live in society by the requirements of their nature. Man depends upon
society not only for food and protection but also for education, equipment, opportunity,
content of his thoughts and aspirations. Animals, as they are devoid of any touch of
civilization, do not need society for those purposes. It is man alone who is endowed
with intelligence from which culture and language proceed.

Need of Society for Animals

 Sexual Instinct:

The first instinct that leads animals to form society is the instinct of perpetuation of
their species. 

 Physical needs:

Secondly, animals need society for protection, comfort and nurture. The very birth of
the animal child brings with it the absolute need of society itself. An animal baby like
the human baby for his protection and upbringing depends on parents.

Difference between Human Society and Animal Society

The difference between human society and animal society may be explained under two
heads;

i) Biological

(ii) socio- cultural.

Biological differences

Although there are several biological similarities between the members of the animal
society and human society yet there are several biological differences as well. These are

 Physical Structure of the Members:

The physical structure of the members of human society is more or less similar but we
find many differences in the physical structure of the members of animal society. Even
the animals belonging to one type are not similar in their bodily structure,

Mental Capacity:
It is evident that the mind of men is more developed than the mind of animals. The
mind of even the cleverest animal is only one third in its cubic capacity than that of the
man.

Capacity to Stand Straight:

Another biological difference between the animal society and human society is that the
members of human society can stand straight on their legs and can use their hands
freely. On the other hand, the animals cannot so stand and use the hands the way men
use them.

Socio-cultural Differences:

From the socio-cultural viewpoint, the human society differs from the animal society in
the following respects:

Human Society is a society of civilized and cultured beings:

It satisfies not only the physical but also the cultural needs of man .Human society is a
higher stage of society in which men behave towards one another in ways determined
by the laws of the land and are clearly conscious of the social awareness and social
contact that exist among them as members of society.
On the other hand, an animal society is a society of beasts who are far removed from
any degree of civilization or culture.

Animal society is based on instincts:

Animal society is mainly based on instincts or reflex behaviour, whereas human

society is based on reason or rational behaviour. There are no rights and duties in
animal society. Every animal lives upon his physical powers whereas human society
has a wonderful system of law and order.

Social Awareness:

The animals live in society but are not conscious of it. The degree of social awareness is
extremely dim. They lack the ability to perceive logical relations between things and the
power of integrating (not merely associating) various order of things through mental
synthesis.

Division of labour

The division of labour in animal society is not learned, it is based upon biological
specialization. Their societies are the sole result of biological evolution, rather than
social evolution. The way in which animals perform their work is quasi-mechanical and
stereo-typed whereas the work of man, even if it is inferior, is done with forethought
and understanding.

Mode of Organization:

The animal modes of organization are relatively fixed and rigid, whereas the human
modes are flexible and adaptable. Man is not predisposed to live together as the bees
and ants are. He is capable of developing complex modes of organization and changes
them as the needs change. In human society we find institution of marriage to regulate
the sex behaviour of men and women but in animal society marriage is non-existent.

Symbolic Communication:

Being incapable of symbolic communication, the animals are incapable of transmitting

their culture to the next generation. Each generation of animals has to acquire the same
knowledge and attitudes all over again through its own actual participation. Animals do
not possess the faculty of language. The animals never develop “anything
approximating to true language.” man alone has developed them into the wonderful
outgrowth of speech.

COMMUNITY

Man cannot live in isolation. He keeps contact with his fellow beings for his survival. It
is not possible for him to keep contact with all the people or to belong as a member of
all the groups existing in the world. He establishes contact with a few people who live
in close proximity or presence to him in a particular area or locality. It is quite natural
for people living in a particular locality for a longer period of time to develop a sort of
likeness or similarity among themselves. They develop common ideas, common
customs, common feelings, common traditions etc. They also develop a sense of
belonging together or a sense of we-feeling. This kind of common social living in a
specific locality gives rise to the community.

The word community has been derived from two words of Latin namely ‘com’ and
munis. In English ‘com’ means together and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus, community
means to serve together. 

Definitions:

Maclver defines community as “an area of social living, marked by some degree of
social coherence.

According to Bogardus it is a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and
“living in a given area.

According to Kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can
embrace all aspects of social life.”

Basic Elements of Community:

According to Maclver and Page, there are two essential elements community.

(i) Locality:
Locality implies a territorial area. Unless a group of people live in a particular locality
they cannot establish relations and generate we-feeling among them. Maclver says,
though due to the extending facilities of communication in the modern world the
territorial bond has been broken, yet “the basic character of locality as a social classifier
has never been transcended.

(ii) Community Sentiment:
Community can be formed on the basis of community sentiment. It is extremely
essential. It is a ‘we-feeling’ among the members of a community. People living in a
community lead a common life, speak the same language, conform to the same mores,
feel almost the same sentiment and therefore, they develop a feeling of unity among
themselves.

Other Elements of Community:

(i) Group of people:

Fundamentally, a community consists of a group of people. When a group of
people share the basic conditions a common life, they form community.
(ii) Naturality:
A community is not deliberately created. It is a spontaneous or natural growth. An
individual is born in a community.

(iii) Permanence:
A community is generally not temporary or short-lived like a crowd or a revolutionary
mob. It is a permanent organisation or durable social group.

(iv) Likeness:
In a community there is a likeness or similarity in language, custom, mores, traditions
etc. among the members. As A. W. Green has rightly said, “A community is a cluster of
people living within narrow territorial radius who share a common way of life.”
(v) A Particular Name:
Every community is always known with a particular name, their immediate bases of
origin give such community a particular name. For example based on the linguistic
condition people living in Orissa are called Oriyas; living in Kashmiri culture are called
Kashmiris.

(vii) Common Life:

Some sociologists like Elwood says that the life of the people in a community is near
about the same. There is no epochal difference between the ways of life of the
individuals. Their eating pattern, dressing style, language etc. are found to be similar.
Due to their inhabitation in a particular geographical area, they develop a kind of
emotional and cultural uniformity.

(viii) Common Interests:

In community, all the members have common and collective interests. People live in
community and work together to fulfill these interests. Thus, Newmeyer says,
community is a group of people living in a delimited geographic area, having common
interests and activities and functioning together in their concern of life.

Differences between Community and Society:

1. Society is a web social relationships. But community consists of a group of

individuals. It is a specific group.

2. Society is abstract. Community is concrete.

3. A definite geographical area is not necessary for society. But a definite geographical
area is essential for a community. It is bound by the territorial units.
4. There can be more than one community in a society. Most societies consist of more
than one community, varying in size, physical appearance, organization and specialized
functions. But there cannot be more than one society in a community.

5. Community sentiment or a sense of we-feeling is not essential in a society. But it is

an essential element in case of community.

6. In a society the objectives and interests are extensive and varied. But in a community,
the objectives and interests are comparatively less extensive and varied.

7. In the society, members have doctrine, public opinion, contractual solidarity and
individual will. But in the community, members have faith, customs, natural solidarity
and a common will.

8. Society involves both likeness and differences. Common interests as well as diverse
interests are present in society. But in the case of community likeness is more
important.

ASSOCIATION

Men have diverse needs, desires, interests and ends which demand their satisfaction.
One way of fulfilling these needs, desires, and interests is through cooperation and
mutual assistance. This cooperative pursuit has a reference to association.

Definitions:

According to Maclver, “An organization is deliberately formed for the collective pursuit
of some interest or set of interest, which its members of it share.

According to Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social beings related to one

another by the fact that they posses or have instituted in common an organization with a
view to securing specific end or specific ends:”

Characteristics of Association:

 A group of People:
An association is basically a group of people who have some common objectives.
Without a group of people no association can be formed.
Common Aims and Objectives:
Association does not refer to a mere collection of human beings rather it refers to those
groups of individuals who have some common aims and objectives. All the members
try to achieve the common objectives. Hence association is a means to achieve common
objectives. For example people having similar political objectives may join in a
particular political party.

Organisation

Association is an organised group. Organisation gives stability and proper shape to an

association. Organization refers to the way in which statuses and roles are distributed
among members.

 Regulation of relations:
Every organised group or organizations are based on some rules and regulations. This
body of rules and regulations governs and guides the relations of its members. These
rules and regulations are either written or unwritten. Members or officials of an
association obey these rules and works according to these rules and regulation.

 Co-operative Spirit :
Association is the result of cooperative spirit of some organised individuals. Here
people work together with a cooperative spirit to fulfil some common purposes. This
co-operative spirit helps them to realize their objectives.

Voluntary Membership:
The membership of an association is voluntary in nature. People voluntarily join in an
association to fulfill their desired aims and objectives. They can also withdraw their
membership when they feel so.

Durability of Association:
The degree of permanency varies from association to association. Some association
may be temporary where as some are permanent. There exists some long lived
association like family or religious associations. Similarly there exists some temporary
associations like flood relief association.

 Legal Status :
Association has legal status. It can sue and be sued. Legal action can also be taken
against the members as well as officials if they disobey it’s rules and regulations.

Artificial Nature:
Association is an artificial creation. It is man made in nature. Some individuals
deliberately form association to fulfill their common objectives. It does not grow
naturally or spontaneously.

Limited Significance:
Membership of an association has limited significance. Because association is a
temporary group organised for the fulfillment of specific interests of its members. It has
significance for its members so far it serves their purpose. When it fail to serves the
purpose it lose it’s significance.

Differences between Community and Association

Association Community

Membership of an association is By birth itself individual become

voluntary members of a community

Has some specific interest or interests General interests

Does not necessarily imply the spatial

Marked by locality
aspects

May be temporary or permanent Relatively more stable and permanent

May have their legal status Has no legal status

Has their own written or unwritten rules Regulate the behavior of its members by
and regulations to regulate the relations means of customs, traditions etc. It does
of their members not have written rules or laws

It is partial. Regarded as part of Community is integral. It may have

community several association within its boundary.
SOCIAL GROUPS

Human beings never live in isolation. He rarely exists alone. Human life is essentially a
group life. As a social animal he always lives in group. He begins his life as a
participating member of the group i.e. family. He born, live, grows and dies in group.
He forms group to fulfill his different needs and to attain common goals. Groups play
an important role in shaping personality, in the development of social organization and
socialization. Hence group is one of the basic concepts in sociology.

Definitions:

According to E.S. Bogardus, “A social group may be thought of as a number of persons

two or more, who have some common objects of attention who are stimulating to each
other, who have common loyalty and participate in similar activities”.

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Whenever two or more individuals come together
and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group”.

Characteristics of Social Group

Collection of Individual:
A social group consists of a given number of individuals. Without people no social
group can be formed. This number may vary.

Interaction among members

The interaction among the members are the basis or foundation of social group without
which social group cannot be formed. The members must interact or inter-related with
each other.

Mutual Awareness:

Group members are aware of one another and their behavior is determined by this
mutual recognition.

We-feeling:
Members of a social group are characterized by a strong sense of we-feeling. This we-
feeling fosters co-operation among members. Because of this we- feeling the members
identify themselves with the group and consider others as outsiders.
Sense of unity and solidarity:
Members of a social group are always tied by a sense of unity and bond of solidarity,
common goals and mutual relations strengthens this bond of unity and solidarity. This
creates loyalty and sympathy among the members of social group.

Common Interests:
The aims, objectives and ideals of the members are common. For the fulfillment of
these common goals social groups are formed.

Group Norms:
Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the members are supposed
to follow. With the help of these rules and norms the group exercises control over it’s
members. These norms may be written or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is
followed by punishment. The group norms maintain unity and integrity in the group.

Similar Behavior:
Members of a social group show similar behavior. As the interests, ideals and values of
a group are common hence its members behave in a similar manner. This similar
behavior helps in the achievement of common goals.

Stability:
 Social groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. There are permanent groups
likes family and temporary groups like crowd, mob etc.
 Social groups are dynamic in nature:
It is not static. It responds to different changes. The nature of change may be slow or
rapid but it is bound to occur.

Influence on personality:
Social groups directly or indirectly shape the personality of their members. They also
provide opportunities for the expression of individuality.

Importance of Social Groups

No man exists without a society and no society exist without groups. Groups have
become part and parcel of our life.
Survival becomes problematic without groups:
Groups have become so necessary that our very survival becomes problematic and
doubtful in their absence.

Man becomes man only among men:

Various studies have convincingly proved that man fails to develop human qualities in
the absence of human environment. The biological potentiality of man to become
person does not happen automatically in the absence of human environment.

Groups help social survival also:

Not only from the point of view of survival but also from the view point of leading a
successful life, man depends on groups. Socialization helps man to develop a
personality of his own.

Groups contribute to development of personality:

Personality is the product of group life. Hidden potentials can find their expression only
in the context of social groups.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL GROUPS

Different sociologists have classified social groups on the basis of different criteria.

1. In-groups and out-groups by W.G. Sumner:

This is a subjective classification on the basis of tendency on the part of an

individual to identify himself with a particular group in a particular situation. In
simple words, in-groups are we groups and out-groups are they groups.

2. Involuntary and voluntary groups:

This classification is based on membership.

Voluntary groups: The group in which membership is optional. Eg: political

parties, trade unions.

Involuntary groups: The group in which membership is compulsory. Eg: family,

community.
 3. Horizontal Groups and Vertical Groups:

Horizontal Groups are the large inclusive groupssuch as nation political parties
where as vertical groups are smaller divisions such as economic groups.

4. Territorial and non-territorial groups:

The groups with definite territory such as community, nation etc. and the groups
not requiring definite territory such as caste, class etc.

Other Classifications are;

Small groups and large groups

Organized and unorganized groups

Genetic and congregate groups

Majority and minority groups

Open and closed groups

Formal and informal groups

Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (Association)

Temporary and permanent groups

Primary and secondary groups

Primary groups

C.H Cooley has introduced the term primary group in his book “Social
organization”. it’s a social group characterized by face-to-face relationships,
mutual aid and companionship. It is the nucleus of all social organization. These
are universal groups.
 Characteristics of primary groups

1. Dominance of face to face relations;

 close intimate relations.

 everyone knows everyone.

2. Identity of ends;

They have common desires and attitudes and work together for achieving it

3. The relation is an end in itself

Establishment of primary relationship is an end in itself. It is not a means to an end

but an end in itself.

4. Relationship is personal ;

Each member knows each other personally and each one is interested in the other.
Primary relationship is not transferable because one can’t fill the absence of the other.

5. The relationship is inclusive;

An individual in a primary relationship is not an abstraction. He is treated as a

complete human being. 

6. Relationship is spontaneous;

It grows automatically among members. There is nothing like compulsion. Hence

primary relationship is voluntary. No special effort is made for the growth of primary
relationship.

7. Small Size;
 Primary group is very small in size because it consists of less number of individuals.
Because of small size members know each other personally and intimate relationship
can be established among them.

7. Physical Proximity:

Personal, Close and intimate relationship could be possible only when members are
physically close to each other.

8. Stability or durability of Relationship:

A primary group is relatively a permanent group

9. Similarity of Background:

There must be some approximations in their levels of experience

10. Limited self interest:

In a primary group individual interest is subordinate to group interest. The common

interest predominates over individual interest.

11. Intensity of shared interest:

The shared interests hold the members together.

12. Control over Members:

Primary group exercises maximum control over its members. This is possible due
to the fact that all the members of a primary group know each other personally.

13. Direct Cooperation:

Members work directly and in cooperation with each other to achieve their common
interests

Importance of Primary Groups

They are equally important for individual as well as society

1. Primary group shapes personality of individuals:

As individual first come in contact with primary group. Individual is socialized in a
primary group. His self develops in primary groups. A child learns social norms,
standards, beliefs, morals, values, sacrifice, co-operation, sympathy and culture in a
primary group.

2. Primary group fulfills different psychological needs of an individual such as love,

affection, fellow feeling, co-operation, companionship and exchange of thought.. It
plays an important role in the reduction of emotional stresses and mental tensions.
Participation with primary groups provides a sense of belongingness to individuals. He
considers himself as an important member of group.

3. Primary group provide a stimulus to each of its members in the pursuit of

interest .The presence of others i.e. near and dear ones in a group acts as a stimulus to
each.

4. Primary group provides security to all its members. Particularly it provides security
to the children, old and ill. It also provides security to its members at the time of need.
A member always feels a kind of emotional support and feels that there is someone on
his side.

5. Acts as an agency of social control. It exercises control over the behavior of its
members and regulates their relations in an informal way. It teaches individuals to work
according to the prescribed rules and regulations.

6. Primary group develops democratic spirit within itself. It develops the quality of
love, affection, sympathy, co-operation, mutual help and sacrifice, tolerance and
equality among its members.

7. Primary group introduces individuals to society. It teaches them how to lead a

successful life in a society. K. Davis opines that “the primary group in the form of
family initiates us into the secrets of society”. It helps the individual to internal social
norms and learns culture.

8. Primary groups also fulfill different needs of society. It is the nucleus of all social
organizations

SECONDARY GROUPS

Sociologist like Kingsley Davis, Ogburn, MacIver and others have popularized
the concept. Groups other than those of primary ones are called secondary
groups.Hence they are considered as residual category
According to ogburn & Nimkoff the ‘groups which provide experiences lacking in
intimacy’ can be called secondary groups.

Characteristics:

 Large Size:

Secondary groups are large in size. They comprise of a large number of members and
these members may spread all over the world. For example, the Red Cross Society, it’s
members scattered all over the world. Because of this large size indirect relations found
among the members.

No physical basis:

Not characterized by physical proximity. They are not limited to any definite area.

Formal, Indirect and Impersonal Relation (Secondary relations):

People do not develop personal relations among themselves. Relations in a secondary

group are not face-to- face. They interact among themselves in accordance with formal
rules and regulations. Because of large size it is not possible to establish direct relations
among themselves. Contact and relation among member are mainly indirect.

Specific Ends or interests:

Secondary groups are formed to fulfill some definite’ aims. The success of a
secondary group is judged according to the extent by which it became able to fulfil
those aims.

Voluntary Membership:

The membership of a secondary group is voluntary in nature. Whether one will

be a member of a secondary group or not it depends on his own volition.

Nature of Social Control:

Formal means of social control plays an important role in a secondary group. Group
exercises control over its members in formal ways such as police, court, army etc.

Division of Labor:
 A secondary group is characterized by division of labor. The duties, functions
and responsibilities of members are clearly defined. Each member has to perform his
allotted functions.

Indirect communication:

Mass media of communication such as radio, T.V, newspaper, post etc. are used.
Communication may not be quick and effective.

Group Structure:

It has a formal structure. These are organized groups.

Limited influence on Personality:

These groups are specialised in character. People involvement in them is also

limited

Significance of Secondary groups

 The primary groups have an important place in a simple and small society but in
modern era the trend is towards secondary groups.

 The changing trends of modern society have swept away primary groups. Man
now depends for his needs more on secondary groups than primary groups. 

 Industrialisation has moved the worker from the village disrupting his local
associations. It has also influenced the roles played in the family. Employment of
women in offices and factories has influenced her domestic role.

