Geometric Design Part 1

Geometric Design (Part 1)
Standards have been developed as a guide in the design of highways and to ensure that
motorist’s convenience, environmental safety, and aesthetic considerations are
implemented in the most economical manner consistent with highway service
considerations.
General Principles for Geometric Design

In preparing the design of a new highway or a redesign of an old one, the designer must
give attention to the following basic considerations aimed at functionality, homogeneity,
and predictability:
• The design must be suitable for the traffic volume, both daily and at the design
peak hour, for the design speed and for the character of the vehicles to use the
facility.
• The design must be consistent and must avoid surprising changes in alignment,
grade and sight distance.
• The design must be pleasing to the user and to those who live along it.
• The design must be complete. However, for the designer to be able to ensure the
effectiveness of his design to a large degree, the necessary roadside treatment,
and the provision of control devices, such as lane markers and special signs, are
taken into account.
• The design shall be as simple as possible from the standpoint of the builder.
Excessive changes in cross sectional design or the use of a variety of types within
a project will in many cases increase the cost and difficulty of construction beyond
the commensurate value of such ‘uniqueness’.
• The design should be such that the finished road can be maintained at the least
cost.
• The design must be safe for driving and should ensure confidence for motorists.
Design Speed
design speed is not a major factor for local urban streets and collector streets because
their typical grid layout and closely spaced intersections usually limit vehicular speed.
• Design speeds ranging from 30 to 50 kph for local streets, and 50 kph or higher
for collector streets, are normally used in design, depending on available right-of-
way, terrain, likely pedestrian presence, adjacent development, and other controls
• Rural arterials should be designed for speeds of 60 to 120 kph, depending on
terrain, driver expectancy, and, in the case of reconstruction projects, the
alignment of the existing facility.
• Urban arterials should be designed for speeds of 50 to 100 kph, with lower speeds
in business districts and developed areas, and higher speeds in outlying suburban
and developing areas.
• Expressways should be designed for speeds not less than 80 kph.
Basic Design Consideration

The term ‘clear zone’ is used to designate the unobstructed, traversable area provided
beyond the edge of the travelled way for the recovery of errant vehicles. The clear zone
includes shoulders, bicycle lanes, and auxiliary lanes unless they function as a through
lane.
Sight Distance
Sight distance in the road design is the distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see an
object of specified height on the road ahead, assuming adequate sight and visual acuity
and clear atmospheric conditions.
Stopping (Non-Passing) Sight Distance

The design stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required for a vehicle,
travelling at the design speed, to stop before reaching an object in its path. The stopping
site distance is comprised of two components:
• Lag distance: It is the distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction
time.
• Braking distance: It is the distance travelled by the vehicle after the application
of brakes to the instant the vehicle comes to a dead stop. It may be obtained by
equating the work done in stopping the vehicle and kinetic energy.
Factors Governing Stopping Sight Distance

Reaction time: Reaction time of a driver is the time which elapses between the instant
the driver sees the object of danger and the instant the driver just puts his feet on brake
paddle. It is also called perception – reaction time. The total reaction time may be split up
into four components based on PIEV theory. Many experiments have shown drivers
require about 1.5 to 2 seconds under normal conditions. However taking considerations
of different drivers, a higher value is taken.
As per PIEV (Perception Intellection Emotion and Volition) theory, reaction time of driver
can be classified as:
• Perception (The recognition or realization that a cue or stimulus exists and requires
a response)
• Intellection (An interpretation/identification of the stimulus)
• Emotion (The determination of an appropriate response to the stimulus)
• Volition (The physical response resulting from the decision)
Let us consider a driver approaching a stop sign then perception is the process where the
driver sees the sign. Intellection is the process where the driver recognizes the sign.
Emotion is the process where he decides to stop, and volition is the period where he
finally puts his foot on the brake.
The speed of the vehicle: Higher the speed of the vehicle higher will be its kinetic energy
and longer distance will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence as speed increases, sight
distance also increases.
Braking efficiency: A 100% efficient brake will stop the vehicle the moment the brakes
are applied but practically it is not possible. The efficiency of a brake depends upon the
braking system, age, maintenance, vehicle characteristics, etc. Thus more sight distance
is required when the brake efficiency is less. We assume that the brake efficiency is about
50%.
The gradient of the road: Gradient also affects the sight distance. While going down a
gradient the time to stop the vehicle will be more due to gravity and thus it will require
more sight distance. But in the case of climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can stop
immediately and thus less sight distance is required.
Uniformly Accelerated motion formula
Stopping Sight Distance Formula

