ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Abdul for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region

1. Movement Into and Out of of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of
lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a

Cells partially permeable membrane.

1.1. Diffusion
Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the
concentration gradient (high → low) as a result of their
random movement.

Conc. of Conc. of Solute

Condition of the Cell
Solute (In-Cell) (Outside-Cell)
Cell Shrinks
Low High
(Flaccid/Hypertonic)
Same Same No Change (Isotonic)
High Low Turgid/Hypotonic

In Animals
Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it
to burst (cell lysis) because it has too much water and
no cell wall.
Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of In Plants
the random movement of molecules and ions.
The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the
without it, molecules that are needed for life, for cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
example, glucose and oxygen for respiration, would not wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
be able to get to the places they are required. Decreasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
through the cell membrane. to get smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from
Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport) the cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
Concentration gradient cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.
Temperature
Surface area to volume ratio
Distance

1.2. Osmosis
The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid
with digestion, excretion, and transport.
Knowing the definition of Diffusion, Osmosis and
Active Transport is COMPULSORY! Dialysis Tubing Experiment
The cell membrane is partially permeable, allowing small
molecules (like water) through but not larger molecules.

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Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used
partially permeable membrane made from cellulose. during active transport.
Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller
molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through
by diffusion and osmosis.

It is embedded in the cell membrane, where it picks up

specific molecules and moves them through the
membrane against their concentration gradient.
1.3. Active Transport Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by
Active Transport: The movement of particles through a cell root hair cells.
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher Some particles are too large to cross a membrane by
concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient) diffusion or active transport. A few very specialised cells
uses energy from respiration. have developed a method for taking up these particles;
the particles are engulfed by the cell surface membrane
flowing around them. This process of phagocytosis is
used by white blood cells.

2. Biological Molecules
2.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
Smaller molecules Larger molecules
Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins

2.2. Food Tests

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Positive Negative
Test for: Solution Process Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
Result Result
Add Benedict DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
solution into
Reducing Benedict
a beaker and Brick Red Blue
Sugars Solution
Heat Up to
70-80°C
Add Iodine
Iodine
Starch solution to Blue-Black Brown
Solution
the specimen
Add Biuret
Biuret
Protein solution to Purple/Violet Blue
Solution
the sample
Add ethanol
to the sample
Fats \n
and shake Cloudy
(Physical Ethanol N/A Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly
with an equal Emulsion
test)
volume of coiled DNA
water. Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
Add DCPIP Each strand contains chemicals called Bases
Vitamin C DCPIP solution to Colourless Blue Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
the sample The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
C and G
You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
for this syllabus.

3. Enzymes
3.1. Enzymes
General Characteristics of an Enzyme
Catalyst: A substance which increases the reaction rate
and causes no changes in the reaction.
2.3. Structure of a DNA Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
reaction to take place.
It is essential in all living organisms regarding the
reaction rate necessary to sustain life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused

Lock and Key Model (Hypothesis)

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Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

4. Plant Nutrition
Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to 4.1. Photosynthesis
react, complementary to the active site.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
Different sequences of amino acids may lead to varying carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences
(temperature/pH) may be deferred in their function.

3.2. Temperature on Enzymes

Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the
temperature at which they work best. In animals and
humans, the fastest reaction ≈ is at 37 °C.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate CarbonDioxide + Water
light+chlorophyll
​
Glucose + Ox
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape
and no longer binding with a substrate. 6CO2 + 6H2 O
light+cholorophyll
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly. Only EXTENDED Students must know the Balanced
Chemical Equation
3.3. pH on Enzymes The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH. Chlorophyll is a green pigment that traps light energy
Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an and converts it into chemical energy to form
alkaline. carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH. Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken, cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Photosynthesis
Pepsin is used in acidic conditions, Amylase is used in
neutral conditions, and trypsin is used in alkalinity starch as an energy store
conditions. cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
3.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme sucrose for transport in the phloem
Activity
4.2. Mineral Requirements

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Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: The plant lacks
slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow.

Tip! You need to know the purpose of these

required nutrients.

4.3. Investigation of Chlorophyll 4.5. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide

Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white) Concentration
leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness Take two de-starched potted plants.
for about 48 hours. Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days. B.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell Inside A, keep N aHCO3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​

walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration produces CO2 . ​

by ethanol. Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract CO2 .
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
​

Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight

Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf for at least 6 hours
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent,
it will remain brown.