Channels of opportunity:

The secondary groups have opened channels of opportunity. They provide a greater
chance to develop individual talents.

Efficiency:

A secondary group is marked by clear cut division of labour. There are set rules to
regulate it. A formal authority is set up with the The emphasis is on getting the job
done. Sentiment is subordinated to achievement. The great advances in material
comfort would be impossible without the rise of goal directed secondary organisations.
Wider Outlook:

A secondary group broadens the outlook of its members.A secondary group has to
accommodate a large number of individuals and localities which widens the outlook of
its members. It is more universal in its judgement than the primary group which is
influenced by local customs and personal attitudes

Differences between primary and secondary groups:

Primary and secondary groups can be differentiated on the basis of following points

 Meaning

 Nature of Social Relation

 Size

 Physical Proximity

 Communication

 Group Interest

 Nature of Cooperation

 Group Structure

 Durability

 Effects on personality

 nature of control

Important Questions

4 marks Questions:

1. Define association. Describe its various characteristics.

2. What do you mean by society?

3. Define community. Describe its various characteristics.

4. Write 4 main differences between human and animal society

10 marks Question:

1. Distinguish between Community and Association.

2. Define primary group and describe its main characteristics.

20 marks Questions:

1. What do you mean by community? Distinguish between community and association.

2. Define social group. Discuss various social group and bases of its formation.

3. What do you mean by Society? Distinguish between human and animal society.
4. Animals have a society not culture. Explain this statement while differentiating
between animal and human society

5. What do you mean by community? Distinguish between community and

association with suitable examples.

6. . What do you understand by social groups? Distinguish between primary and

secondary groups.
 UNIT II

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Definitions:

 Institution may be described as recognized and established usages governing

relation between individuals and groups. (Ginsberg)

 Institution may be defined as habitual way of living together which have been
sanctioned, systematized and established by the authority of communities.
(Ellwood)

Characteristics of Institution:

1. Social in nature:-

Social institution comes into being due to collective activities of the people.

2. Universality:

They exist in all the societies and existed at all the stages of social development.

3. Institutions are Standardized Norms:

They prescribe the way of doing things. They also prescribe rules and regulations
that are to be followed.
4. Means of satisfying needs:

These are formed to satisfy some basic and vital needs; self preservation, self-
perpetuation, self expression .

5. They are controlling mechanisms:

They help to preserve social order and give stability to it.

6. Relatively Permanent:

Institutions normally do not undergo sudden or rapid changes. Changes are very
slow and gradual.

7. Abstract in nature:
They are not tangible or visible things.

8. Oral and Written tradition:

Institution may persist in the form of oral or written.

9. Synthesising Symbol :

Institution may have their own symbols, material or non- material.

Eg:-Naional Flag in case of the State.

10. Institutions are interrelated:

Understanding of one institution requires understanding of other.

FUNCTIONS:

1. Its cater to the satisfaction of needs :

2. Control Human behaviour:

3. Simplify Action for individual

4. Assign roles and status to the individual

5. Contribute to unity and Uniformity

6. Manifest Function
7. The negative functions

MARRIAGE

It is one of the universal social institutions. It controls and regulates sex life. It is
closely connected with the institution of marriage. It is the socially accepted way of
establishing family.

Definitions

 Marriage consists of the rules and regulations which define the rights and duties
and privileges' of husband and wife with respect to each other. (Lundberg).

 Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates. (Robert. H.

Lowie)

Characteristics:

 Marriage is a universal social institution. It is found in almost all societies and

at all stages of development.

 Marriage is a permanent bond between husband and wife. It is designed to

fulfill the social, psychological, biological and religious aims.

 Marriage is a specific relationship based on mutual rights and obligations.

 Marriage requires social approval. The relationship between men and women
must have social approval. Without which marriage is not valid

 Marriage is always associated with some civil and religious ceremony. This
social and religious ceremony provides validity to marriage. Though modern
marriage performed in courts still it requires certain religious or customary
practices

Functions of Marriage:

 Regulation of sex life:

Marriage is the powerful instrument for regulating the Sex life of man. Marriage
is often called a licence for sex life.

 Regulates Sex Relations:

 It prohibits sex relation between the closest relatives (incest taboo). Marriage also
puts restrictions on premarital and extra -marital relationships.

 It Leads to establishment of family:

Marriage insists the couple to establish a family of procreation. It’s the marriage
which determine the descent of the newborn individual .

 Provides for Economic Cooperation:

Marriage makes division of labour possible on the basis of sex. Partners of marriage
distribute and divide work among themselves.

 It contributes to emotional and intellectual inter-stimulation of the partners.

Marriage brings life partners together and it deepens the emotion and
companionship between two. It also helps to develop intellectual cooperation
between them.

 It aims at social solidarity:

Marriage not only brings two individuals of opposite sex together but also their
respective families, groups. It is often suggested that by encouraging marriage
between different groups, castes, races, classes etc. it is possible to minimize the
social distance between groups &strengthen their solidarity.

FORMS OF MARRIAGE

Forms of Marriage

Polygamy Monogamy

Polyandry Polygyny

Polygyny
(it’s a type of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given
time. It is in practice among Eskimo tribes, African negroes, Nagas, Gonds & Baigas of
India and Muslim community )

Sororal Polygyny

A type of marriage in which wives are invariably sisters

Non- Sororal Polygyny

A type of marriage in which wives are not related as sisters.

Causes of Polygyny
1. More women less man:
It becomes a natural practice whenever there is an excess of females over males.
2. Economic Advantages:
Some of African tribes practice polygyny for economic reasons. In theses tribes women
contribute to the family income. Sometimes first wife compel the husband to go for
another marriage to reduce her work load.
3. Women as badge of Distinction:
Among some tribals, a man’s social status is often measured in terms of number of
wives he has.

4. Enforced celibacy: Sex relation with a woman during pregnancy and lactation are
tabooed Childlessness of the first wife
5. Taste for variety
6. Childlessness of the first wife.
7. Desire for more children.
8. Captured women in wars and fights.

Polyandry
It is the marriage of one woman with several men. It is practiced among the Tibetans,
Bahama of Africa, Tiyan, Toda, Kota and khasa of India.

Fraternal Polyandry:

Several brothers share the same wife

Non- Fraternal Polyandry:

Husband need not have any close relationships prior to marriage.

Causes of Polyandry:

1.Scarcity of women:
Polyandry is found in such communities where the woman population is less than male
population.

2. Social Customs:
In some communities polyandry is practiced from time immemorial. It is a custom
marriage to them.

3. Extreme Poverty:
The condition extreme poverty may not permit a man to have more wives or even one
wife. Under circumstances he may prefer to polyandry.
4. Bride Price:
High demand of bride-price in some tribal communities is also the cause of polyandry.
Owing to the poor economic status a single man fails to arrange the bride price
independence hence, the numbers of men collectively arrange bride price and marry a
woman.
5. Desire to keep the property intact:
The practice of polyandry is motivated by desire to keep the property intact and to
maintain the strength and power of the joint family.
6. Desire to control population:
Under polyandry many men marry a single woman. As the children producing capacity
of a women is limit hence, polyandry is a very effective method to the people who
desire to keep the population under control.

Rules of marriage:

No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. Endogamy
and exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.
Endogamy:
It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is
marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village,
religious group etc. We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy,
race endogamy and tribal endogamy etc. In caste endogamy marriage has to take place
within the caste. Brahmin has to marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited
to the sub caste groups.
Exogamy:
It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It
prohibits marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have
marital connections nor sexual contacts among themselves.
Forms of exogamy:
Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own gotra.
Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry among
themselves.
Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes like Naga, Garo, Munda etc have the practice of
marrying outside their village.
Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the same panda or sapinda (common parentage)
cannot marry within themselves.

Other forms of marriages:

Hypergamy: It is the marriage of a woman with a man of higher Varna or superior

caste or family.
Hypogamy: It is the marriage of high caste man with a low caste woman.
HINDU MARRIAGE
The Hindus have given great importance for marriage since time immemorial. Marriage
is almost obligatory and unavoidable for an average Indian. Marriage is a matter of
religious duty for the Hindus.
Among Hindus, marriage is not a social contract; it is religious sacrament. The reasons
for which are given below;
I Aims of the Hindu Marriage:
The main aims of hindu marriage are;
i. Dharma: it is the highest aim of the Hindu marriage. For a Hindu, marriage
is meant for the fulfillment of his dharma or religious duties. It is the duty
of the householder to offer ‘Pancha Maha Jajnas in the company of his
wife.
 ii. Praja or Progeny: The second aim of Hindu marriage is the
procreation of children, particularly a male child. It is believed that putra
or son saves the father from going to hell. Therefore, the birth of a male
child has been so elevated among the Hindus that procreation has
become a religious duty.
iii. Rati: Sex is one of the aims of marriage, but it is the least desirable aim
of marriage and that is why it is given third place by the Hindu thinkers.
II. Important Rites associated with the Hindu marriage:

Among the Hindus there are certain rites which must be performed for marriage to be
complete. They are;

i. Vagdana: (oral promise): In the presence of the people gathered for marriage
the names, gotras and pravaras of the bride and the bridegroom are announced
along with their readiness for marriage
ii. Homa: offering in the sacred fire.
iii. Kanyadana: This is the most important ceremony associated with marriage.
It is the ceremony of giving away bride as a gift to bridegroom in the presence
of the sacred fire and people gathered
iv. Panigrahana: taking the right hand of the bride with some promise.
v. Tying of tali or mangalasutra:
vi. Saptapadi: seven steps together

III. Sacred beliefs and values involved in the Hindu Marriage:

i. Indissoluble marital bond: marital bound is said to be inseparable and

irrevocable until the death of either of them. Wife is supposed to be bound to
her husband even after his death
ii. Marriage is a social duty towards the family and community: there was a
little idea of individual interest. Wife was more of a passive partner in the
performance of religious duties.
iii. The ideal of Pativratya: wife is supposed to merge her individuality with her
husband. Her only concern in life is to provide all services to the husband.
iv. Glorification of Sati System:
v. Marriage only sacrament for women:

Changes in Hindu Marriage 

(i) Change in the exogamic and endogamy rules:
Traditionally in Hindu marriage, while selecting a mate, the exogamic and endogamy
principles were adhered to. Whereas the exogamic principle stipulated that one must
select his life partner from outside his own group such as the pinda or pravara or gotra,
the endogamy rules proclaimed that the Hindus are to select their mates inside their own
caste group. But now the situation has entirely changed. The Hindu marriage Act, 1955
has allowed sagotra and sapinda marriage. It has also allowed the cross-cousin marriage
where it prevailed customarily. Thus, at present, the exogamic rules have come under
strain.

Furthermore, the endogamy rules have undergone profound changes. Inter-caste

marriages are encouraged by the social reformers and the legal system. Even
inducements are given by the government for the practice of inter-caste marriage.

(ii) Changes in marriage rites and rituals:

Changes have also been marked in respect of the rites and rituals of Hindu marriage.
These rites and rituals envisaged the Hindu marriage as a religious sacrament, which
included saptapadi, panigrahana, kanyadana pradakhina, etc. The chanting of Vedic
mantras by, the officiating priest also further justified the sacramental character of
Hindu marriage.

But at present, attempts are on to simplify the rituals and make the marriage rites and
rituals precise. Even the rituals and rites are not followed sincerely or rigidly. The Civil
Marriage Act of 1954 has made provision for marriages in civil courts. The Arya Samaj
and other religious reform movements have made the marriage rituals simple and
precise.

(iii) Increase in the age of marriage:

Now-a-days the age of the couple at the time of marriage has gone up. Legally speaking
the minimum age for marriage for boys has been fixed as 21 years and for girls as 18
years. Therefore, the occurrence of child marriages has become very rare. This trend
has developed due to several reasons.

(iv) Decline of parental control over the arrangement of marriage:

Previously the marriages were settled by the parents or other relatives. Their decision
regarding the selection of mates was binding. The life partners had no say in the matter.
But now-a-days, in the wake of modernization and with the spread of modern values
and modern education boys and girls are inculcating individualism and liberalism.
These values enable them to take their own decision in marriage. The parents and
relatives now seek their opinion in marriage.
(v) Incidence of widow marriage:
Previously the Hindu widows were not allowed to contract a second marriage. Rather
the practice of ‘sati’ was followed wherein the widow was asked to put an end to her
life by burning herself on the funeral pyre of her deceased husband. But now the
practice of sati has been abolished with the enactment of law. The Hindu Widow
Remarriage Act, 1950 has made provision for remarriage of widows.

(vi) Marriage has become unstable:

Customarily the Hindu marriage was considered a religious sacrament and an
indissoluble bond between the spouses. But with the enactment of the Hindu Marriage
Act, 1955, the sacramental aspect of the Hindu marriage has been challenged. The Act
has made provision for divorce.

Women are no longer prepared to put up with injustice meted out to them in the name
of family honour. They may seek divorce within the ambit of the Act in order to break
the ill-fated marriage. The Marriage Laws Amendment Act has further simplified the
provision of divorce. Due to these reasons the Hindu marriage has become brittle and
the incidence of divorce is on the increase.

(vii) Changes in the aims of marriage:

The aims of the Hindu marriage have undergone the process of change. In the past,
‘dharma’ ‘Praja’ and rati’ were considered as the three aims of the Hindu marriage.
‘Dharma’ was considered the main objective of marriage and it was followed by ‘praja’
or procreation and ‘rati’ or sexual pleasure. Thus sex was given the lowest priority in
the Hindu marriage. But at present the order of priority, with regard to the traditional
aims, has been reversed with rati or sexual pleasure at the top followed by praja and
dharma.

(viii) Changes in the considerations in the choice of mate:

The traditional criteria of caste, religion, family background and income are no more
considered important in the selection of mates. The emphasis has shifted to the socio-
economic status of the bridegroom’s family and his education and earning potential. In
case of girls, their intelligence, education, capability of household management etc. are
taken as the criteria in the selection of mates.

(ix) Change in control of parents over the selection of mates:

The control of parents over the selection of mates in marriage is on the decline.
Traditionally, it was the responsibility of the parents or the guardians to arrange
marriages for their children and their decision was final and binding even against the
wishes of the mates. But the impact of the West spread of modern education and
economic independence have enabled the boys and girls to choose their mates
according to their own wishes. This has resulted in a number of love marriages.

(x) The emergence of dowry system:

In the past at the time of marriage the parents of a bride offered her jewels and
ornaments as a token of their love and affection towards her. But now-a-days, this
custom seems to have gradually degenerated into the practice of dowry and it is playing
a decisive role in marriage.

(xi) Prohibition of Polygamy:

The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 has declared polygamy to be illegal.

FACTORS AFFECTING HINDU MARRIAGE:

The Hindu marriage has undergone vast changes during the recent years. Traditional
values of marriage, the form of marriage, type of marriage ceremony, the way of
selection of life-partners in marriage, age at marriage – and in such other areas
significant changes have occurred.

These changes have been caused by a number of factors among which the following
may be noted: Industrialisation, urbanisation, education and legislation.

1. Influence of Industrialisation:
Industrialisation directly affected the institutions of family and marriage and brought
about changes in both.Modern industries have minimised economic functions of the
family and reduced its size. Nuclear families have replaced joint families. People have
started “going out of family” for work, for eking out their livelihood. Women also have
joined men in the process of finding out jobs and earning money.

This has boosted the self-respect and self-confidence of women. Men could no longer
boss over women and suppress their attempt to become self-reliant. These
developments have affected the institution of marriage.

2. Impact of Urbanisation:
Industrialisation and urbanisation normally go together. Growth of cities and city
environment has its impact on the institutions of family and marriage. Selection of life-
partners, age at marriage, nature and type of marriage ceremony, expenses of marriage
etc., are affected by the modern urban environment.
Normally young men and women of cities want to select their life-partners on their
own. Arranged marriages have become rarer in cities. In comparison with villagers,
urban people delay their marriages. Child marriages normally do not take place in cities.

The duration of marriage ceremony is also cut short in city. Elaborate customs are either
avoided or shortened. Then, the whole ceremony is over within a couple of hours. It is
rarely stretched over for several days.

3. Role of Education:
Modern education has played its role in initiating some changes in marriage. It is
through modern education that some of the modern values and western ideologies such
as rationalism, individualism, equality of sex, democracy, individual freedom,
secularism, etc., have influenced the outlook of our educated young men and women.
Modern education has influenced marriage in different ways.

4. Influences of Legislations on Marriage:

Many of the beliefs, values, ideals and rules of marriage laid down by the Hindu
shastrakaras have lost their original meaning and purpose now. Attempts were also
made by some of the social reformers to remove these defects and correct the system.
During the British rule and also after independence legislations were passed in order to
bring about desirable modifications in the Hindu marriage system.

The laws enacted in India relate to: (i) age at marriage; (ii) field of mate selection; (iii)
number of spouses in marriage; (iv) breaking of marriage; (v) dowry to be given and
taken and (v) remarriage. The most important legislations relating to these six aspects of
marriage passed from time to time given below.

1. The Prevention of Sati Act 1829:

2. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act – 1856:
3. The Civil [or Special] Marriage Act, 1872:
4. The Child Marriage Restraint Act -1929:
5. The Hindu Marriage Act – 1955:
6. The Dowry Prohibition Act – 1961:

FAMILY

 Most important primary group in the society.

 It is the simplest and elementary form of society.

  It is the most immediate social environment to which a child is exposed.

 No other group influence/ affects the life of an individual as family does. From
the moment of birth to the moment of death family exerts a constant influence.

 It is in the family individuals develops their basic attitudes.

Meaning:

The word “family” has been taken over from the Roman word, “famulus”, meaning a
servant. In Roman law, the word denoted the group of producers and slaves and other
servants as well as members connected by common descent or marriage.

Definitions:

 Family is “a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without
children, or of a man or woman alone, with children.(” Nimkoff.)

 Family is “the biological social unit composed of husband, wife and children.(”
Eliott and Merrill)

Characteristics:

Universality:

Family is one of the most universal social group. It is found in all society, culture
and civilization and in all stages of history and is found in all parts of the world.

2. Emotional Basis:

Family is based on human emotions, impulses, sentiments, love, affection,

sympathy, co-operation etc. All the members of family are bound by some sort of
emotional ties which led them to make it an institution of self sacrifice.

3.Small Size:

The size of a family is very smallBiological condition demand that the size of
family must be small.

4. Formative Influence:
As a primary group family exercises the most profound influence over its members.
 Family socializes its members and plays an important role in the development of
personality and moulds their character

5.  Responsibility of the Members:

It is family which teaches the meaning of social responsibility to all its members.
Here the child also learns the necessity of co-operation in social life. All the
members of family have unlimited responsibilities and a deep sense of obligation
towards family as a whole.

6. Nuclear Position:
Family is the nucleus of all social organization. The whole social structure is built
around it. Social life of individual begins from family.