Where:
SSD = stopping sight distance
f = coefficient of friction
v = velocity before braking
t = reaction time
g = acceleration due to gravity
n = slope/grade in percent
Decision Sight Distance
Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway environment
that may be visually cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential threat, select an
appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete complex maneuvers. Because
decision sight distance offers drivers additional margin for error and affords sufficient
length to maneuver at reduced speed, its values are substantially greater than stopping
sight distance.
Passing Sight Distance (Overtaking Sight Distance)
Design passing sight distance is the minimum distance required to safely make a normal
passing maneuver on 2-lane highways at passing speeds common to nearly all drivers,
commensurate with design speed.
The minimum passing sight distance for a 2-lane highway is determined as the sum of
four distances:
• Initial maneuver distance is the distance traversed during perception and reaction
time and during the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
• Distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
• Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle.
• Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of the distance travelled while the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane.
Overtaking Maneouver (without clearance)
1. d1 the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t = t1 - t0

2. d2 the distance traveled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking
operation T = t3-t1
3. d3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation
(T).
Therefore:
It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to vb, the speed of the slow-
moving vehicle B and travels behind it during the reaction time t of the driver. So d1 is
given by:
Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake, and shift back to the
original lane. The vehicle A maintains the spacing s before and after overtaking. The
spacing s in m is given by:
Let T be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance traveled by B during the
overtaking operation is 2s + vbT. Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial
velocity vb and overtaking is completed while reaching final velocity v. Hence the distance
traveled is given by:
The distance traveled by the vehicle C moving at design speed v m∕sec during overtaking
operation is given by:
Overtaking zones
Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided throughout the length of
the highway. These are zones dedicated for overtaking operation, marked with wide
roads. The desirable length of overtaking zones is 5 times OSD and the minimum is three
times OSD
Headlight Sight Distance
For night driving on highways without lighting, the length of visible roadway is that
roadway that is directly illuminated by the headlights of the vehicle. For certain conditions
the minimum stopping sight distance values used for design can exceed the length of
visible roadway.
Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

Sight distance along a highway is measured from the driver’s eye to some object on the
travelled way when it comes into view. Measurement criteria for stopping sight distance
differ from those for passing sight distance. Different elements are involved when sight
distance is controlled by vertical alignment and by horizontal alignment. In all cases, the
height of eye of the driver is the same, which is 1.15 m above the road surface.
Height of Object – Stopping minimum sight distance is based on the distance required
to stop with safety from the instant a stationary object in the same lane becomes visible.
Vertical Control for Stopping – A height of an object of 0.15 m is assumed for measuring
stopping sight distance on crest profiles.
Horizontal Control for Stopping – For consistency the measure of stopping sight
distance is taken to be the same as that on vertical curves, i.e. from the height of eye of
1.15 m to an object on the road surface of height 0.15 m.
Control for Passing – Since vehicles are the objects that must be seen when passing,
it is assumed that the height of object for passing sight distance is 1.40 m. Passing sight
distance both on profile crest and on horizontal curves should be measured between the
height of eye of 1.15 m and a height of object of 1.40 m.

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Geometric Design Part 1

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Geometric Design (Part 1)

General Principles for Geometric Design

Basic Design Consideration

Stopping (Non-Passing) Sight Distance

Factors Governing Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distance Formula

1. d1 the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t = t1 - t0

Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

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