Chapter 1: Termination, Splicing and Soldering

1.1 Electrical Workshop Safety Rules regulations and standards

The first step in developing a safe work environment is to have procedures in place which
provide guidelines for students to perform various tasks safely.
 The procedure should help eliminate injuries by providing rules and guidelines for people
working on or near energized electrical circuit conductors.
 It should address qualifications, tools, protective equipment, approval levels and
attendance required for various tasks, as well as other additional cautionary information.
 Also, this procedure should address safe approach distances for qualified and unqualified
personnel.
 Before you can use equipment and machines or attempt practical work in a workshop or a
lab, you must understand basic safety rules.
 These rules will help keeping you and others safe in the workshop.
 Following safety rules will also prevent you and others from accidents, injuries as well as
death.
In general, Safe working habits in work shop is essential t
1. To develop and maintain safe working condition in all workshops
2. To prevent accidents which may result in personal injury or health hazards, damage to tools,
equipment and property.
Common causes of shop accidents are:
1. Improper use of tools and equipment, etc.
2. Failure to use protective equipment.
3. Protective and safety equipment that has been rendered inoperative.
4. Failure to follow correct procedures.
5. faulty equipment and tools
6. condition of walking and working surfaces
7. Unguarded or inadequately guarded machinery.
 Safety is a matter of common sense and good work habit. A person who does not have
knowledge of or regard for his tools, machines, equipment and himself cannot effectively and
safely perform his work.

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  A good knowledge of tools is very important for safety. Any tool can cause harm if not
properly used.
 So, any one who uses tools must use them carefully and safely to avoid injury.
 Anyone who knows about safety rules takes good care of himself and the tools.
 He can avoid the danger that may be caused by carelessness and ignorance. Report any
unsafe conditions, equipment, or work practices as soon as possible.
Safety rules that need to be observed in the Electric workshop
1. Each laboratory student will be made aware of the use and location of all safety
equipment (i.e. goggles, gloves, apron, fume hood (cover), eyewash, etc.)
2. Safety procedure and Safety signs, warnings stated in all laboratory activities must be
strictly observed.
3. Careless behavior in a laboratory can cause accidents. Horseplay, teasing, loud talking
or tossing objects are not allowed in a laboratory
4. Sharp-edge or pointed-tip tools should be handled with care
5. No eating, drinking or applications of cosmetics is allowed in the laboratory
6. Keep your work area hazard free
7. Never turn on power line without the permission of the instructor
8. All tools must be used for the purpose that they are designed for
9. If you are in doubt about the safe or proper way to perform a job, get instructions from
your supervisor.
10. At the completion of the laboratory period or when an experiment is complete, return
all equipment to proper storage and clean the work area.
11. Know the location of emergency exits and of safety equipment for your area(s). Know
the location and general operation of hand fire extinguishers and other emergency
equipment in your department. Keep exit paths clear. Report the use of any
emergency equipment to your supervisor immediately.
12. Fluids spilled on floor areas must be cleaned up immediately.
13. Keep tools and cords away from heat, oil and sharp edges that can damage electrical
insulation

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 14. Disconnect tools and extension cords by holding the plug, not by pulling on the cord.
Be sure that the control switch on electrical equipment is in the "off" position before
putting in plug or pulling it out.
15. Do not use electrical equipment in damp or wet areas.
16. Do not use electrical equipment on or near metal ladders, which conduct electricity.
17. Report immediately any damaged tool or equipment. Do not attempt to make repairs
yourself.
18. Avoid using extension cords. When an extension cord must be used, choose one with
the same ampere rating as the tool .Make sure that the insulation is intact and that all
connections are tight.
19. Use a Ground Fault circuit Interrupter (GFCI) when using portable tools.
20. Do not overload circuits.
Safety precautions in handling of tools
1. You will become familiar with the instructions of laboratory procedure prior to the initiation
of any related activity. Read all directions for the experiment at least two times. Ask
questions if you don't understand any part of the directions. No changes from the instructions
will be allowed without permission from the teacher or instructor.
2. Handle sharp-edged tools with special care.
a) Never carry them unshielded in pockets.
b) Never hand such a tool to a friend with the cutting edge first.
c) Avoid placing your fingers or hands in the path of motion of the cutting tools.
d) Be on guard at all times against slipping of sharp edge tools.
3. Never leave tools on top of a step-ladder or any other place above your head.
4. Never abuse tools. Never use them for purposes other than those for which they are designed.
5. If tools or cords run very hot, report the condition to the instructor. The insulation could be
deteriorating. Never wrap a cloth around a tool to hot to hold. Sparks can ignite the cloth.
6. Whenever you use files, saws and hammers, wear goggles to protect your eyes from flying
objects.
1.1 Proper Storage of tools: it is useful to increase the service year of the electrical
equipment.