7. Social Regulations:
Each and every family has its own rules, regulations, customs and traditions which
guard it and save it from dangers. Family rules or customs are strictly followed. This
saves family from possible disintegration.

8.Permanent and Temporary Nature

Nature of family may be both permanent or temporary. Family is considered as both
as an association and an institution. As an institution family is permanent and
universal in nature but as an association family is temporary in nature.

FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY

Different sociologists have classified the functions of the family differently.

K. Davis has mentioned four main functions of family. These are (i) reproduction (ii)
maintenance, (iii) placement and (iv) socialisation of the young.
Ogbum and Nimkoff have divided the functions of family into six categories These
include: (1) affectional functions, (ii) economic functions, (iii) recreational functions
(iv) protective functions, (v) religious and (vi) educational functions.

Maclver divides the functions of the family into two categories:

1. Essential Functions : Functions which are basic to its continued existence. It is also
referred as Primary functions.
2. Nonessential functions: Also referred as secondary functions.

Essential Functions:

1. Satisfaction of Sex Needs:

Family satisfies sexual desires of male and female through the institution of marriage.

2. Reproduction:

The process of reproduction is institutionalized in family. Family provides legitimacy

to the act of reproduction. By fulfilling this functions family has made it possible to
propagation of species and perpetuation of the human race.

3. Production & Rearing of children

The family gives the individual his life and a chance to survive. We owe our life to
the family. The child which is helpless at the time of birth is given the needed
protection of the family.
4. Provision of home :
The desire for a home is a powerful instinct for men as well as women Home is the
foundation of family, the meeting place of husband and wife, the birth place and play
ground of children. The family is a psychological relief station in which one can safely
relax.

5. An Instrument of culture transmission:

The family guarantees not only biological continuity but also cultural continuity of
the society of which it is a part. it transmits ideas, ideologies, folkways and mores,
customs and traditions etc. from one generation to the other.

6. An Agent of Socialisation:
Man is a social animal. But he is not born human or social. He is made social
through the process of socialisation.

7. Status Ascribing Functions.

The family also performs a pair of functions; status ascription for the individual and
societal identification for the individual. The family provides the ascribed status.
8. Affectional Function:
Family is an institution which provides the mental or emotional satisfaction and
security to its individual members.

Secondary functions:

1. Economic Functions:
Family fulfils the economic needs of its members. Previously family was an economic
unit. It used to fulfill the economic needs of its members such as food, clothing,
housing etc. To maintain the family all the members take up responsibility and work
cooperatively. The family used to follow simple division of labour i.e. women engaged
themselves in all domestic work and the men work outside. The family was
economically self-sufficient. But today, the situation has changed. The modern family
is more a consumption unit than a production one. In many respect, the family is
slowly transferring its economic functions to the external agencies.

2. Educational Functions:
As an educational institution family used to teach the knowledge, skill and trade secret
to its members. All sorts of informal education i.e. manners, equates, discipline,
obedience etc. the child receives from the family. Family also teaches morality,
honesty, loyalty etc. To-day, many of the educational functions of the family have
been taken over by the schools, still it has increased the family's responsibility for the
education of the children.

3. Religious functions:
Family is a center of religious activity. All the family members together perform all
religious ceremony at home. The children learn various religious virtues from their
parents. The elder family members use to teach the children the religious values,
morals etc. Thus, family helps in transmitting the religious belief from one generation
to another.

4. Recreational functions:
Family is one of the most important centers of recreation. It provides various
entertainments to its members. Members of the family sit together, gossip, play, make
jokes visit family relation for a change, interact with small children, observe different
types of festivals etc. Recreation is now increasingly organized outside the family.

Types of Families:
 On the basis of marriage

Polyandrous Family MonogamousFamily Polygynous family

On the basis of nature of residence

1. Patrilocal
(After the marriage, the wife goes to live with the husband’s family, it is called the
patrilocal family.)
2. Matrilocal
(after marriage couple live with the wife’s family.)
3. Neolocal
(after marriage the couple settle in an independent residence which is neither attached
to the bride’s family of origin nor bridegroom’s family of origin)
4. Bilocal
In some societies after marriage the married couples change their residence, i.e.
sometimes the wife joins her husband at his residence and vice versa.

On the basis of Descent

Patrilineal:
Descent inherited through father. Here only male child inherits the property of father.
Status of the children is decided by the status of the father.

Matrilineal :

Descent is traced through the mother. Daughters inherit the property of mothers. Status
of the children is decided mainly by the status of the mother.

On the basis of Nature of Authority:

 Patriarchal

Father dominated family. Eldest male member is the head of the family and he exercise
authority. He is the owner and administrator of family property. Examples; Ancient
Hebrews, Greeks, Romans and Aryans of India.

Patriarchal families are;

Patrilineal in Descent

Patrilocal in residence

Authority rests with eldest male members.

 Matriarchal

These are mother dominated family. Eldest female member is the head of the family
and she exercise authority. She is the owner and administrator of family property. Eg;
Eskimos, odama Indians, Labradar Indians, American Iroquois and khasi tribals of
india.

Matriarchal families are;

Matrilineal in Descent.

Matrilocal in residence

Theoretically Authority rests with eldest female members

It brings together wife, her mother, grandmother, her children and brothers etc.

On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generation family can be
classified into; Joint family and Nuclear family.

Nuclear family:

A nuclear family is one which consists of husband, wife and their children. Soon after
their marriage the children leave their parental home and establish their separate
household. Hence, a nuclear family is an autonomous unit free from the control of the
elders. It is the characteristic of all the modern industrial societies.

Every normal adult in every human society belongs to two nuclear families. The first is
the family of orientation, in which person was born and brought up. The second is the
family of procreation, which the person established by his marriage.

The structure of the nuclear family is not the same everywhere. Bottomore makes a
distinction between two kinds of family system; i) the family system in which nuclear
family is relatively independent ( ii) the system in which in which nuclear family is
incorporated in or subordinated to a large group.

Joint Family

According to Iravati Karve, “Joint Family is a group of people who generally live
under one roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who held property in common and
who participate in common family worship and are related to each other as some type of
kindred.

Characteristics of joint family:

Depth of Generation:
The first characteristic of the joint family is its large size. A joint family consists of
people of three or more generations including atleast parents, children, grand children
and other near relatives.

Common Property:
In a joint family, the ownership, production and consumption of wealth takes place on a
joint basis. It is a cooperative institution, similar to a joint stock company, in which
there is joint property. The head of the family is like a trustee who manages the property
of the family for the material and spiritual welfare of the family members. The total
earnings of all the family members are pooled together.

Common Religion:
Generally the members of a joint family believe in the same religion and worship
similar deities. They perform jointly the religious rites and duties. They celebrate all the
festivals and social functions jointly. They also hold themselves jointly accountable for
participating in social ceremonies like marriage, death and other occasions of family
sorrows and rejoicing. They all share the family burden together.

Common Residence:
The members of joint family usually live under the same roof. They may also live in
separate houses in close proximity to one another. They eat the same food and wear the
same type of clothes.

Common kitchen

Members eat the food prepared jointly at the same kitchen. Normally the eldest female
member of the family supervises the work at kitchen.

Exercise of Authority

In patriarchal family the eldest male member exercises the authority. His commands
are normally obeyed others.

Arranged Marriages
In the joint family, the head consider it as his privilege to arrange the marriage of the
members. The individual’s right to select his or her life partner is undermined.
Procreation
The size of the joint family is by nature bigger.
Mutual Rights and Obligations
The rights and obligations of the members of joint family are the same. None except the
head of the family has special privileges. Every member of the family has equal
obligations.

Self- Sufficiency

It used to meet the economic, recreational, medical, educational and other needs of its
members.

Merits and demerits of Joint family

Merits
(i) Stable and Durable:
The joint family is more stable and durable-than the nuclear family. Individuals may
come and go but the family as a unit stands. It contributes much to the continuation of
the cultural tradition.

(ii) Ensures Economic Progress:

The joint family meets the basic needs of its members-food, clothing and shelter-a first
condition of economic progress.

Further, it provides larger labour force especially for the agricultural communities. It
prevents the sub-divisions and fragmentation of land-holdings and helps scientific
farming.

(iii) Ensures Economy of Expenditure:

Savings are possible here since the household purchases are done jointly. No single
member has an absolute right in family property. Everyone is bound to become
spendthrift. The head of the family does not permit the members to become extravagant.

(iv) Secures the Advantage of Division of Labour:

Here the work is distributed among the members on the basis of age and sex. Members
co-operate with one another since they hold the property in common. Especially for
agricultural tasks, the joint family is better fitted. As KM. Kapadia has pointed out:
“The Indian farmer used to be producer, seller, labourer and investor combined. Each of
these functions can be performed efficiently to the advantage of the family if it is a joint
one.”

(v) Serves as a Social Insurance Company:

For the people such as orphans, widows, the deserted, divorced, separated and the
neglected, the joint family serves as a social insurance company. It gives them food,
shelter and protection.

(vi) Provides Social Security:

The joint family gives social security to the weak, aged, sick, infirm, the unabled, the
disabled and such other needy persons. An individual’s life from cradle to cremation is
looked after by the joint family. In times of accidents, crises and emergencies, one can
rely on one’s joint family for the needed help.

(vii) Provides Leisure:
Since the work is shared by all the members on the basis of age, sex and experience,
they get more leisure time. More hands at home can finish off the work with minimum
time and provide enough leisure to the members to relax. Here women are the main
beneficiaries of leisure.

(viii) Provides Recreation Also:

The joint family is an ideal place of recreation for all the members. Childish play
between the two aged and the little babies, the funny talks of the old, the broken
language of the younger ones, the expression of sisterly, brotherly and motherly love.

(ix) Helps Social Control:

The joint family by exercising control over the behaviour of its members acts as an
agency of social control. The individuals are taught to subordinate their individual
interests to the group interests.

(x) Provides Psychological Security:

The joint family provides psychological security to its members. By creating a
harmonious atmosphere in the family, it contributes to the development of social
solidarity. It prevents the growth of excessive individuation inside the family.

(xi) Promotes Co-operative Virtues:

Joint family is said to be the breeding ground of love, self- help, co-operation,
tolerance, discipline, loyalty, generosity, sacrifice, service-mindedness and obedience
and such other virtues of life.

It instills the socialistic spirit among the members. “Work according to one’s ability and
obtain according to one’s needs”, and “all for one and one for air—are said to be the
mottos of a joint family.

Demerits of Joint Family:

(i) Retards the Development of Personality:
The joint family does not provide enough scope for the members to develop qualities of
adventure, self-determination, industriousness, etc. The elder ones take up too many
responsibilities and the younger ones are overprotected.

(ii) Damages Individual Initiative and Enterprise:

The joint family does not provide proper opportunities for the members to develop their
talents. Any new enterprise or adventure on the part of the young people is discouraged
by the head of the family. This adversely affects the individuality, originality and
creativity of the young members.

(iii) Narrows down Loyalties:

Joint family makes the members to develop narrow-mindedness. It is said that a
member is more likely to develop a sense of loyalty to the family rather than to the
larger society. These family units develop strong opposite principles which result in
disintegration and division within the society at large.

(iv) Promotes Idleness:
The joint family is said to be the home of idlers and drones. Since all the members are
assured of their basic necessities of life, no one takes much interest in the productive
activities. Further, all the relatives may flock to the joint family with their idle habits
and may become life-long parasites.

(v) Not Favourable for saving and Investment:

The need for saving does not arise here because all are assured of their basic needs.
There is no inspiration for the accumulation of capital and investment. Saving is not
possible also for one has to share one’s income with the large family.

(vi)  Centre of Quarrels:

The joint family is said to be the hotbed of quarrels and bickerings especially among the
womenfolk. Since women come to the family (after the marriage) from diverse socio-
economic and religious backgrounds, they may find it difficult to adjust themselves
properly. Quarrels very often take place between the elder and the younger members of
the family.
(vii) Denies Privacy:
Since the joint family is always overcrowded, privacy is denied to the newly wedded
couple. They cannot express openly their love and affection for the invariable presence
of other members causes embarrassment for them. They rarely get opportunity to talk
about their personal matters. Hence they fail to develop intimacy.

(viii) Affects Socialisation of Children:

Due to the lack of intimacy and privacy between the husband and wife, the socialisation
of children is affected very badly. The parents cannot always give personal attention to
the upbringing of their children. The children become more attached to their
grandparents and often they pick up the idle habits and age-old ideas.

(ix) Undermines the Status of Women:

In patriarchal joint families, women have only secondary role. They are not given
sufficient freedom to express and to develop their personality. Their inner feelings are
never recognised. They are made to work like servants. Women are treated as non-
entities here. They can hardly resist their elders even for just causes because obedience
is enforced upon them. In such families sons are preferred to the daughters.

(x) Encourages Litigation:
The joint family encourages litigation. Normally disputes over the common property
crop up at the time of partition. Such disputes are taken to the courts which are dragged
on for years leading to the waste of time, energy, money and more than that, loss of
mental peace.

(xi) Favours Uncontrolled Reproduction:

The joint family is found to be associated with higher birth rate. Members do not feel
the need to adopt birth-control measures. Since the joint family takes up directly the
responsibility of feeding, rearing and educating the children, the married members do
not experience the urgency and necessity of restricting the number of issues.

(xii) Limits Social Mobility:

The joint family is said to be more conservative in nature. Since it is dominated by
tradition, it is slow to respond to the modern trends. It does not encourage its members
to go after change. Members are more concerned with safeguarding their statuses rather
than with changing them. Hence social mobility is very much limited here.

(xiii) Encourages Nepotism:

Some are of the opinion that the joint family system is the root cause of nepotism and
discrimination. It is said that the public servants and officials belonging to one or the
other family are more likely to favour their own kith and kin on public issues or in
matters of providing job even at the cost of merit.

Disintegration of Joint Family

The traditional joint family system in India has undergone both structural and functional
changes. The joint family system in India has been disrupted due to several factors.

1. Industrialisation:
With the advent of the British in India a process of industrialisation started which
brought about far-reaching changes in the Indian social and economic life. People
moved from rural areas to urban areas for jobs and a better standard of living breaking
their relationships with the joint family. Thus, modern industries shattered the very
foundation of joint family system in India.

2. Urbanisation:
Along with the process of industrialisation, the process of urbanisation has resulted in
the weakening of the joint family system in India. The result of urbanisation has been
the establishment of nuclear families because urban-dwellers choose the nuclear
families. Urbanisation has emphasised individuality and privacy which encourage the
establishment of independent family units.

3. Modern Education:
Education has affected joint family system in more ways than others. It has brought
about changes in attitudes, beliefs, values and ideologies of the people. These changes
are visible among both males and females who are educated.

Education has also created individualistic attitudes among the educated persons. Hence,
education has worked against the maintenance of the joint family system.

 4. Enlightenment of Women:

The educated Indian women are impressed by the modern family life. They have
become conscious of their rights and equality with men. They have started making use
of educational and employment opportunities.

5. The Impact of Western Culture:

The impact of Western culture can be seen in many ways. First it resulted in the ideals
of liberty and equality. Second, it resulted in individualism. Third, it resulted in
materialism. As a combined result of this Western influence, the old and traditional
Hindu values underwent tremendous changes and the very nature of joint living was
affected.

6. Change in Marriage System:

Change in age of marriage, freedom in mate selection and change in attitude of
individuals towards marriage have also affected joint family system. The choice of the
marriage partners is less and less determined by the head of the family.

7. Social Legislations:
The joint family system has received a great setback from several legislations. These
legislations are:

1. The Hindu law of Inheritance, 1929

2. Hindu Women’s Right to property Act, 1937

3. Special Marriage Act, 1954

4. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

5. Hindu Succession Act, 1956

6. Dowry Restraint Act, 1961

These Acts have not only modified the inter-personal relations and the composition of
family but also the stability of joint family. The Hindu succession Act, 1956 has
brought about fundamental changes in the Hindu joint family structure by conferring
equal rights on women in inheritance. Special Marriage Act, 1954 has permitted the
freedom of mate selection and marriage in any caste and religion without the parent’s
consent. This has affected the marriage system to a large extent.

8.  Extension of Communication and Transport:

Difficulties of transport and communication in the past compelled all the members of
the family to live together and carry on the family occupation in agriculture and trade
jointly

But with the rapid development of the means of transport and communication, people
have become more and more mobile. Now they move to different places in search of
various kinds of jobs and employment. They also adopt trade at different places. All
these have caused the breakdown of traditional joint family system.

9. Family Quarrels:
Conflict or family quarrel has caused the breakdown of joint family system. Conflicts
regarding family property, its income and expenditure, unequal distribution of work at
home and personal clashes between women lead to the break-up of joint families.

Future of joint family

It is true that joint family system is undergoing fast changes. There has been great
changes in the functions of the family. Some of these changes have disintegrating
influences also. This disintegration is more evident in big cities.

However, joint family system in India is not completely died out. The Indian people till
keep intact the family attachment. Even in cases where family property has got divided
and income of family members is not pooled, the members still consider it as their duty
to participate in ceremonial celebrations and religious functions.

KINSHIP

Man does not live alone in society. From birth till death he is surrounded by a number
of people. Some of these people are his relatives, some are friends some are neighbours
while all others are strangers and unknown to him. He is bound to all those people who
are related to him either on the basis of blood or marriage.

According to Aberchrombie and others; the social relationships deriving from blood ties
(real and supposed) and marriage are collectively referred to as kinship.

Types of Kinship:
Kinship is of two types:
(i) Affinal Kinship, and

(ii) Consanguineous Kinship.

(i) Affinal Kinship:
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship. When a person marries, he establishes
relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of other
people in the girl’s family. Moreover, it is not only the person marrying who gets bound
to the family members of the girl but his family members also get bound to the family
members of the girl.

Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. For example,
after marriage a person becomes not only a husband, but he also becomes brother-in-
law and son-in- law.

(ii) Consanguineous Kinship:

The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin are
related through blood. The bond between parents and their children and that between
siblings is consanguineous kinship. Siblings are the children of the same parents.

Among polyandrous tribes the actual father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is
treated as if it were one’s own biologically produced child. Thus, blood relationship
may be established not only on biological basis but also on the basis of social
recognition.

Degree of Kinship:
On the basis of nearness or distance relatives can be classified in several categories.
Some relatives are very close, direct and near, for example, father-son, sister-brother,
husband-wife. They are called primary kin. According to Dr. Dubey, there are eight
such primary kins. They are husband-wife, father-son, mother- daughter, father-
daughter, mother-son, younger-elder brothers, younger-elder sisters and sister-brother.

Secondary kins:
They are primary kin of primary kin. In other words, they are related through primary
kin. They are not our primary kin but are the primary kin of our primary kin, hence our
secondary kin. For example, father’s brother (chacha), sister’s husband (bahnoi) are
secondary kin. The father is my primary kin and his brother is the primary kin of father.
Therefore, father’s brother is my secondary kin, the primary kin of primary kin.
Similarly, sister is may primary kin but her husband is my secondary kin.