4.4. Investigation of Light Intensity The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology test
Paper 2.

De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48

hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-
black
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain
brown

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Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon
dioxide concentration

Structure Function
A waterproof waxy layer that
Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide
Waxy Cuticle prevents water loss from the top
concentration, and yellow the highest. of the leaf
Thin and transparent to allow light
4.6. Limiting Factors Upper & Lower Epidermis to enter the palisade mesophyll
cells
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment Found at the top of the cell and
(Temperature, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Light contains the MOST chloroplasts
Palisade Mesophyll Cells
Intensity) in such short supply that it restricts life processes. that absorb sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Irregularly shaped cells create air
spaces to allow the gaseous
Spongy Mesophyll Cells
exchange to take place; do not
contain many chloroplasts
Vascular Bundle Made up of xylem and phloem
A tissue vessel that transports
Xylem
water and mineral ions
A tissue vessel that transports
Phloem
Light Intensity sucrose and amino acids
Little holes that open and close to
As the amount of light
Stomata/Stoma allow the gaseous exchange to
increases, the rate of
occur
photosynthesis increases (a-b)
Control the opening and closing of
Guard Cells
The limiting factor is light stomata

Increasing the amount of light

after a certain point does not
affect the rate (c)

The limiting factor is now

carbon dioxide or temperature

4.7. Leaf Structure

Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
and are thin.

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Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally require more energy

5.2. Nutrition
Nutrients Uses
Carbohydrates Energy
Source of energy, building materials,
Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy,
how the structures above adapt leaves for making hormones
photosynthesis Energy, building materials, enzymes,
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
(muscle), hormones, antibodies
4.8. Adaptations of Leaf Structure for Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases
Photosynthesis Vitamin D Absorption of calcium
Development and maintenance of strong
Calcium
Here is a table of different adaptations of the specific leaf bones and teeth
structure helping towards photosynthesis. Iron Making haemoglobin
Fibre (Roughage) Provides bulk for faeces, helps peristalsis
Adaptation Functions Water Chemical reactions, solvent for transport
Increase surface area for diffusion
Large Surface Area of Leaf of carbon dioxide and absorption
of light for photosynthesis. 5.3. Deficiencies
Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse
Thin quickly into the palisade Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
mesophyll cells Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones
Absorb light energy so and teeth
Chlorophyll
photosynthesis can take place.
Allow efficient transport of water 5.4. Teeth
Network of Veins and mineral ions throughout the
plant
Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
Allow more light to reach the
Epidermis is thin
palisade mesophyll cells
increase the surface area of food.
Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
Allow oxygen and carbon dioxide
Stomata/Stoma to continuously diffuse in and out
of stomata

5. Human Nutrition
5.1. Diet
Blunt
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of Blunt for chewing
Rectangular Sharp- chewing and
and grinding, one
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water shape, sharp for pointed for
or two roots,
grinding. Two
to maintain good health and metabolism. cutting and piercing and or three
cusps/bumps at
biting tearing roots, ridges
the end
at the end

Structure of Tooth
Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums

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Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the

body through the mouth.
Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into
smaller pieces without chemical change.
It increases the surface area of food for the action
of enzymes in chemical digestion.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food
molecules into small, soluble molecules.
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the
intestines into the blood
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body
as faeces
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from
calcium salts Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal
Cement: helps to anchor tooth
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
nerve endings that detect pain.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
collagen fibres
Nerves
Blood vessels

5.5. Digestive System

Process of Digestion

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The stomach lining contains many smooth muscles that
Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an contract to squeeze physically and mix the food with the
area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where strong digestive juices present, a process also known as
ingestion takes place "stomach-churning."
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus The food will be digested within the stomach for several
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis hours
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food First stop for protein digestion
from mouth to stomach
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in
acidic conditions) to break down proteins into amino
acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also
have elastic walls.
Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested
by pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
down starch.
Jejunum: Contains many microvilli, majority of the
primary nutrient absorption happens here. 5.7. Chemical Digestion
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
is where absorption also takes place. Chemical Digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that molecules into small soluble molecules
works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase. The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat molecules that can be absorbed
molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
and other toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
5.8. Enzymes in Digestion
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is
released. produced in the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum)
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need and salivary glands.
to be known.

5.6. The Stomach

Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the

membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.

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Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and

amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach (acidic),
and trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).