Tertiary kins:
They are the secondary kin of our primary kin or primary kin of our secondary kin.Thus
the wife of brother-in-law(sala)called sarhaj in Hindi is tertiary kin because brother-in-
law is my secondary kin and his wife is the primary kin of brother-in-law. Similarly the
brother-in-law of my brother is my tertiary kin because the brother is my primary kin
and his brother-in-law is the secondary kin of my brother.

According to Murdock, there are thirty-three secondary and 151 tertiary kins of a
person.

Kinship Terms:
Kinship terms are those terms which are used in designating kin of various types.
Morgan made an important study of kinship terms.

He classified these terms into:

(i) Classificatory system, and

(ii) Descriptive system.

(i) Classificatory System:

Under the classificatory system the various kins are included in one category and all
referred to by the same term. Thus, the term ‘uncle’ is a classificatory term. It is used
for chacha, mama, mausa, foofa, taoo, etc. Similarly the Sema Naga of Assam use aja
for mother, father’s brother’s wife, mother’s sister.
Among Kuki clans, hepu is used for father’s father, mother’s father; mother’s brother;
wife’s father; mother’s brother’s son; wife’s brother; wife’s brother’s son. Thus, people
of various age groups are designated by the same term. Among Angami Naga, the same
term is used for members of opposite sexes. The word shi stands for elder brother’s
wife; mother’s brother’s wife; father’s brother’s wife. In Hindi the word ‘SamadhirC is
a classificatory term as it refers to father and mother of daughter-in-law and of son-in-
law.

(ii) Descriptive System:

Under descriptive system one term refers to only one relation. It describes the exact
relation of a person towards another. For example, father is a descriptive term.
Similarly, mother is a descriptive term. In Hindi we have mostly, descriptive terms,
Thus, the terms chacha mama. mausa, taoo, sala, bahnoi, nandoi, bhanja, bhatija,
bhabhi, devar, etc. are descriptive terms and designate the speaker’s exact relation. It
may be remarked that there is no place in the world where either the pure descriptive or
the pure classificatory system is used. Both the systems are found prevalent.

Kinship Usages:
The study of kinship system does not end with the description of various kinds of kin
and the basis of their classification but it also includes the study of behaviour patterns
of different kins. Every relationship involves a particular type of behaviour. The
behaviour of a son towards his father is one of respect while the behaviour of husband
towards wife is one of love. The behaviour of a brother towards his sister is one of
affection. There are some usages which regulate the behaviour of different kin. These
usages are called kinship usages.

Some of these usages are the following: 

(i) Avoidance:
In all societies the usage of avoidance is observed in one form or another. It means that
the two kins should remain away from each other. In other words, they should avoid
each other. They should not only avoid sexual relationship but in some cases avoid
seeing the face of each other. Thus, a father-in-law (sasur) should avoid daughter-in-
law. The purdah system in Hindu family illustrates the usage of avoidance.

Different explanations have been given for the usage of avoidance. Two of them are
functionalist explanations given by Redcliff Brown and G. P. Murdock. According to
them, avoidance serves to forestall further and more serious trouble between relatives.
The third is the Freudian explanation according to which avoidances represent a sort of
institutionalized neurotic symptom.

(ii) Joking Relationship:

It is the reverse of avoidance relationship. Under it a relation is permitted to tease or
make fun of the other. The relationship between devar-bhabhi, jija-sali is joking
relationship. The joking may amount to exchange of abuse and vulgar references to sex.

(iii) Teknonymy:
The word ‘teknonymy’ has been taken from the Greek word and was used in
anthropology for the first time by Taylor. According to this usage, a kin is not referred
to directly but he is referred to through another kin. A kin becomes the medium of
reference between two kins. Thus, in traditional Hindu family a wife does not utter the
name of her husband. She calls him through her son or daughter. He is referred to by
her as the father of Guddu or Tunnu.

(iv) Avunclate:
This kinship usage is a peculiar feature of matriarchal system. It gives to the maternal
uncle (mama) a prominent place in the life of his nephews and nieces. He has special
obligations towards them which exceed those of father. He has a prior right over their
loyalties. He comes first among all male relatives. ,

(v) Amitate:
When a special role given to the father’s sister it is known as amitate. The father’s sister
gets more respect than the mother.

(vi) Couvade:
This is a queer usage which is found among many primitive tribes like the Khasi and
the Toda. Under this usage the husband is made to lead the life of an invalid along with
his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from active work and takes sick
diet. He observes the same taboos which are observed by his wife. This kinship usage
thus involves the husband and wife.

Kinship usages accomplish-two major tasks. First, they create groups: special groupings
of kin. Thus marriage assigns each mother a husband, and makes her children his
children, thereby creating a special group of father, mother and children, which we call
“family”.

The second major function of kinship usage is to govern the role relationships between
kin; that is, how one kinsman should behave in a particular kinsman’s presence, or what
one kinsman owes to another. Kinship assigns guidelines for interactions between
persons. It defines proper, acceptable role relationship between father and daughter,
between brother and sister, between son-in-law and mother-in-law and between fellow
lineage members and clansmen. Kinship thus acts as a regularizer of social life and
maintains the solidarity of social system.

It may, however, be noted that rules governing the relationship between a pair of
kinsmen may be highly “patterned”, in some societies to allow little leeway for
spontaneity or individual differences, while in other societies, such rules may be less
“patterned” so as to leave much room for individualized behaviour. The Hindu society
has absolute maximum of patterned kin behavior.

Features of Kinship in Different Zones:

Northern Zone:
The kinship features in North and Central India differ from those in South India.
Though kinship behaviour in the northern zone changes slightly from region to region
and within each region from caste to caste, it is possible to talk of an ‘ideal’ northern
pattern referring to practices and attitudes generally found to be common among a
majority of the castes.

Referring to the kinship organisation of the northern zone, Irawati Xarve has
given some important features. Some of these are:
(1) Kin junior to ego are addressed by their personal names and senior to ego by the
kinship term.

(2) All children in ascending and descending generations are equated with one’s own
sibling group (brothers and sisters) and all children of one’s sibling group are again
equated with one’s own children.

(3) The principle of unity of generations is observed (for example, great-grandfather

and grandfather are given same respect as father).

(4) Within the same generation, the older and the younger kin are kept distinct.

(5) The duties and behaviour patterns of the members of three generations are strictly
regulated.

(6) Some of the ancient kinship terms having Sanskrit origin have been replaced by new
terms; for example, pitamaha is replaced by pita. Suffix ‘ji’ is added to kinship terms
used for kin older than the speaker (for example, chachaji, tauji, etc.) In Bengal, instead
of ‘ji’ suffix ‘moshai’ is added.
(7) Marriage among close kin is not permitted.

(8) After marriage, a girl is not expected to be free with her parents-in-law, but when
she becomes a mother, she achieves position of respect and power and restrictions on
her are lessened.

(9) The family is so structured that children, parents and grand-parents either live
together or social kinship obligations towards them are clearly met.

(10) Apart from the joint family which represents a person’s intimate and nearest circle
of relations, there is always a larger circle of kin who play a part in his life. This
kindred represents the circle of his life. This kindred represents the circle of his patri-
kin or matri-kin who may stand by him and help him when the immediate family no
longer suffices.

Central Zone:
The salient features of kinship organisation of the Central India are not much different
from those of the North India.

The important features of kinship in Central India are:

(1) Every region follows northern India practices of marriage, that is, consanguinity is
the main consideration which rules marriage.

(2) Many castes are divided into exogamous clans. Among some castes, the exogamous
clans are arranged in hypergamous hierarchy.

(3) The kinship terminology shows intimacy and closeness between various kin. The
relations between kin are governed by the custom of ‘neota- gifts’ according to which
cash-gift is given equivalent to cash-gift received. The neota-registeis are maintained
and preserved for generations.

(4) In Gujarat, mamera-type of cousin marriage (with mother’s brother) and levirate
(marriage with husband’s brother) are practised by some castes.

(5) The custom of periodic marriages in Gujarat has led to child marriages as well as
unequal marriages. Such marriages are practised even today.

(6) In Maharashtra, there is impact of both modern and southern zones in kinship
relations. For example, the clan organisation of the Marathas is similar to that of the
Rajputs which is arranged in a ladder manner. Clans are grouped into divisions and each
division in named according to the number of clans it comprises; for example panch-
kuli, sat-kuli, etc. The clans are arranged in hypergamous order, the highest being the
panch- kuli, followed by the sat-kuli, etc. The panch-kuli can marry among themselves
or can take a girl from the sat-kuli, etc. but do not give their daughters outside the
panch-kuli.

(7) Some castes like Marathas and Kun-bis in the central zone practice bride-price too,
though dowry custom also exists among them.

(8) Though the family system in Maharashtra is patrilineal and patrilocal, yet unlike in
the north, where a wife permanently stays with her husband after gauna and rarely goes
to her father’s house, in castes like Marathas, she moves to and from her father’s house
very frequently. Once she goes to her father’s house, it is difficult to get her back to her
husband’s house. This shows the impact of the south on relations with kin.
(9) Though the kinship terms are mostly northern yet some terms are borrowed from the
Dravidians in the south; for example, use of the term anna and nana for brother along
with the term dada. Similarly, use of term akka, tai and mai for sister.

(10) The kinship system of the tribals in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh is somewhat
different from that of the caste Hindus. The difference exists in terms of kinship
terminology, marriage rules, inheritance system, and clan obligations. Thus, it may be
stated that though the kinship organisation in the northern and central zones is almost
similar, yet it can be described as a region of transition from the north to the south. A
state like Maharashtra is a region of cultural borrowings and cultural synthesis.

Southern Zone:
The southern zone presents a complicated pattern of kinship system. Though patrilineal
and patrilocal family is the dominant family type for the greater number of castes and
communities (for example, Namboodris), there are important sections of population
which are matrilineal and matrilocal (for example, Nayars); also there are quite a few
castes whose systems possess features of both patrilineal and matrilineal organisations
(for example, Todas).

Similarly, there are some castes/tribes who practise only polygyny (for example, Asari,
Nayars) and yet others, who practise both polygyny and polyandry (for example,
Todas). Then there are polyandrous patrilineal groups (for example, Asari) and also
polyandrous matrilineal groups (for example, Tiyan, Nayars) and polygynous patrilineal
groups (for example, Namboodris) but no polygynous matrilineal groups. Similarly,
there are patrilineal joint families and also matriuneal joint families. All this shows
varied patterns in kinship organisation in southern zone. Let us examine some of these
organisations/ patterns.
In the matrilineal family, the kinship relationship of women to one another is that of a
daughter, mother, sister, mother’s mother, mother’s sister, and sister’s daughter. In the
kinship relationship of women with men, males are related to women as brother, son,
daughter’s son, and sister’s son. The kinship relationship of males to one another is that
of brother, mother’s brother and sister’s son. All these kinship relations are based on
blood. There are no relations by marriage. This is because husband visits the family
occasionally.

We, therefore, find:

(i) Absence of companionship between husband and wife and absence of closeness be-
tween father and children; and

(ii) There is complete independence of women as regards their livelihood; they do not
partake of the earnings of their husband. This is how some southern families differ from
the northern families.

Matrilineal joint family, called Tarwad, is found amongst the Nairs of Malabar in
Travancore and a few other groups.

Comparison of Kinship System of North and South India:

(1) In a southern family, there is no clear-cut distinction between the family of birth
(that is, family of orientation) and family of marriage (that is, family of procreation) as
found in the northern family. In the north, no member from Ego’s family of orientation
(that is, of father, mother, brother and sister) can also become a member of his family of
marriage; but this is possible in the south).

(2) In the north, every kinship term clearly indicates whether the person referred to is a
blood relation or an affinal kin but this is not so in the south.
(3) In the south, an Ego (person under reference/study) has some kin who are his blood
relatives only and others who are his blood relatives and affinal kin at the same time.

(4) In the south, organisation of kin is arranged according to age categories in the two
groups, that is, older than Ego (tam-mum) and younger than Ego (tam-pin) (tarn is ‘self,
nun is ‘before’ and pin is ‘after’).

(5) In the south, kinship organisation is dependent on the chronological age differences
while in the north, it is dependent on the principle of generational divisions.

(6) No special norms of behaviour are evolved for married girls in the south whereas in
the north, many restrictions are imposed on them.

(7) Marriage does not symbolise woman’s separation from her father’s house in the
south but in the north, a woman becomes a casual visitor to her parents’ family.

(8) In the north, marriage is to widen the kinship group while in the south it is to
strengthen already existing bonds.

Eastern Zone:
In Eastern India, kinship organisation is different. There are more tribes than caste
Hindus in eastern India (consisting of parts of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and Orissa). The
more important tribes are: Khasi, Birhor, Hos, Mundas and Uraon. The kinship
organisation here has no one pattern. People speaking Mundari languages have
patrilineal patrilocal families. However, joint families are rare in this zone. Cross-
cousin marriages are rarely practised though bride-price is common.

Woman is addressed as dual (you two), referred to as dual (she, the two and speaks as
dual (1, two). Kinship terminology is borrowed both from Sanskrit and Dravidian
languages. Khasis and Garos have matrilineal joint family system (like Nairs in the
south). After marriage, a man rarely lives with his parents and establishes a separate
house.

It may be concluded that the kinship organisation in India is influenced by caste and
language. In this age of sharp competition for status and livelihood, a man and his
family must have kin as allies. Caste and linguistic groups may help an individual from
time to time but his most staunch, trustworthy and loyal supporters could only be his
nearest kin.

It is, therefore, necessary that a person must not only strengthen his bonds with kin but
should also try to enlarge his circle of kin. Cousin marriages, preferential mating,
exchange rules and the marriage norms which circumvent the field of mate selection are
now so changing that kinship relations through marriage are being extended and a
person is able to get their help in seeking power and the status-lift that power can bring.

ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Man is not only a social animal but also an economic being. The Economy may be
treated as a sub system in the wider social system.

Economic institutions can be defined as Network of commercial organizations (such

as manufacturers, producers, wholesalers, retailers, and buyers) who generate,
distribute, and purchase goods and services.

Economic institution means the production and distribution of goods and services and
the procedures of competition and bargaining in exchange. (MacIver &Page)
Economics Development

 In the primitive days man satisfied his hunger by searching food and living upon
what he could raise.
 Then they invented weapons and tools as an aid in search of food
 The techniques of hunting become highly developed
 Learned to domesticate animals.
 The development of agriculture came next.
 Down to the middle of the eighteenth centuary agriculture was the leading
economic activity. With the industrial revolution and with the manufacture of
tools on large scale there developed a new type of agriculture.
 The use of the factory system in the later part of the eighteenth centuary and in
early nineteenth centuary give rise to gave birh to capitalism.

Growth of capitalism

 In primitive societies the usual system of exchanging goods was barter system.
Idea of profit did not exist.
 Later on money became the medium of exchange
 In the early part of modern period the economic activities were generally
regulated by the governing powers.
 Then came the industrial revolution which changed the techniques of production.
 To secure maximum production of usual goods the new doctrine of laissez-faire
was propounded.
 Upon this principles and in response to changing techniques of production
capitalism developed.

Main forms of Economy

1. Capitalism: Capitalism is an economy in which the means of production are
largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the
accumulation of profits. In a capitalist economy citizens invest their money, land, or
machinery in a business. Capitalist economies strive on private ownership of
corporations rather than governmental ownership . Every capitalist economy operates
based on 4 principals, these are: private ownership of the factors of production free-
market economy, competition, and profit. Now lets look into these little further.
2. Socialism: is a type of economic system in which the state owns and controls
most of the factors of production, including land and capital goods. The state also
engages in central planning. Production of goods and services, as well as their prices
and distribution, are centrally controlled by the state.
3. Mixed Economy: Economic system that features characteristics of
both capitalism and socialism. A mixed economic system allows a level of private
economic freedom in the use of capital, but also allows for governments to interfere in
economic activities in order to achieve social aims. This type of economic system is
less efficient than capitalism, but more efficient than socialism.

Mixed economic systems are not laissez-faire systems: the government is involved in
planning the use of resources and can exert control over businesses in the private
sector. Governments may seek to redistribute wealth by taxing the private sector, and
using funds from taxes to promote social objectives

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

Whether we like it or not, virtually no one is completely beyond the reach of some kind
of political system.

Political institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws; that
mediate conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems;
and otherwise provide representation for the populous.

Salient features of political Institution:

1. Social regulation
2. Use of force or physical coercion
3. Organization of power
As State is the most important political institution which regulate the social
relationships of man and is the overall control institution of society.

State is a particular portion of mankind viewed as an organized unit .(Burgess)

Four main elements of State

1. Population
2. Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty

Classification of political system

1. Democracy
2. Totalitarianism
Differences between Democracy and totalitarianism

Democracy Totalitarianism

Importance given to individual and State is the end and individual is the
State is a means means
Power is decentralized Power is centralized
Ensures equality and liberty Equality and liberty are not guaranteed
Free and Independent press Free and Independent press
Independent judiciary Judiciary not Independent
Assures fundamental rights fundamental rights are abolished
Plurality of political parties Believes in single party
Aims at the welfare of all Aims at the welfare of few
Based on persuasion Based on fear and force

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION

 For centuries, humankind has sought to understand and explain the “meaning of life.”
Many philosophers believe this contemplation and the desire to understand our place in
the universe are what differentiate humankind from other species. Religion, in one
form or another, has been found in all human societies since human societies first
appeared. To understand a culture, sociologists must study its religion.

Religion is a complex Phenomenon. It includes a complex of emotion feelings and

attitudes towards mysteries and perplexities of life. But the meaning of religion in a
strict sociological sense is much wider than that of the meaning used in religious books
and scriptures. In a strict sociological sense religion is defined as “those
institutionalized systems of beliefs, symbols values and practices that provide groups of
men with solutions to their questions of ultimate being. Thus religion comprises of
systems of attitudes beliefs, symbols which are based on the assumption that certain
kinds of social relations are scared or morally imperative and a structure of activities
governed or influenced by these systems.

Definitions:
(1) According to Maclver, “Religion as we understand the term implies a relationship
not merely between man and man but also between man and some higher power.”

(2) According to Emile Durkheim, “Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices
relating to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.”

(3) According to Ogburn, “Religion is attitudes towards superhuman powers.”

Thus, different scholars define religion according to their own view but it is very
difficult to agree upon a universally accepted definition that will satisfy everyone as
religion is a very complex phenomenon.

Components or Basic elements of Religion:

Religion mainly consists of four primary components such as:

(1) Belief in Supernatural Power:

Every religion believes in some supernatural power i.e. powers outside of man and the
present world. The supernatural powers are believed to influence human life and
conditions.

(2) Man’s adjustment to Supernatural Powers:

It is another component of religion. As man is dependent on these supernatural powers
hence he must adjust himself to the powers. As a result every religion provides for some
external acts or rituals such as prayer; Kirtans Utterance of hymns etc. Non-
performance of these rituals regarded as sinful.

(3) Acts defined as Sinful:

It is another component of religion. Every religion defines some acts as sacred and
some other as sinful which suppose to destroy the harmonious relationships between
man and god.

(4) Method of Salvation:

It is another component of religion. Man needs some method by which he can attain
salvation or Nirvana or by which harmony between man and god will be re-established
by the removal of guilt or bondage. Every religion consider salvation as the ultimate
aim of life.

Religion as a social institution has two aspects; structural and functional.

Structural Aspects

1. Theologies and Creeds:

Theology is the systematic explanation which religious leaders work out to show man’s
relation to his God and to the Universe. Almost all religions have their bodies of ideas,
beliefs, doctrines, dogmas, articles of faith, ideals and ideologies. These things are
systematized and rationalised in the form of theologies and creeds.

2. Ceremony and Ritual:

Ceremony or ritual is a standardised and accepted action directed towards some specific
end. Ritual refers to “symbolic actions concerning the sacred.” Every religion has its
own practices and techniques or rituals and ceremonies in order to communicate with
the supernatural. Ritual expresses awe and reverence, obedience and homage to the
God.

3. Symbolism:
“Throughout religion symbolism is important. Symbols are substitutes for or
representation of objects or situations. They may be verbal or tangible. A religious
symbol enables an individual to identify himself with his fellow-beings. It thus
promotes a sense of social solidarity.

For example, the cross stands for Christianity, the Crescent for Islam, the Swasthik for
Hinduism. Normally these symbols are emotion-charged.

4. Religious Codes:
‘Religious Code’ refers to a body of rules prescribed by a particular religion for its
followers to observe and follow. The code prescribes desirable conduct and prescribes
undesirable behaviour.

The desirable behaviour brings rewards while the undesirable one brings punishment to
the individual. In religious terminology there is a close connection between one’s
behaviour and the probability of one’s attaining Heaven or going to Hell after one’s
death.

The religious code defines the way in which one has to maintain one’s relation with the
Supernatural and also with the fellow-beings. Buddhism thus places emphasis on
“Ashta Marg (Eight-Fold Path), Jainism on “Triratnas” (Three- Jewelled Path), Islam on
“Shariat” (Muslim Personal Law), Hinduism on “Manu Smriti”, Christianity on ‘Ten
commandments’ and so on.

5. Sects:
A sect is a body of believers with similar religious attitudes and interests. The group of
believers may hold a common body of beliefs, values and objectives. Certain persons,
often only a few in the beginning, begin to disagree about more or less important points
in the main ceremonials and doctrine of the parent organisation.

In course of time, they may go out of the organised Church, or they may be expelled by
the Church itself. Now they formulate their own creed, their own official hierarchy, and
take on a distinctive name and become a new “denomination”. Today’s sect is quite
likely to become tomorrow’s Church.

In time, a sect makes its peace with the wider society and becomes a Church itself.
Later, a new generation of people may break away from it and form another sect.
Christianity has two main sects like Catholicism, and Protestantism and several other
smaller sects like Puritanism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, etc.

Similarly, Buddhism has Mahayanism and Hinayanism, Jainism has the Svetambaras
and the Digambaras, Islam has the Sunnis and the Shias; Hinduism has the sects like
Shaivites, the Vaishnavites and the Shaktheyas oh the one hand; and David, Advaita
and the Vishishtadvaita on the other.

6. Festivals:
Every religion has its own festivals. A religious festival is a kind of social get- together
wherein people observe some rituals collectively. It may consist of prayers, processions,
feasting or fasting, chanting of hymns and singing devotional songs, etc. Festivals
reaffirm the faith and fidelity of the people into the principles and practices of religion.
Festivals promote emotional integration and social harmony.

7. Sacred Literature:
The theological explanation of a religion when it takes the written form becomes the
sacred literature. In other words, the sacred scriptures of a religion represent its sacred
literature.

Every religion has its own sacred literature. The essential principles, and theological ex-
planations of a religion, in general, are incorporated in its sacred literature. This
literature has a great survival value.
The Vedas, or ‘Srutis’, Upanishads or ‘Smritis’, Bhagavad Gita and the Epic are the
sacred scriptures of Hindqism. ‘Bible’ is the main religious authority on Christianity
and similarly, ‘Quran’ on Islam;’ Tripitakas’—(Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka and
Abhidhamma Pitaka) on Buddhism; “Agama Siddhanta” on Jainism; ‘Jend Avesta’ on
Zoroastrianism; The Old Testament of the Jewish Bible” and ‘Talmud’ on Judaism and
so on.

8. Myth:
Myth refers to “an ancient traditional story of Gods or heroes, especially, the one
offering an explanation of some fact or phenomenon”—(Chamber’s Dictionary). It has
been said that myth “is primitive philosophy, the simplest presentational form of
thought, a series of attempts to understand the world, to explain life and death, fate and
nature, gods and cults”-(E.Bethe). As Malinowski says myths are “statements of reality,
products of a living faith, intimately connected with word and deed.”

9. Mysticism:
‘Mysticism’ refers to the habit or tendency of religious thought and feeling of those
who seek direct communion with God or the divine. In mysticism, religious life for
some people becomes “transformed into a purely personal and inward experience”.

The mystic response is found in all the world religions; in Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism, Judaism and even in Islam. Mysticism attracts varied types of people, but
especially the intellectual and cultured groups. It is often an expression of protest in a
subtle way. It expresses a desire to break out of established forms of worship and often
of ideas.

Functions of Religion

1. Religion provides mental peace:

Human life is uncertain. He struggles for his survival amidst the uncertainties,
insecurities and dangers, Some-times he feels helplessness. It is the religion which
consoles and encourages him in all such time of crisis. Religion gives right shelter to
him. He gets mental peace and emotional support. It encourages him to face his life and
problems.
2. It inculcates social virtues:
Religion promotes the major social virtues like truth, honesty, non-violence, service,
love, discipline etc. A follower of the religions internalizes these virtues and becomes
disciplined citizen of the society.
3. Religion promotes social solidarity:
Religion gives rise to the spirit of brotherhood. Durkheim viewed that religion
strengthens social solidarity. A.W. Geen also pointed out that religion has the
supremely integration and verifying force in human society. It is true that common
belief, common sentiment, common worship, participation in common rituals etc. are
the significant cementing factors which strengthen unity and solidarity.
4. Religion converts the animal qualities to human qualities:
Religion inculcates the spirit of self-service. It demands that people should be charitable
and benevolent. Through various religious experiences he forgets the worldly life and
problems. This experience suppresses the animal desires and converts the animal
qualities of man to human qualities.
5 Religion acts as an agency of social control:
The most noteworthy role of religion is that it acts as an important agency of social
control. It exercises control over individual behavior and on society. Religion regulates
the behavior of people in its own way. Different religious organizations like temple,
church, Mosques etc. exercise control over individual behavior at different levels. It
check the deviant tendencies of man. By the method of reward and punishment it
exercises greater control over individual’s behavior.

(5) Religion acts as an agency of socialization:

Religion not only exercises control over individual behavior but also socializes him
from the very beginning. It insulates different virtues in him. It socializes him as per the
norms of society

6. Religion promotes welfare:

Religion teaches to the people to serve the masses and promote their welfare. It gives
message that "the service to humanity is service to God". For this reason, people spend
money to feed poor and needy. Great religions like Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity
etc. put emphasis on aim-giving to the poor and beggars. It developers the philanthropic
attitude of the people and thereby injects the idea of mutual help and co-operation. With
the influence of religious belief different religious organisations engage themselves in
various welfare activities.
7. Religion gives recreation:
Religion plays a charming role in providing recreation to the people. Religious rites and
festivals are more or less performed in every religion which gives relief to the people
from mental exertion. Similarly religious lectures, bhajans, kirtans, musical concerts
followed by the utterance of hymn etc. gives much more pleasure to the people and
provides eternal recreation.
6. Religion Serves a Means to Provide Answers to Ultimate Questions:
Why are we here on earth? Is there a supreme being? What happens after death? All
religions have certain notions and beliefs that provide answers to the above questions.
These beliefs are based on the faith that life has a purpose, and there is someone or
something that controls the universe. It defines the spiritual world and gives meaning to
the divine. Because of its beliefs concerning people’s relationships to a beyond, religion
provides an explanation for events that seem difficult to understand. 

10. Religion Strengthens Self-confidence:

Religion is an effective means to strengthen self-confidence. There are certain beliefs
like 'work is worship', 'duty is divine', 'result in predestined' etc. which is found in
various religions gives strength to the individual and promotes self confidence.
Dysfunctions or Negative Roles of Religion:
No doubt religion performs many positive roles in society and act as an integrating or
unifying force in human society. But at the same time religion has many dysfunctions
or performs many negative roles which disintegrates society. However, some of the
negative roles of religion are:
(1) Religion hinders social and economic progress. Religion makes people dogmatic
and superstitious as a result of which people oppose all kinds of scientific discoveries
and technological advancement. It divides society into different sections.

(2) Religion makes people fatalistic. Instead of human effort and worship they start
believing on God’s desire and believe that everything is predestined. This kind of
thinking make them idle and thereby the progress of society is hampered.

(3) Religion encourages exploitation. Marx opines that religion is the root cause of
exploitation. In the name of religion and God one section of society exploits others and
inculcate the idea among the exploited that they are defined to suffer because of their
previous karma. God made them so and no one can alter their condition.

(4) Religion creates poverty, slavery and untouchability in society. People do not try to
improve their condition because God wanted them to be in that position. Religion
makes a section of people untouchable which disintegrates society.

(5) Religion promotes different types of evil practices like animal sacrifice, customs of
sati, caste system, untouchability etc.

(6) Religion promotes communalism by creating intolerance, mistrust, hatred and

jealousy among people. Because of this different religious groups got involved in
different kinds of conflict which leads to communalism and communal riots.

(7) Marx opines that religion is the opium of the masses which keeps them in degrading
subjection.

(8) Religion creates dogmatism and bigotism and thereby denying freedom of thought.
(9) Religion retards the advance of science and suppressed the democratic aspirations of
common people.

Educational institutions

Education is indispensable to individual and society, for without it there would be loss
of all the accumulated knowledge of the ages and all the standard of conduct. An
individual must learn the culture of the society or the accepted ways of doing things. He
must be socialized into the prevailing culture and must learn the rules of conduct and
expectations about future behaviour.

The term education is derived from Latin word educare which literally means to bring
up and is connected with the verb educare which means to bring forth.

Definition

Durkheim conceives of education as “the socialization of the younger generation”. He

further states that it is a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling
and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously.

F.J Brown and J.S Roucek say that education is “the sum total of the experiences which
mould the attitudes and determine the conduct of both the child and the adult.

Education as a Social process

Education stands for deliberate instruction or training. Man does not behave in society
impulsively or instinctively He behaves in a way according to which he is trained.
Some thinkers have equated it with socialisation. A few others regard education as an
attempt to transmit the cultural norms of the group to its younger members.

It is also understood as a continuous effort on the part of the individuals to acquire more
and more knowledge. All these three interpretations of education stress upon education
as a process or a continuous entity. The word process stresses continuity.

Firstly, education, viewed as socialisation, is continuous. Socialisation is social

learning. This social learning is not intermittent but continuous. Perfection in social
learning is rarely achieved.
Secondly, education, viewed as an agent of cultural transmission, is also continuous.
Culture is & growing whole. There can be no break in the continuity of culture. If at all
there is a break, it only indicates the end of a particular human group. The cultural
elements are passed on from generation to generation.

The family, school, and various other associations act as the agents of cultural trans-
mission. Education in its formal or informal pattern has been performing this role since
time immemorial. Education can be looked upon as process from this point of view
also.

Thirdly, education, implied as an attempt to acquire knowledge, is also continuous.

Knowledge is like an ocean, boundless or limitless. No one has mastered it or exhausted
it. No one can claim to do so.

There is a limit to the human genius or the human grasp of the things. The moral man
can hardly know anything and everything about nature which is immoral. The universe
is a miraculous entity. The more one tries to know of it, the more it becomes
mysterious. Not only the Natural Universe but also the Social Universe is complex.

The human experience is limited to have a thorough knowledge of this universe. Hence,
man since time immemorial, has been engaged in this endless endeavour of acquiring
more and more knowledge about the Universe with all its complexity. Education, thus,
is a continuous endeavour, a process.

Education, as a social institution has a great social importance especially in the modern,
complex industrialised societies. Philosophers of all periods, beginning with ancient
sages, devoted to it a great deal of attention.

Accordingly, various theories regarding its nature and objectives have come into being.
Let us now examine some of the significant functions of education.

(1) To completes the Socialisation Process:

The main social objective of education is to complete the socialisation process. The
family gets the child, but the modern family tends to leave much undone in the
socialisation process.The school and other institutions have come into being in place of
family to complete the socialisation process. Now, the people feel that it is “the school’s
business to train the whole child even to the extent of teaching him honesty, fair play,
consideration for others and a sense of right and wrong”.The school devotes much of its
time and energy to the matter such as co-operation, good citizenship, doing one’s duty,
and upholding the law. Directly through textbooks, and indirectly through celebration of
programmes patriotic sentiments are instilled. The nation’s past is glorified, its
legendary heroes respected, and its military ventures justified.

(2) To Transmit the Central Heritage:

All societies maintain themselves by the exploitation of a culture. Culture here refers to
a set of beliefs and skills, art, literature, philosophy, religion, music, etc. that are not
carried through the mechanism of heredity. They must be learned.

This social heritage (culture) must be transmitted through social organisations.

Education has this function of cultural transmission in all societies. It is only at the
upper levels of the school that any serious attempt has been, or now is, made to deal
with this area.

(3) For the Formation of Social Personality:

Individuals must have personalities shaped or fashioned in ways that fit into the culture.
Education, everywhere, has the function of the formation of social personalities.

Education helps in transmitting culture through proper moulding of social personalities.

In this way, it contributes to the integration of society. It helps men to adapt themselves
to their environment, to survive, and to reproduce themselves.

(4) Reformation of Attitudes:

Education aims at the reformation of attitudes wrongly developed by the children
already. For various reasons the child may have absorbed a host of attitudes, beliefs and
disbeliefs, loyalties and prejudices, jealousy and hatred, etc. These are to be reformed.

It is the function of education to see that unfounded beliefs, illogical prejudices and
unreasoned loyalties are removed from the child’s mind. Though the school has its own
limitations in this regard, it is expected to continue its efforts in reforming the attitudes
of the child.

(5) Education for Occupational Placement—an Instrument of Livelihood:

Education has a practical end also. It should help the adolescent for earning his
livelihood. Education has come to be today as nothing more than an instrument of
livelihood.

It should enable the student to eke out his livelihood. Education must prepare the
student for future occupational positions. The youth should be enahled to play a
productive role in society. Accordingly, great emphasis has been placed on vocational
training.

(6) Conferring of Status:

Conferring of status is one of the most important functions of education. The amount of
education one has is correlated with his class position. This is true in U.S.A., U.S.S.R.,
Japan, Germany and some other societies. Education is related to one’s position in the
stratification structure in two ways:

(1) An evaluation of one’s status is partially decided by what kind of education one has
received and (2) many of the other important criteria of class position such as
occupation, income, and style of life, are partially the results of the type and amount of
education one has had. Men who finish college, for example, earn two and a half times
as much as those who have only a grammar school education.

(7) Education Encourages the Spirit of Competition:

The school instills co-operative values through civic and patriotic exhortation or advice.
Yet the school’s main emphasis is upon personal competition.

For each subject studied the child is compared with the companions by percentage of
marks or rankings. The teacher admires and praises those who do well and frowns upon
those who fail to do well.
The school’s ranking system serves to prepare for a later ranking system. Many of those
who are emotionally disappointed by low ranking in the school are thereby prepared to
accept limited achievement in the larger world outside the school.

Other Functions of Education:

Peter Worsley has spoken of a few more functions of education. Some of them may be
noted:

A. Education Trains in Skills that are required by the Economy:

The relation between the economy and education can be an exact one. For example, the
number and productive capacity of engineering firms are limited by the number of
engineers produced by education.

In planned economy, normally, it is planned years in advance to produce a definite

number of doctors, engineers, teachers, technicians, scientists, etc. to meet the social
and economic needs of the society.

B. Fosters Participant Democracy:

Education fosters participant democracy. Participant democracy in any large and
complex society depends on literacy. Literacy allows full participation of the people in
democratic processes and effective voting. Literacy is a product of education. Educa-
tional system has thus economic as well as political significance.

C. Education Imparts Values:

The curriculum of a school, its “extra-curricular” activities and the informal
relationships amongst students and teachers communicate social skills and values.
Through various activities a school imparts values such as ‘co-operation’ or team spirit,
obedience, ‘fair play’. This is also done through curriculum, that is, through lessons in
history, literature, etc.

D. Education Acts as an Integrative Force:

Education acts as an integrative force in society by communicating values that unite
different sections of society. The family may fail to provide the child the essential
knowledge of the social skills, and values of the wider society.
The school or the educational institutions can help the child to learn new skills and
learn to interact with people of different social backgrounds.

E. Values and Orientations which are Specific to Certain Occupations are also
provided by Education:
For example, the medical students are socialised and educated in a particular way in
medical college. This may help them to become proper medical practitioners. Other
values and orientations relevant to the functioning of industrial society are also
provided by education.

Education and Social Change

The role of education as an agent or instrument of social change and social development
is widely recognized today..
According to Maclver social change takes place as a response to many types of changes
that take place in the social and nonsocial environment. Education can initiate social
changes by bringing about a change in outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a
change in the pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes.
Earlier educational institutions and teachers used to show a specific way of life to the
students and education was more a means of social control than an instrument of social
change. Modern educational institutions do not place much emphasis upon transmitting
a way of life to the students. The traditional education was meant for an unchanging
static society not marked by any change. But today education aims at imparting
knowledge. Education was associated with religion.
It has become secular today. It is an independent institution now. Education has been
chiefly instrumental in preparing the way for the development of science and
technology. Education has brought about phenomenal changes in every aspect of men's
life. Francis J.Brown remarks that education is a process which brings about changes in
the behavior of society. It is a process which enables every individual to effectively
participate in the activities of society and to make positive contribution to the progress
of society.

Important Questions
4marks Questions

1. Analyse the salient features of political institutions.

2. What is religion?
3. What are the main aims of Hindu marriage?
4. Write four main characteristics of joint family.
5. What is teknonymy?
1o marks questions

1. Hindu marriage is a religious sacrament. Discuss the statement.

2. What are the main categories of kinship?
3. Outline briefly the principal features of contemporary Indian Economy.
4. What is religion? What is the importance of religion in social life?
5. Differentiate between joint and nuclear families.
6. Discuss the integrative functions of the religion

2o marks questions

1. Write an essay on kinship system in India.

2. What is kinship? What are the different categories of kinship?
3. Point out causes of disorganization of joint family in modern time. What is the
future of joint family?
4. Discuss the functions of religion in contemporary socity by giving suitable
examples.
5. What is Hindu marriage? Describe main restrictions of Hindu marriage
 UNIT III

SOCIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS

SOCIAL SYSTEM

System

According to Oxford Dictionary, the term system represents a group of things or parts
working together in a regular relation.