5.10. Absorption and Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,

produced by the pancreas.

The small intestine is the region for absorption of

digested food.
5.9. Hydrochloric Acid and Bile The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing
the surface area for absorption. One villus will have
Functions of Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice: tiny folds on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity diffusion of nutrients.
Kills pathogens A large surface area means more absorption of
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid nutrients can happen.
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
for enzyme action. concentration gradient.
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
some from the colon (large intestine).

6. Transport in Plants
6.1. Xylem and Phloem
Functions of Xylem

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transport water and mineral ions, and support the Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
plant’s overall structure. because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Functions of Phloem Then, it enters the root cortex cells, xylem, and
transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the mesophyll cells.
source (and vice versa)
Investigate the Pathway of Water through the
Adaptations of Xylem Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
1. thick walls with lignin (dead cell) Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like
2. no cell contents celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a colouring) added.
long, continuous tube A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour
as the dyed water.
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing
that it is being carried in specific vessels through the
stem - a.k.a xylem vessels.

Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
dicotyledonous plants

6.2. Water Uptake

Root Hair Cells 6.3. Transpiration
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the
stomata.

Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil

They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis
and ions by active transport.

The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases

the uptake of water and mineral ions.

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Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by

an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
diffuses out of the stomata.
Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
area provided by the interconnecting air spaces
between mesophyll cells and the size and number of
stomata.
Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.

Wilting
Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake. Cells 7. Transport in Animals
become flaccid, and tissues become limp.

This is when all the cells of the plant are not full of water,
7.1. Circulatory Systems
so the strength of the cell walls cannot support the plant
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
and it starts to collapse
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration to ensure a one-way flow of blood.

Single Circulation System (fish):

Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules Blood flows through the heart once every complete
increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the circuit (No Septum)
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence Released in body cells, then back to the heart
increasing the transpiration rate Double Circulation System:
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a Four heart chambers
steep concentration gradient Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
circuit
6.4. Translocation Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body,
and back to the heart
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of
(sinks). oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Translocation in different seasons:
Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to 7.2. Heart
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores, circuit.
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

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The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows

into the right atrium via the vena cava.
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the
right ventricle.
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar
valve, which prevents blood from flowing backwards
into the heart.
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
capillaries, passing the alveoli.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
pulmonary vein
Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the
the right ventricle
left ventricle
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
the right ventricle to the lungs
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
from flowing back down into the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
separate. Example Past Year Question
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to arteries (0610/42/F/M/23)
the left ventricle
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
the aorta pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle contract/pump
to the rest of the body pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent
backflow of blood 7.4. Exercise on Heart Rate
IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right
Ventricle < Left Ventricle The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
7.3. Functioning of the Heart Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.

7.5. Coronary Heart Disease

The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.

The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting

blood supply to the heart muscle.
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
genetic predisposition, age and sex
This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty
food (a good diet) and exercising regularly

7.6. Blood Vessels

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Vessel Function Structure
Elastic tissue walls stretch Arterioles and Venules
and relax as blood is
forced out; causes pulse
Transport high-pressure
Arteries Thick walls to withstand
blood away from heart
high pressure
Small lumen maintains
(high) blood pressure.
Valves prevent backflow
of blood.
Blood is at low pressure,
but nearby muscles
Transport low pressure
Veins squeeze veins and help The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
blood to the heart
push blood to the heart arterioles
Large and wide lumen to The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
reduce resistance to the venules
flow of blood
One cell thick wall for
easy diffusion 7.7. Blood
Highly branched; large
Allow substances to Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
Capillaries surface area
diffuse into cells
Capillary beds constantly oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
supplied with fresh blood, White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody
so diffusion occurs production
Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting
Major Blood Vessels Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein dissolved substances)
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein red and white blood cells in
photomicrographs and diagrams
The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
heart to the liver
The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the
liver back to the heart
The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
from the gut to the liver
White Blood Cells
Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Phagocytes have
lobed/irregular C-shaped nuclei Lymphocytes have a circular
and vesicles containing nucleus and are found in blood
digestive enzymes.
Phagocytosis: engulfs
pathogen, vesicles fuse with Large nucleus/small cytoplasm,
the vacuole, enzymes digest and they produce antibodies,
bacteria.
Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens,
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes.

Blood Clotting

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Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out

Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to
form a scab.

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CAIE IGCSE
Biology

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