Features of system:

• Orderly arrangements of parts

• It has its own boundaries

• Arrangements of these parts should create a pattern

• There is a functional relationship among the parts of the system.

• The plurality of parts creates unity.

• The concept of system is applicable to the study of organic as well as inorganic

realities.

Meaning of Social System

 Herbert Spencer, who was influenced by the views of Charles Darwin has given
an organic analogy in which society is compared with the human organism.
 • Human society is a network of human interactions and interrelations. Social
system refers to the orderly arrangements parts or components of society namely;
human interactions. Individual in their process of interaction influence each
other. Their interaction and inter relation assumes a common pattern called Social
System.

• The concept is not limited to interpersonal interaction but also to the analysis of
groups, institution, societies and inter-societal entities.

Definition

• The chief exponent of most modern theory of social system has been Talcott
Parson.

• A social system is defined in terms of two or more social actors engaged in

more or less stable interaction within a bounded environment.

• A social system may be defined as a plurality of individuals interacting with each

other according to shared cultural norms and behaviour. (W.F Ogburn)

Characteristics of Social System

• Social system is based on social interaction: Social system consists of two or

more individual among whom we find an established pattern of interaction.

• The interaction should be meaningful: Aimless and meaningful interaction

does not produce social system. The human interactions create social
relationships. The social relationships find express in traditions, customs, law etc.

• Social system is a unity: Any arrangements of institutions, traditions, customs,

law does not constitute a social system. It is a state or condition where the various
parts are arranged in an integrated manner. Individual in the system work
together in pursuit of common goal.
• The parts of social system have functional relationships: In a social system
each part has an assigned role and performs its in accordance with the established
procedures and norms.
• Social system is related with cultural system: Culture determines the nature
and scope of interactions and inter-relations of members of society. It also
maintains a balance and harmonious relationship among the different parts,
reduces conflicts and helps in maintaining equilibrium.
• Social system has an environmental aspects: Social system is not same in all
ages, territories and societies.

The three elements of social system

• The social act or action: it is a process in the social system that motivates
individual or individuals. The orientation of the action has a close relation with
the attainment of satisfaction of the actor. Action is not an unexpected response
to a particular situation or stimulus.
• The Actor: The act and actor are complementary to each other. A social system
must have sufficient proportion of actors and it must secure sufficient
participation of its actors. The actor has to act according to the role assigned to
him which he learns through the process of socialization. The social system limits
and regulates the needs and actions through social control.
• The Role and Status: The participation of actor in the social system has two
aspects; 1) the role aspects ie; the functional significance of the actor for the
system and 2) the status aspects; place of the actor in the social system

Other Elements of Social System

According to Loomis, the social system is composed of the patterned interaction

of the members. It is the patterned social relations and the social process which
determine the nature of social system. The main element that helps in this process
are;
• Beliefs and knowledge: beliefs furnish the cognitive basis for social action.
Belief can be true or false.
• Sentiments: It represents what we feel about the worlds. Sentiments are acquired
as product of experience and cultural conditioning.
• End, goal or objective: The members of a social system expect to accomplish a
particular end or objective through appropriate interaction. If there had been any
no human needs, goals or ends, there would have been no society. The human
needs, goals and ends determine the nature of social system.
• Norms: Norms are the standards for determining what is right and wrong,
appropriate and inappropriate, just and unjust, good and bad in social
relationships. Every social system has its norms. Some norms are general and
applicable to all and others apply only to particular individuals and status roles
within the system.
• Power: It refers the capacity to control others. There may take place conflicts in
the social system. Such conflict is harmful for the social system. Thus each social
system gives power to some individual or body of individuals to remove tension
from amongst the system.
 • Sanction: Sanction refers to the rewards and penalties given out by the members
of social system as a device for inducing conformity to its norms and ends.
• Facility: A facility has been defined as means used to attain ends within the
system. It is necessary that the individual in a social system should be provided
with adequate facilities to enable them to perform their roles efficiently.

Pre requisite of social system

1. Biological prerequisites:
• Adequate number of people
• A definite system of procreation
2. Functional prerequisites:
• Obedience to social norms
• mechanisms of social control
• Interest towards positive action
3. Cultural prerequisites:
• Language: The members of social system should possess a meaningful
language
• Symbols: A symbol is an object representing an invisible abstract and inaudible
object . For instance God is represented by an idol
• System of communication: should have a system of communication

LAW AS A SUB SYSTEM OF SOCIETY

• All human societies, tribal, peasant, or industrial, have laws or legal rules whose
scope is coextensive with human life.
• In preliterate societies laws have been orally transmitted and often are
inseparable from custom. Legal controls were exercised primarily by kinship
units.
• In complex ancient civilizations such as Babylonia, Egypt, Israel, India and
Rome the laws were mainly based on customs, religious principles, and the
decrees of monarchs. The Hindu laws known as Dharma Shashtra composed by
Manu and others can be considere as first codified legal literature.
• As societies have grown from simple to complex, there has been an extensive
growth of legal rules

According to Salmond, “Law is the body of principles recognized and applied by

the State in the administration of justice”.

Three characteristics of Law;

Law has its sovereign authority,
Law is accompanied by sanctions,
The command of law should compel a course of conduct. Being a command the law
must flow from a determinate person or group of persons with the threat of displeasure,
if it is not obeyed
Relation between Law and Society

Law and society studies address the mutual relationship between law and society with
its different actors, institutions, and processes. Law is created and put into practice
through societal processes. Simultaneously law effects and affects social change.
Beyond a causal relationship, law is further understood to constitute social institutions
such as the polity, family, property, corporation, crime, even the individual. The study
of law and other specializations in the social sciences are thus closely interwoven. Law
and society studies represent a multi- and interdisciplinary field. Without the control of
the law, the society became the jungle or at least barbaric. So, to keep the society
peaceful, we need to create a harmonious relationship between law and society.
Law and social change

Law is a very effective and important medium instrument in bringing about social
change in a particular country or in a particular society. It is law that sets the course for
major social changes. Social change through law is the basic characteristic of the
modern world. Law and litigation bring about changes in many areas of life such as
education, transportation, race
relations, protection of the environment, crime prevention, energy utilization etc. It play
s anindirect role in social change by shaping different social institutions, which have
adirect impact on the society.

Law as a means of social control:

Two fold objectives of law to serve is, firstly, to keep up stability and afford orderly life
in the society. Secondly, to persuade social change by changing itself according to the
needs of the changing society. Thus , law is an important agency of social control. The
society supervenes the law for bettermost socialization. Rule of law in any constitution
is the bedrock for democracy. By putting fear in th minds of public, the law is a helpful
agency for social control. Law regulates the behaviour of the people in society. Law, by
using force, makes the people conscious about their duties and obligations. Law saves
precious and good concepts of the society. The exploitation of the people is curbed
through law. The constitution of India, criminal , civil laws and other statutes are
designed to surmount this goal.
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE

• The concepts of structure and function have assumed tremendous significance in

the modern sociological literature. These concepts are complementary to each
other.

• The two concepts draw their original inspiration from the works of Herbert
Spencer and Emile Durkheim.

Definitions

• Social Structure means an arrangement of persons in institutionally controlled or

defined relationships. (Redicliff Brown)

• Social structure means the complex of principal groups and institutions which
constitutes societies. (Morris Ginsberg)

Structure and Social Structure

• The term structure refers to some sort of ordered arrangements of parts or

components.

• Society also has its own structure and the components of social structure are
persons.

• A person is a human being and considered not just as a organism but as

occupying a position in the social structre.

• Even though persons are subject to change due to mobility, death or change of
membership, structure as such maintains its continuity.

Elements of Social Structure

• Sub groups of various types: Society can be understood as a big group which
consists of people. This big group consists of various sub groups such as political,
religious, economic, educational, family and associations. These sub groups persists
more than any particular members.
• Social structure consists of roles of various types: Roles are found within the
larger system ans also within the subgroups. Role occupants are expected fulfill
obligation to other role occupants.

• Regulative norms governing sub groups and roles: Social norms are of
two types

1. Obligatory or relational: it specifies positive obligations but are not commonly

applied to all the roles and subgroups.

2. permissive or regulative: it specifies the limit of permissible action. These are the
regulative norms which specify must do, may do and must not do things.

• Cultural values: Every society has its own cultural values. Individuals/groups
are often found to emotionally committed to values. They provide a mean by which
conflict tend to be resolved.

FUNCTION

Concept of Social Function

• The term function has different meanings in different contexts.

• The concept of function applied to human societies is based on an analogy

between social life and organic life.

• The systematic formulation of the concept “function” in the study of society can
be said to have been made by Emile Durkheim in 1895.

Definitions

“The function of a social institution is the correspondence between it and needs of the
social organism”. (Durkheim)

Those observed consequences which make for the adaptation and adjustment of a given
system. (R.K. Merton)

Analogy between Social and organic life

• Every organism has a structure (arrangements of organs/molecules/tissues etc.) of
its own and the life of organism can be referred to as a process. The term ‘organic
function’ refers to the connection between the structure of an organism and its life
process. Process is dependent on structure and continuity of structure is dependent on
process.

• In the study of social system also the concept of function could be used to refer to
the interconnection between social structure and process of life. However the continuity
of social structure is not destroyed by the changes in the units. The continuity of the
social structure is maintained by the process of social life. Process of social life means
the activities and interactions of the individuals and of the organized groups in which
they are united.

Assumptions of Functionalism

Sociologist with a functional approach study the way in which each part of the society
contributes to the functioning of the society as a whole.

The functionalistic theory is based on the following assumptions:

1. A society is a system of integrated parts.

2. Social system tends to be stable because they have built in mechanisms of

control.

3. Dysfunctions exist, but they tend to resolve themselves or become

institutionalized long run.

4. Change is usually gradual.

5. Social integration is produced by the agreement of the most members of the

society on a certain set of values.

Functional pre-requisites

Functional pre-requisites of social system means the conditions that should be met with
by the group or social system to persist social life. They are:

• Pattern maintenance and tension management:

Through the process of socialization the cultural pattern of the system is maintained.
 Man’s emotional, spiritual, cultural requirements must be met with or managed for
the effective functioning.
• Adaptation: Any social system must be adapted to its social and non social
environment.

• Goal Attainment: Every social system has one or more goals to be attained through
cooperative effort. Example- National security.

• Integration: Since we live in groups one must consider the needs of the group as
well as their own needs. Integration has to do with the inter relations of the units of
social system, that is individuals and groups.

Social functions and dysfunctions

Any partial structure-a type of sub group, or a role, or a social norm, or a cultural value-
is said to have a function if it contributes to the fulfillment of one or more of the
social needs of social system.

Any partial structure is said to have a dysfunction, if it hinders the fulfillment of one or
more of these needs.

For example religion is said to be functional if it helps in binding the members of the
society where as it is called dysfunctional when it promotes superstitious beliefs
and meaningless practices.

An element in social system can be functional in one respect and dysfunctional in

another.

Latent and Manifest functions

• According to Merton, “ Manifest functions are those that are intended and
recognized and latent functions are unrecognized and unintended”.

• Latent functions of an institution or partial structure may i) may support manifest

function ii) be irrelevant iii) may undermine manifest function
Important Questions

4marks Questions

1. Describe the characteristics of Social Syatem.

20 marks Questions

1. What is social system? Discuss its structural and functional elements.

2. How law is a sub system of Society.

UNIT IV

MAJOR SOCIAL INSTITUTIONSOF INDIAN SOCIETY

CASTE

Sociologists have recognised three major types of social stratification; caste, estates and
social class. Of these, caste system as a form of social stratification is peculiar to India.
The caste is an inseparable aspect of Indian Society.

According to S.V. Ketkar the word caste is of Spanish and Portuguese Origin, but its
Indian application from the Portuguese.

Definition of Caste

Caste is so complex phenomenon which is difficult to define. It can be viewed both as a

unit and as a system and also can be viewed as a structural phenomenon as well as a
cultural phenomenon.

Sir Herbert Risely: “Caste is a collection of families, bearing a common name,

claiming a common descent, from a mythical ancestor, human and divine, professing to
follow the same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an
opinion as forming single homogeneous community.”

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE
1. Ascribed Status
The status of an individual is determined by his birth and not by selection nor by
accomplishments. No amount of power, prestige and pelf can change the position
of man. The membership of the caste is hence unchangeable, unacquirable,
inalienable, unattainable and nontransferable
2. Hierarchical division of society
The Hindu society is gradational one. It is divided into several small groups
called castes and subcastes. A sense of ‘highness’ and ‘lowness’ or ‘superiority’
and ‘inferiority’ is associated with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins are
placed at the top of the hierarchy and are regarded as ‘pure’, supreme or superior.
The degraded caste or the so called ‘untouchables’ [Harijans] have occupied the
other end of the hierarchy
3. Segmental division of Society
The Hindu society is a caste-ridden society. It is divided into a number of
segments called ‘castes’. It is not a homogeneous society. Castes are groups with
defined boundary of their own.
4. Endogamy
The most fundamental characteristic of the caste system is endogamy. All the
thinkers are of the opinion that the endogamy is the chief characteristic of caste,
i.e. the members of a caste or sub-caste should marry within their own caste or
sub-caste. The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss
of caste. Although endogamy is the common rule for a caste, hypergamy and
hypogamy were also prevalent in exceptional cases
5. Fixed occupation
The traditional caste system is characterised by hereditary occupation. Members
of a particular caste are expected to follow the occupation meant for the caste.
Traditionally a Brahmin was allowed to function as a priest. In some casts the
name of caste is dependent upon the very occupation as for instance, Napita
(barber), Dhobi, Mochi, Mali etc.
6. Restrictions on food habits
There are rules, for example, what sort of food or drink can be accepted by a
person and from what castes. Usually a caste would not accept cooked food from
any other caste that stands lower than itself in the social scale. A person
belonging to a higher caste believes that he gets polluted even by the shadow of a
person belonging to the low caste or by accepting food or drink from him.
For example, in North India, a Brahmin would accept ‘pakka’ food [cooked in
ghee] only from some castes lower than his own. But he would accept ‘kachcha’
 food [prepared with the use of water] at the hands of no other caste except his
own.

As a matter of rule and practice, no individual would accept ‘kachcha’ food

prepared by an inferior caste man. Generally, any kind of food that is prepared by
the Brahmins is acceptable to all the caste people.

This factor explains as to why the Brahmins dominated the hotel industry for a
long time. Further, restrictions are also there still on the use of certain vegetables
for certain castes. Even today, some traditional Brahmins do not consume onions,
garlic, cabbage, carrot, beatroot, etc. Eating beef is not allowed except for the
Harijans.

7. Restriction on social interactions

The caste system puts restrictions on the range of social relations also. The idea
of ‘pollution’ makes this point clear. It means a touch of a lower caste man
(particularly Harijan) would pollute or defile a man of higher caste. Even his
shadow is considered enough to pollute a higher caste man. In Kerala for a long
time, a Nayar could approach a Nambudari Brahamin but would not touch him.

Further, a Tiyan was expected to keep himself at a distance of 36 steps from the
Brahmin and apulaya at a distance of 96 paces. In Tamilnadu the Shanar toddy
tapper was expected to keep a distance of 24 paces while approaching a Brahmin.
This has resulted in the practice of untouchability. This practice has made the
lower caste people to be segregated completely from the higher caste.

8. Social and Religious Disabilities of Certain Castes:

In the traditional caste society some lower caste people [particularly, the
Harijans] suffered from certain civil or social and religious disabilities.
Generally, the impure castes are made to live on the outskirts of the city or the
village. In south India, certain parts of the towns or the villages are not accessible
to the Harijans.

It is recorded that during the Peshwa rule in Maharashtra the Mahars and Mangs
were not allowed within the gates of Poona before 9.00 A.M. and after 3.00 P.M.
 The reason was during that time their bodies would cast too long shadows which,
if they were to fall on the Brahmins, would defile them.

Socially, Harijans or the so called ‘untouchables’ are separated from other

members. Even today, in many places they are not allowed to draw water from
the public wells. During the early days, public places like hotels, hostels, public
lecture halls, schools, temples, theatres were not kept open for the lower caste
people.

Entrance to temples and other places of religious importance was forbidden for
them. Educational facilities, legal rights and political representation were denied
to them for a long time. In South India, restrictions were placed on the mode of
constructing houses of the lower caste people, and their types of dresses and
patterns of ornamentation.

9. Civil and religious privileges of certain caste

If  the lower caste people suffer from certain disabilities, some higher caste
people like the Brahmins enjoy certain privileges. Nowhere the Brahmins
suffered from the disabilities cited above. They are given more liberty, because
they are believed to be born ‘pure’ and ‘superior’.

The Brahmins never saluted others, but they always had the privilege of being
saluted by others. They never even bowed to the idols of the lower caste people.
Education and teaching were almost the monopoly of the higher caste people.
Chanting the Vedic Mantras was great privilege of the Brahmins. The upper caste
people in general, enjoyed social, political, legal and religious privileges.

10.Caste Panchayats

During the early days in every village every caste used to have its own caste
Panchayat. It consisted of five chosen members who enjoyed much social
privilege and respect. The caste panchayat used to perform a number of
functions. It used to make the members comply with caste rules and regulations.
 Settling caste disputes and giving its final verdict on the issues referred to it, were
also its other functions. It was giving punishments to those who violated caste
rules and obligations.

Matters such as – breaking the marriage promise, refusal on the part of the
husband to take the wife to his house, cruelty to wife, adultery on the part of
wife, killing the cows, insulting the Brahmins, having illicit sex relations with
other caste people, etc., were dealt with by the panchayat. It was giving
punishments such as-arranging dinner party for the fellow caste-men, imposing
fine, purification, pilgrimage, out casting etc., for the offenders.

The caste panchayat was also striving to promote the welfare of the caste
members. Safeguarding the interests of the caste members was yet another
function of the panchayat. These caste panchayats have become weak and
ineffective nowadays.

The castes and subcastes together make up the Hindu social system. Still in some
respects each is isolated from the other. It is in a way semi sovereign. The castes
are a ‘complete world’ in themselves for their members. The members are
expected to be loyal to the caste. Caste feeling is hence very strong. It is very
much stronger in rural areas than in the urban area. It is because of this the
amount of community-feeling is restricted.

ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM

Different sociologist propounded various theories for the origin of caste system.

1. Traditional theory; According to this theory, the caste system is of divine

origin. There are some references in Vedic literature wherein it is said that castes
were created by Brahma the supreme creator, so that human beings may
harmoniously perform the various social functions essential for the maintenance
of society.
2. Religious Theory: It is believed that various religious customs had given birth to
the caste system in India. People connected to religion like Kings and Brahmins
 were given higher positions. Different people used to perform different tasks for
the administration of the ruler that later on became the basis of caste system.
3. Racial theory; According to Dr. Mazumdar, the caste system took its birth after
the arrival of Aryans in India. In order to maintain their separate existence the
Indo-Aiyans used for certain groups and orders of people the favourite word
‘varna’, ‘colour’
4. Occupational theory; According to this theory, the origin of caste system can be
found in the natureand quality of social work performed by the various groups of
people. Those professions which were regarded as better and respectable made
the persons who performed them superior to those who were engaged in dirty
professions.
5. Political theory; According to this theory, caste system is a clever device
invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves on the highest ladder of
social hierarchy. 
6. Evolutionary theory; According to this theory, the caste system did not come
into existence all of a sudden or at a particular date. It is the result of a long
process of social evolution. A number of factors played their part in the
development of the present caste system.

CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM

Structural Changes:
(i) Decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins:

There has been a sharp decline in the supremacy of the Brahmins in society. In the past,
the Brahmin occupied the topmost position in the caste hierarchy. But today consequent
upon the process of modernization the dominance of the Brahmins has been relegated to
the background. He does not enjoy the same social status, which he once used to.

(ii) Changes in the Caste hierarchy:

The caste system is no longer a clearly demarcated system of hierarchically-ordered

caste groups. As a result of certain factors such as occupational diversification,
migration to urban areas, mechanisation of agriculture, boundaries between caste
groups are tending to blur or break down. There is an increasing degree of
interpenetration between different groups, classes and categories. A gradual lessening
of the congruence between caste, class and power is visible.
(iii) Protection of the Harijans:

The governmental policy of protective discrimination has gone a long way in improving
the socio -economic conditions of the Harijans. Consequently, their social status has
improved to a considerable extent.

Functional Changes:
(i) Change in the fixation of status:

In a caste society, birth was taken as the exclusive basis of social status. But in the
changing social scenario, birth no longer constitutes the basis of social prestige. Criteria
such as wealth, ability, education, efficiency etc. have become the determinants of
social status. The significance of caste as an ascriber of status has been relegated to the
background.

(ii) Change with regard to occupation:

So far as caste system is concerned, the individual had no choice but to follow the
occupation ascribed to him by his caste. But today occupation is not the hereditary
monopoly of any caste any more. One is free to take up any occupation he likes
according to his ability and interest. Mahatma Gandhi’s movement preaching dignity of
labour has drawn higher castes to dirty-hand callings while education has opened white-
collar occupations for members of lower castes.

(iii) Changes in marriage restrictions:

Under the caste system endogamy was the basis of mate-selection. The members of a
caste or sub-caste were forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the
group. But at present the Special Marriage Act, 1954 and the Hindu Marriage Act, 1955
have removed endogamic restrictions and declared inter-caste marriages as legally
valid.

Of late, several factors such as impact of western philosophy, coeducation, working

together of males and females of different castes in the same factory or office have
contributed to an increase in the cases of inter-caste marriage, love-marriage and late-
marriage.
(iv) Change in commensality:

In the traditional system, the unit of commensality was defined fairly rigidly in terms of
caste affiliation. In recent times, there has been a gradual expansion of this unit. Today,
Brahmins are inter dining with ‘clean’ Shudras. They do not hesitate to take kachha
food from other clean castes. Furthermore, they do not hesitate to accept food and water
from the members of the lower castes for fulfillment of their political ends.

(v) Change in the concept of purity and pollution:

Kapadia stated that the Hindu concept of purity and pollution was very extensive in its
scope and mandatory in its observance till the twenties of this century. Under the caste
system occupations were ranked in accordance with their ritual purity. For example, a
person coming into contact with a barber was supposed to become impure. Meat, fish,
wine etc. were regarded as ritually impure.

A menstruating lady was considered impure and as such the food cooked by her was
considered impure. In the twenty first century the importance of these ideas of purity
and pollution in Hindu social lifehas considerably decreased.

Religious sanction no more constitutes the basis of pure and impure. The rules of
hygiene have formed the criterion of pure and impure at present.

(vi) Change in the life style:

In the past, every caste had its own life style. It was the differences in the styles of life
that made the people of different castes appear distinct from one another. But today
differences between the life styles of castes are gradually being eliminated and there is a
marked tendency towards the evolution of a common style. The standardization of life
styles is due to the twin processes of sanskritization and westernization.

(vii) Change in inter-caste relations:

Of late, the pattern of inter-caste relations has undergone profound changes. The mutual
rights and obligations characterising inter-caste relations have crumbled down.
Members of the low castes no longer obey the orders of the members of high castes.
They do not come forward to perform forced labour for the members of the upper caste.
Further, efforts made by the lower castes to rise in the social ladder have annoyed the
upper castes. All these factors have led to inter-caste conflicts. Such inter-caste conflicts
are gradually increasing. However, these are more for achieving power than on grounds
of ritual status.

(viii) Change in the power of caste Panchayats:

So far as caste system was concerned, each caste had a caste Panchayat. The caste
Panchayat played the role of a judicial body. But today Jati Panchayats are on the
decline. Law courts and village factions have taken over most of their roles.

(ix) Restrictions on education removed:

Today education is no more confined to the higher castes. Anybody belonging to any
caste can prosecute study in educational institutions. Of late, the Government both at
the Union and State levels has adopted several measures for the spread of education
among the lower castes by way of giving them stipends, scholarships, free study
materials, reservation of seats etc.

(x) Changes in the system of power:

The notions of democracy and adult franchise have affected the caste system in several
ways. The new political system attacks the very roots of hierarchization. In the past
politics was regarded as the sole preserve of the higher castes. But today people
belonging to all castes are becoming conscious that they can play an important role in
the political processes and can be benefitted from them.

(xi) Growth of caste consciousness:

Casteism has increased. It has affected political issues and political decisions.

(xii) Weakening of the Jajmani system:

The Jajmani system in the villages has weakened, affecting inter-caste relations. Several
reasons like laxity in the performance of rites and rituals on the part of the members of
various castes, decline of Brahminical supremacy, development in the field of transport
and communication, intergenerational educational mobility etc. may be attributed to the
decline of Jajmani system in rural India.
Attitudinal Changes:
(i) Loss of faith in the ascriptive status:

Under the sway of rapid social transformation taking place in Indian society following
the processes of industrialization, urbanization, westernization, secularization and
modernization, the attitude of the people towards caste system has undergone
considerable changes.

They are not psychologically prepared to accept the fixed status of an individual solely
on the basis of birth. They attach importance to ability, efficiency, talent and aptitude.
Hence it is quite natural that they repose their faith in achieved status. As such, the very
foundation of the caste system has been shattered.

(ii) Change in the philosophical basis:

M .N. Srinivas holds the view that the law of karma and the doctrine of transmigration
of soul are responsible for the acceptance of caste system by the „ people. But such an
attitude towards caste does not exist at present. People do not believe that caste is
divinely ordained. They have begun to doubt the very philosophical basis of caste
system.

In fine, the traditional Indian caste system does not find favour with modern
sociologists. The reason is not that it is intrinsically unsound but that it is wholly out of
tune with the prejudices of modern sociology. Industrialization, urbanization,
secularization, modernization have brought about the aforesaid significant changes in
the caste system. M. N. Srinivas has rightly observed that caste has taken the shape of
an incarnation in modern India.

CAUSES OF CHANGES IN CASTE SYSTEM

Caste system under the impact of certain powerful factors is undergoing rapid
transformation in modern India. The factors responsible for such a change in the system
are as follows:

Modern education:
Modern liberal education introduced into the country by the British has played a crucial
role in undermining the importance of caste in Indian social life. Modern education is
based on such democratic values like equality, liberty and fraternity. It is also grounded
on such scientific values like reason and observation. Hence it is quite natural that with
the spread of modern education, the people’s belief in the divine origin of caste, Karma
and Karmaphala has received a severe setback.

2. Industrialization:

The process of industrialization has affected caste structure to a remarkable extent.

Industrial growth has provided new sources of livelihood to people and made
occupational mobility possible. In the midst of all this, the people belonging to various
castes consider it mediaevalistic to go into the question of one’s caste. In a factory a
Brahmin works side by side with a Shudra. He cannot avoid his touch or shadow.

3. Urbanization:
Industrialization has given rise to the process of urbanization. New townships have
emerged. The ruralites migrate to these towns in order to avail better employment
opportunities. With the coming up of big hotels, restaurants, theatres, clubs and
educational institutions it is not at all possible to observe communal inhibitions and
taboos against food-sharing. Kingsley Davis rightly observes that the anonymity,
congestion, mobility, secularism and changeability of the city make the operation of the
caste virtually impossible.

4. Modern means of transport and communication:

Modern means of transport and communication are instrumental in increasing spatial
mobility of the people and thereby put an end to the caste system. Means of transport
like train, bus, tram, airplane etc. cannot provide for distinctions between castes, and a
leveling effect has been brought into the society. During travel, too, one must of
necessity take his meals without questioning the propriety of doing so in the company
of low-caste persons.

5. Increase in the importance of wealth:

Under the caste system, birth was taken as the basis of social prestige. But today, wealth
has replaced birth as the basis of social prestige. Occupations are now no longer caste-
based. People while choosing their occupations attach greater importance to income
rather than anything else.
It is because of this reason a high-born may be ill-placed in society while a man of low
caste with ample wealth at his disposal has a room at the top. With this change of
emphasis, the Indian caste system is in the process of being replaced by the system of
social classification as prevails in western countries.

6. The new legal system:

The new legal system, introduced by the British Government, has given a severe blow
to the caste system in India. Equality before law irrespective of castes has been firmly
instituted. Consequently, the age old discrimination against the lower castes has been
removed.

Further, with the establishment of law courts, the traditional castes Panchayats have lost
their power and effectiveness to punish the deviants. Not only that a number of Acts
like the Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 and the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 have
abnegated the evil effects of the caste system.

7. Sanskritization:
Srinivas defines sanskritization as “the process by which a low Hindu caste or tribal or
any other group changes its customs, rituals, ideology and way of life in the direction of
a high and frequently ‘twice-born’ caste”. The members of the lower castes leave their
own traditional ideals and behaviour patterns and accept the ideals and standards of
higher castes.

The caste system being a closed one, sanskritization does not entail structural change. It
entails positional change. Hence through sanskritization the lower caste people move up
slightly in the scale of “Jatis’ within a particular varna.

8. Westernization:
The term ‘Westernization’ was coined by Srinivas to signify the changes in the Indian
society during the British rule. By promoting education, egalitarianism, rationalism,
humanism and above all a critical outlook towards various social issues and problems,
westernization has gone a long way in undermining the influence of the caste system.

It has given severe blow to practices like child marriage, purity and pollution,
commensality, untouchability etc. The effects of westernization are prominently visible
in the form of inter-caste marriages, intercommunity marriages, inter-religious
marriages, occupational changes etc. In this way westernization has brought about
profound changes in the Indian society.

9. Secularization:
The role of secularization in weakening the caste system is great. By legitimizing
secular ideologies and formal legal doctrines and promoting rationality, scientific
attitude and differentiation, secularization has affected certain characteristics of the
caste system especially the concept of purity and pollution, commensality, fixity of
occupation etc.

10. Socialistic ideas:
Caste system is based on the ideas of high birth and low birth. On the other hand,
socialists say, “the differences between human beings have been created by society;
hence the society only can remove them.” As a result of such socialist thought, caste
system is breaking.

11. New social movements:

Some social movements have also attacked the caste system. The Brahmo
Samaj movement led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy rejected the barriers of caste divisions
and stood for universalisation and brotherhood of man. The Prarthana Sabha movement
supported by Justice Ranade brought about certain social reforms like inter-caste
marriage, interdining and remarriage of widows, etc.

The Arya Samaj movement founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Ramakrishna
Mission movement raised voice against the hereditary caste system based on birth and
stood for its abolition. In this way all these social movements succeeded, in no small
measure, in affecting some of the structural features of the caste system.

12. Rise of new social classes:

Industrialization has given rise to the emergence of new social classes. These social
classes are replacing the traditional castes. Trade Unions, Merchants’ Associations and
Political Parties are replacing the old caste loyalties. An increase in class consciousness
leads to a decrease in caste consciousness.
13. Influence of Indian Constitution:
Indian Constitution bestows some fundamental rights on the citizens irrespective of
caste, creed, colour or sex. It offers equal opportunities to all. Para 15(2) of the
Constitution, which declares all citizens as equal, directly attacks the Hindu social order
based on inherited inequality. No wonder that caste system is withering away.

In fine, such factors have vitally affected the caste system. But it is highly improbable
that the system will altogether be eliminated from the Indian social scene. It may
assume new forms and perform new functions in the changed conditions of modern
society.

TRIBE

The tribal communities represent an important social category of Indian social structure.
The tribals are said to be the original inhabitants of India.

Tribes in the Indian context today are normally referred to in the language of
constitution as ‘Scheduled Tribes’. The Scheduled Tribes constitute the second largest
group of the backward classes that come under what is known as unprivileged section.

Definition of Tribes.

The Indian Constitution has not defined clearly the term tribe. Article 366 (25) of the
constitution says that Scheduled Tribes are the tribes or tribal communities or parts or
group within such tribes or tribal communities which the Indian President may specify
by public notification under Article 342(1).

However, the term tribes have been defined by various thinkers and writers in different
ways.

D.N. Majumdar: A tribe is “a collection of families bearing a common name,

members of which occupy the same territory, speak the same language, and observe
certain taboos regarding marriage profession or occupation and have developed a well
assessed system of reciprocity and mutuality of obligation.”

Definite Territory
The members of a tribe live permanently in a definite territory. Common territory is an
important feature of a tribe. In the absence of a common territory its very existence
cannot be imagined.

Common Language
All the members of a tribe speak a common language or dialect. This common language
not only binds them in strengthening unity but also helps to increase strong community
feeling among themselves.

Collection of families
Tribals constitute a collection of families. The members of a tribe are blood related to
each other. It could be patriarchal or matriarchal in nature.

Common ancestor

They claim to be originated from a common ancestor.

Common Culture
All the members of a tribe share a common cultural pattern. They are mainly guided by
a common culture. This cultural similarity is an important factor regulating the tribal
organizations.

Common Religion
Religion plays an important role in the tribal organization. All th e members
of a tribe have a belief in a common religion. Tribal social and political organization are
based on the religion

Common Name
Every tribe has a common name by which it is identified. From sociological point of
view, this name has more significance which binds the members of a tribe with a
feeling of unity.

Sense of Unity:
Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a
tribe depends upon the tribal’s sense of unity during the times of peace and war.

Common Dialect:
Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. Different tribes speak
different languages.
Political Organization
Every tribe of India is known as a strong political unit. This organization is meant to
maintain unity and integrity in a tribe. The responsibility of the organization is vested
upon an individual known as Mukhia is the unique ruler of the tribe. All the members
have fear, faith and devotion on Mukhia.

Endogamous group
Members of tribe generally marry among themselves. Each tribe has many clans within
itself and these are exogamous in nature.

Organization of clans
Tribe is constituted of many clans.

TRIBAL PROBLEMS

1. The Problem of Geographic Separation:

The tribals of India are in a way geographically separated from the rest of population.
Some of them are living in the unapproachable physical areas such as deep valleys,
dense forests, hills, mountains, etc. It is difficult for them to establish relations with
others, and hence, socially they are far away from the civilised world. This kind of
physical as well as social isolation or seclusion has contributed to various other
problems.

2. Cultural Problems:
The tribal culture is entirely different from the way of life of the civilized people. The
tribals fail to understand the civilised people, their customs and practices, beliefs and
attitudes and so on. They are suspicious towards the civilised people. They are clinging
tenaciously to their customs and traditions.

During the British rule some foreign Christian missionaries made an attempt to
propagalt their religion in some of the tribal areas, particularly in the North-Eastern
provinces. They even t” to impose their culture on them.

Even today such an attempt is going on. On the other hand, the Ramakrishna Mission,
R.S.S, the Vishwa Hindu Parishad and other organisations are spreading the Hinduism
in these areas. Some of the tribal leaders have now started popularising the tribal
religion. These different propagandas have created a great confusion for them.
The cultural gap between the civilised and the tribal people is coming in the way of the
assimilation and integration of the tribal people into the mainstream of the national
life of India.

3. Social Problems:
The tribals have their own social problems also. They are traditional and custom-bound.
The; have become the victims of superstitious beliefs, outmoded and meaningless
practices and harmful habits. Child marriage, infanticide, homicide, animal sacrifice,
exchange of wives, black magic and other harmful practices are still found among them.

They believe in ghosts and spirits. They have keen desire to maintain all these practices
in general, and their individual tribal character.

4. Economic Problem:
The tribal people are economically the poorest people of India. Majority of
them live below the poverty line. The tribal economy is based on agriculture of the
crudest type. The main economic problems of the tribals are explained below.

(i) Exploitation:
The innocence, illiteracy and helplessness of the tribals are exploited by the outsiders.
The British policy, in particular, had led to ruthless exploitation of the tribals in various
ways as it favoured the zamindars, landlords, money-lenders, forest contractors and
excise, revenue and police officials.

(ii) Unprofitable Agriculture:

About 90% of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them are landless and
practise shifting cultivation. They need to be helped in adopting new methods of
cultivation. The tribals possess uneconomic holdings because of which their crop yield
is very less. A very small percentage of the population participates in occupational
activities in the secondary and tertiary sectors.

(iii) Problems of land ownership:

A good portion of the land in the tribal areas has been legally transferred to non-tribals.
Tribals demand that this land should be returned to them. In fact the tribals had earlier
enjoyed much freedom to use the forest and hunt their animals. They and emotionally
attached to the forests for they believe that their gods, spirits live in forests. The tribals
who are “deprived’ of their rights to the land and forest have reacted sharply to the
restrictions imposed by the government on their traditional rights.

(iv) Unemployment and Underemployment:

A large number of tribal young men and women are either unemployed or
underemployed. They are unhappy for they are not able to get jobs that can keep them
occupied throughout the year. They need to be helped in finding secondary source of
income by developing animal husbandry, poultry farming, handicrafts, handloom
weaving, etc.

(v) Non-Availability of Banking Facilities:

Banking facilities in the tribal areas are so inadequate that the tribals have mainly to
depend on the money-lenders. The tribals, therefore, demand that “Agricultural
Indebtedness Relief Acts” should be enacted so that they may get back their mortgaged
land.

5. Educational Problems:
Illiteracy is a major problem of the tribals. More than 80% of them are illiterate.
Literacy among them has increased from 0.7% in 1931 to 11.30% in 1970 and to
16.35% in 1981. These shows more than 3/4 of the tribals are illiterate. They have no
faith in formal educational organisation. Many of them do not know anything about
education, schools, colleges, universities, degrees, etc.

They feel no urge to educate their children. Since most of the tribals are poor, education
appears to be a luxury for them. In the case of those people who are engaged in
agriculture, their minor children are also engaged in it. The illiterate parents do not
consider it as their primary responsibility to give education to their children.

i. The Problem of Language:

The medium of instruction is another hindrance to the promotion of education among
the tribes. Most of the tribal languages do not have a script of their own. Hence the
children are obliged to learn things in a language which is foreign to them. Even in
tribal areas the number of tribal teachers is very less and hence communication problem
always arises between the students and the teachers.

ii. The curriculum of education is another main problem:

The existing curriculum, as experts rightly have pointed out, is not suited and has little
relevance to the tribal people.

6. Problem of Health and Sanitation:

Due to illiteracy and ignorance the tribals are not able to appreciate modern concept
of health and sanitation. They do not take much care pertaining to their own health.
They believe that diseases are caused by hostile spirits and ghosts. They have their own
traditional means of diagnosis and cure.

Good number of them fall a prey to the diseases such as skin disease, forest fever,
typhoid, T.B., leprosy, malaria, veneral diseases, small pox, etc. Contact with outsiders
further added to a few more diseases in the tribal areas.

Example:
It is observed that the Thodas of Niligiri Hills have been suffering from some modern
diseases like veneral diseases, diabetes, blood pressure, etc. after coming into touch
with the British who made Niligiri Hills one of their summer resorts. These diseases
take a heavy toll of tribal life. Their suspicion and lack of faith in modern doctors have
made them not to avail their selves of the modern medical facilities.

7. Problem of Separatism:
The “divide and rule” policy adopted by the British did a lot of damage to the tribal
community of India. The British had superimposed their own administrative patterns in
tribal areas and deprived the tribals of their traditional methods of interacting with
people. The “Criminal Tribes Act” which the British had introduced gave an impression
that the tribals were either “criminals” or “anti-social beings”.

The tribal groups such as Kolis, Mundas, Khasis, Santals, Naga, etc, who fought against
the British were branded as “dacoits ” and “robbers”. The British government which
wanted to humble these tribals and “correct” them gave direct encouragement to the
foreign Christian missionary activities especially in, the Central and the North-Eastern
Zone. These activities which

i. Tribal Revolts and Uprisings:

Numerous revolts and uprisings of the tribals have taken place beginning with the one
in Bihar in 1772, followed by many other revolts in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal
Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram and Nagaland.

ii. Smuggling, Infiltration and Drug Addiction:

The foreign infiltrators especially from Bangladesh, Pakistan, Burma and China are
entering the borders of India through what are known as “tribal belts” Some of them
take undue advantage of the tribals’ innocence and ignorance for their smuggling
activities. Prohibited drugs and unlicensed weapons are smuggled inside the land and
beyond the borders of India through the tribal areas. Some of the tribal have been made
the victims of drug addiction. Hence, tribal areas in the borders have become extremely
sensitive areas.

MEASURES FOR THE UPLIFTMENT OF SCHEDULED TRIBES

The chief measures regarding tribal development are as follows:

1. Constitutional Provisions and Safeguards:

The Constitution of India provides for the special provisions relating to
Scheduled Tribes. Examples are Article 342, Article 164, Article 244, Article 275 etc.

2. Representation in Legislatures and Panchayats:

The Constitution of India prescribes protection and safeguards for Scheduled Tribes
with the object of promoting their educational and economic interests. Under Article
330 and 332 of the Indian Constitution, seats have been reserved for Scheduled Tribes
in Lok Sabha and state Vidhan Sabhas.

3. Reservation in the Service:

Government has made provisions for their adequate representation in the services.

4. Tribes’ Advisory council:

The Fifth Schedule of the Constitution provides for the setting up a Tribes’ Advisory
Council in each of the States having Scheduled Areas.

6. Commissioner for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes:

Under Article 338 of Indian Constitution a Commissioner has been appointed by the
President of India. The main duty of the Commissioner is (i) to investigate all matters
relating to the safeguards for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the
Constitution and (ii) to report the President on working of these safeguards.

7. Welfare Department in the States:

Under Article 164 (i) of the Constitution there is a provision of Welfare Department in
the States of Indian Union..

8. Educational Facilities:
Measures to provide educational facilities have been taken by the Government
.Emphasis is being laid on vocational and technical training. According to these
measures, concessions, stipends, scholarships, books, stationery and other equipments
are provided. Residential schools have been set up for them.

9. Scholarships:
The Central Government awards scholarships to deserving students for higher studies in
foreign countries. Seventeen and half per cent of the merit scholarships are granted by
the Centre, to deserving students of lower income groups.

10. Economic Opportunities:
The Governments of different States are encouraging the development of cottage
industries by providing loans and subsidies through various schemes. Multipurpose co-
operative societies which provide credit in cash and kind to the Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes have been established in various States such as Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Orissa etc.

Medical facilities

Various medical facilities have been provided for the tribals in the tribal area.

11. Tribal Research Institute:

Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes, which undertake intensive studies of tribal arts,
culture and customs have been set up in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and
West Bengal.

The Indian Constitution has made important provisions for the welfare of Scheduled
Tribes. The Central Government and State Governments have made incessant effort in
the direction of tribal welfare. Special programmes for their welfare and development
have been undertaken in the successive Five Year Plans.

Merits and Demerits of Caste system;

Merits:
(1) Caste represents a harmonious division of society based mainly on division of
labour and occupation.

(2) Caste promotes the spirit of cooperation and fellow-feeling at least within its range.
It helps the poor, the needy and strengthens group sentiment.

(3) Caste is a source of social stability. It has given strength to the Indian society to
withstand the “shocks of politics and the cataclysms of nature”.

(4) The caste functions as the constitution of the Hindu society. It rendered most
important services in the past and continues to sustain the social order and its solidarity.

(5) The caste preserves the racial purity by prohibiting inter-marriages and by imposing
endogamy on its members.

(6) It defines the economic pursuits and provides professional career to each individual.
It provides for cultural diffusion within the group.

The ‘caste culture’ is passed on from one generation to the next, very systematically. As
Hutton says, the caste canalises an individual’s choice in marriage, “acts as his trade
union, his friendly or benefit society, his state club and his orphanage: it takes care for
him of health, insurance and if need be provides for funeral.”

Demerits of Caste:
(1) The caste system has unwarrantedly divided the Hindu society into mutually hostile
and conflicting groups and sub-groups. It has given scope to the inhuman practice of
untouchability. It has cut across the social solidarity.

(2) As Gandhiji has said, untouchability is “the hatefullest expression of the caste.”
(3) It has hindered the growth of a strong national unity. The spirit of ‘caste-patriotism’,
endangers the growth of national consciousness.

(4) The excessive caste loyalty has brought political disunity. It has wrecked the
successful working of the multi-party system.

(5) It has prevented the proper growth of democracy. Strictly speaking, democracy and
caste cannot go together. The caste engenders inequality while democracy assures
equality.

(6) It has retarded progress. The caste is more conservative, reactionary and orthodox. It
is for the status quo.

(7) It has hindered mobility; it has made our society more static than dynamic.

(8) It has lowered the status of women. In a caste-ridden society women have only a
subordinate role to play.

(9) It has given scope for religious conversions. The lower caste people are getting
converted into Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper caste

TRADITION

A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic
meaning or special significance with origins in the past.

Definition

Tradition is the body of law, customs, etc. transmitted or handed down orally from the
generation to the other. (E.A.Ross)

Tradition is the sum of all the ideas, habits and customs that belongs to people and
transmitted from one generation to another (Ginsberg)

Role of tradition
 1. Self Control: Individual resorts only to those activities which tradition allow.
They usually do not have the courage to go against tradition.
2. Determining the behavior: the sanctions of every society are connected with
the tradition and are thus the determinants of one’s behaviour
3. Establishing social unity: tradition helps in social integration
4. Control on social change: Behaviour of the people are in accordance with the
tradition thus controls the changes
5. Stability social institutions: Many of the social institutions are based on the
traditions.

VILLAGE PANCHAYAT

In our country, the system of Village Panchayats is very old, though its structure varied
from time to time. We get ample references about the Panchayats in Manusmriti,
Arthasastra and the Mahabharata. During the Muslim rule also the system continued to
operate unobstructed. There were Village Panchayats in ancient and medieval periods..
With the assumption of power by the British and the adoption of policy of
centralization, the Panchayats suffered a temporary setback. But soon the British
realised the value of this institution and the Decentralization Commission recommended
in its report in 1907.. When popular ministries were formed under the Government In-
dia Act, 1919, various provinces passed the Village Panchayat Acts in 1919.

Actually, the Village Panchayats were meant for rural administration and particularly
administration in the fields of social service and rural reconstruction. The Village
Panchayat is a link between the people and the bureaucracy at the state level.

The Gram Panchayats which worked during the British period largely consisted of the
higher castes of the village. The poor and the lower castes had no representation in
these bodies. The powers which were given to the Gram Panchayats were very few.
Their main concern, however, remained limited to social reform and administration of
welfare measures. The Gram Panchayats during the British period could not make any
success. Actually, the area under the Gram Panchayat was very large. And, what is
worse, the funds given to them were not sufficient. These Gram Panchayats could not
be effectively linked to the District Boards. And, this resulted in the failure of the Gram
Panchayats.

During the 1920’s Mahatma Gandhi made a strong plea for introduction of self-
government in the villages with a view to improve their economy. He had pointed out
that independence must begin at the bottom.. However, the British Government did not
pay any heed.

STATUTORY VILLAGE PANCHAYAT

Democratic decentralization in Indian Context assumes the form of Panchayat raj

System. It owes its origin to a study team (Balwant Rai Mehta Committee) constituted
for studying the working of National Extension Services and community Development
projects.

In India, the Panchayati Raj now functions as a system of governance in which

gram panchayats are the basic unit of local administration. The system has three levels:
gram panchayat (village level), mandal parishad or block samiti or panchayat samiti (block
level) and zila parishad (district level).

Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayat

The Constitution (Seventy-Third Amendment) Act, 1992 was enacted to reform the
Panchayat System in India. The Legislature of Indian States were given powers to
determine the powers and composition of Gram Sabha and Gram Panchayats. Hence,
the powers, functions and composition of Gram Panchayats are determined by the State
Governments in accordance with the local needs.
Gram Panchayat
Gram Panchayat is the organization of elected members of Gram Sabha of the village. It
is a self-government organization. The number of members in a Gram Panchayat
depends upon the population of the village.

Generally, the number of elected panchas in a Gram Panchayat varies between seven

and seventeen members. However, it may vary from state to state. There is provision for
reservation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes and
Women candidates. The head of the Panchayat is known as “Sarpanch”. The Gram
panchayat is supposed to hold its sessions atleast once in two months.

Standing Committees for the Gram Panchayat.

It consists of following committees. Each committee has 3 to 5 selected member

including President and the Vice president.

1. Production Committee: performs functions related to agricultural production,

animal husbandry, rural industries and poverty alleviation programmes.
 2. Social Justice Committee: Promotion of educational, economic, social, cultural,
and other interests of the people belong to SCs, STs, and OBCs and protecting
them from exploitation and thereby assuring them social justice. It also has to
work for the welfare of women and children
3. Amenities Committee: Performs functions related to education, public health,
public works and such other matters of the Gram Panchayat.

Gram Panchayat Fund:

It contains;

1. Grant-in aid by the respective Taluk panchayat, Zilla panchayat or the State
Government
2. Amount earned by levying taxes and collecting fees
3. Income earned from the rent or sale of properties of gram Panchayat.

Gram Sabha
Gram Sabha has been envisaged as the foundation of the Panchayati Raj system. A
village having population not less than 1500 forms Gram Sabha and every adult of the
village is member of Gram Sabha. However, in some states, a Gram Sabha may be
formed even if the population is less than 1500. If the population of several villages are
less than the prescribed minimum, then the villages are grouped together to form
a Gram Sabha.

The members of the Gram Panchayat are elected for five years.

Functions: The Gram Sabha performs such functions as the States prescribes from time
to time.
o They play a vital role by electing the right candidates as members (Panch) of
Gram Panchayats,
o The keep a check on the activities of Gram Panchayat and influence their
decisions for the welfare of the village.
o They conduct general meetings. Beyond the prescribed minimum number of
meetings, they can conduct such meeting as per the needs.

Functions of Gram Panchayat

a. Representative Functions:
 The Sarpanch, Members and Gram Sevak represent the voice and opinion of the
village people on behalf of the Gram Panchayat to the Taluka and Zilla level by
attending the meetings or sending the official records.

b. Regulatory and Administrative Functions:

1. This institute solving the disputes of village people as individual or groups.

2. They control the behavior of people of people. Collect their opinion about
various programmes.
3. Gram Panchayat implements the official programme given by the authorities.
4. Conduct regular meetings and keeps records for various departments.
5. The measures are enforced for the desired safety and sanitation of the village
people.

o c. Service or Development Functions:

1. Collection of taxes.
2. Promotion of educational, health, agriculture and communication facilities.
3. Providing health and drinking water facilities.
4. Produce authentic documents regarding birth, death or property details of
village people.
5. Looks after general welfare and immediate development of village such as

o the arrangement of street lights,

o tree plantation,
o to supply food grains and other essential goods,
o welfare activities and other social welfare works for the disabled people,
o to look after old and powerless and helpless people,
o to do various welfare activities for the Scheduled castes and Scheduled
tribes,
o to rehabilitate the homeless peoples,
o to impart primary,social, technical, vocational, adult education and non-
formal education,
o to look after agriculture and its expansion,
o preservation of public property,
o encouraging co-operative farming,
Important Questions.

4 marks Questions

1. Discuss the characteristics of traditional village panchayat

2. Differentiate between caste and tribe.
3. What are the salient features of tribal society?
4. Write a short note on village panchayat.

10 marks Questions

1. Describe the merits and demerits of caste

2. Define tribe. What are the salient features of tribal society?

20 marks Questions

1. Define caste. Analyse the changing pattern of caste among Hindus.

2. Discuss the function of village panchayat in reconstructing Indian rural village.
3. Discuss the organization and functions of village panchayat.
4. Elucidate major problems of scheduled tribes.
5. Discuss the effects of statutory village panchayat in rural social structure.

MODEL ANSWER

1. What do you mean by community? Distinguish between community and

association.
COMMUNITY

Man cannot live in isolation. He keeps contact with his fellow beings for his survival. It
is not possible for him to keep contact with all the people or to belong as a member of
all the groups existing in the world. He establishes contact with a few people who live
in close proximity or presence to him in a particular area or locality. It is quite natural
for people living in a particular locality for a longer period of time to develop a sort of
likeness or similarity among themselves. They develop common ideas, common
customs, common feelings, common traditions etc. They also develop a sense of
belonging together or a sense of we-feeling. This kind of common social living in a
specific locality gives rise to the community.

The word community has been derived from two words of Latin namely ‘com’ and
munis. In English ‘com’ means together and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus, community
means to serve together. 

Definitions:

Maclver defines community as “an area of social living, marked by some degree of
social coherence.

According to Bogardus it is a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and
“living in a given area.

According to Kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can
embrace all aspects of social life.”

Basic Elements of Community:

According to Maclver and Page, there are two essential elements community.

(i) Locality:
Locality implies a territorial area. Unless a group of people live in a particular locality
they cannot establish relations and generate we-feeling among them. Maclver says,
though due to the extending facilities of communication in the modern world the
territorial bond has been broken, yet “the basic character of locality as a social classifier
has never been transcended.
(ii) Community Sentiment:
Community can be formed on the basis of community sentiment. It is extremely
essential. It is a ‘we-feeling’ among the members of a community. People living in a
community lead a common life, speak the same language, conform to the same mores,
feel almost the same sentiment and therefore, they develop a feeling of unity among
themselves.

Other Elements of Community:

(i) Group of people:

Fundamentally, a community consists of a group of people. When a group of
people share the basic conditions a common life, they form community.
(ii) Naturality:
A community is not deliberately created. It is a spontaneous or natural growth. An
individual is born in a community.

(iii) Permanence:
A community is generally not temporary or short-lived like a crowd or a revolutionary
mob. It is a permanent organisation or durable social group.

(iv) Likeness:
In a community there is a likeness or similarity in language, custom, mores, traditions
etc. among the members. As A. W. Green has rightly said, “A community is a cluster of
people living within narrow territorial radius who share a common way of life.”

(v) A Particular Name:

Every community is always known with a particular name, their immediate bases of
origin give such community a particular name. For example based on the linguistic
condition people living in Orissa are called Oriyas; living in Kashmiri culture are called
Kashmiris.

(vii) Common Life:

Some sociologists like Elwood says that the life of the people in a community is near
about the same. There is no epochal difference between the ways of life of the
individuals. Their eating pattern, dressing style, language etc. are found to be similar.
Due to their inhabitation in a particular geographical area, they develop a kind of
emotional and cultural uniformity.

(viii) Common Interests:

In community, all the members have common and collective interests. People live in
community and work together to fulfill these interests. Thus, Newmeyer says,
community is a group of people living in a delimited geographic area, having common
interests and activities and functioning together in their concern of life.

ASSOCIATION

Men have diverse needs, desires, interests and ends which demand their satisfaction.
One way of fulfilling these needs, desires, and interests is through cooperation and
mutual assistance. This cooperative pursuit has a reference to association.

Definitions:

According to Maclver, “An organization is deliberately formed for the collective pursuit
of some interest or set of interest, which its members of it share.

According to Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social beings related to one

another by the fact that they posses or have instituted in common an organization with a
view to securing specific end or specific ends:”

Characteristics of Association are

 1. A group of People:
2. Common Aims and Objectives:
3. Organisation
4. Regulation of relations:
5. Co-operative Spirit :
6. Voluntary Membership:
7. Durability of Association:
8. Legal Status :
9. Artificial Nature:
10.Limited Significance:

Differences between Community and Association

Following are the main differences between community and association.

1. Membership: Membership of an association is voluntary. Its upto the choice
of individual to become member of an association or not. However, By birth
itself individual become members of a community
2. The main purpose of an Association is to satisfy some specific interest or
interests but community stand for general interests of its members.
3. Territory is an important element of community whereas association does
not necessarily imply the spatial aspects
4. An association may be temporary or permanent depending upon the
purpose for which its formed. But a community is relatively more stable and
permanent; It is a permanent organisation or durable social group.
5. Association may have their legal status; It can sue and be sued. Legal action
can also be taken against the members as well as officials if they disobey it’s
rules and regulations. whereas community Has no legal status; It cannot sue
and be sued
6. Association always has their own written or unwritten rules and regulations to
regulate the relations of their members. But community regulate the behavior
of its members by means of customs, traditions etc. It does not have written
rules or laws.
7. Association is Artificial; some individuals deliberately form association to fulfill
their common objectives. It does not grow naturally or spontaneously. A
community is not deliberately created. It is a spontaneous or natural growth. An
individual is born in a community.

8. Association is partial. Regarded as part of community whereas Community is

integral. It may have several associations within its boundary.