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1. Tools may be stored horizontally or vertically depending on the construction and safety
requirements.
2. Tools must not be exposed to an environment which shortens their service span
(E.g. damp areas).
3. Tools must be stored so that they may be easily accessible and easily noticed when missing
4. Heavy objects should not be stored overheated where they can easily cause accidents
5. Chemicals and inflammables must be stored in restricted areas.

1.2 Proper usage: These also to prevent Human accident and equipment damage, Increase
the service time of the equipment.
1. All tools must be used for the purpose that that designed for.
2. Sharp-edge or pointed-tip tools should be handled with care. Wear safety glass or face
shield when working with hazardous equipment. e.g.) welding
3. Wear gloves when using any toxic agents.
4. Protected shoes are required when working in the machine shops.

2. Common types of Electrical hand Tools and materials,

components, and accessories
a. Electrician’s Knife
It is useful in removing cover insulation from conductor wire. it can be used also for cleaning
the enamel insulation of the wire by scratching on the insulation thin coating. Enamel is a kind of
insulating material used as insulation on generator and motor winding coil or magnet wire. The
blades should be of high grade, tampered steel.

b. Automatic wire striper

It is used to remove insulation from wires. It works quickly. On one of the jaws, it has wire
gauged blades that cut insulations away. It has two jaws. Jaw “A” is a clamp, jaw “B” is a cutter.
Used for quick, clean and easy insulation removal from wires before splicing or connecting to
devices.

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c. Pliers are a hand tool used to hold objects firmly, or for cutting and bending tough
materials such as wire..
There are many kinds of pliers made for various general and specific purposes.
The number of different designs of pliers grew with the invention of the different objects which
they were used to handle and cut: wire, pipes, electrical and electronic components.
1. Side or Diagonal Cutting pliers
These are used to cut off the wires close to the connecting points such as at the switch and outlet
terminals which are located close to the fitting and where it is difficult to get close enough to use
an electrician’s pliers. Wire cutters or diagonal cutting pliers are pliers intended for the cutting of
wire (they are generally not used to grab or turn anything). They are sometimes called side
cutting pliers or side cutters. pliers are made of tempered steel and inductive heating and
quenching are often used to selectively harden the jaws.
Side cutting pliers are used to:
 Twist or pull wires
 Cut wires to different lengths as needed
 Crush insulation

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2. Combination pliers
It has a cutting edge on one side. These are used to cut wires, twisting small shaft or pipe and
twisting large pipe or shaft.

3. Gas pliers
This type of pliers has a slip-joint which permits the jaws to be extended to a greater width than
is possible with the same size. This type is very handy in conduit work, in making up lock nuts
and pushing’s and holding conduit while making up locknuts and pushing’s.
4. Long Noise Pliers
Where the above three type of pliers do not work, here this type of pliers will serve the purpose.
It has long mouth to hold anything in little space. These are used to hold the wires in small space,
to tighten or open the nuts and also to cut the winding wires etc. It is also used for pulling wires
and other materials through narrow holes or areas. These pliers are used to bend, loop and press
together hookup wires. It is also used for cutting wires.

5. Flat noise pliers- used for bending, twisting and forming conductors and bus bars.

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6. Round noise pliers- used for looping conductors in order to connect them to the
terminals.
7. Nipper or End cutter: - it is used for cutting nails and wires.
d. Screw Driver
Screw driver are used to drive screws into or out of wood blocks or some other materials, (To
tight the big and small screws in the switches and machines etc). they are made in different
lengths and thickness.
 Standard blade screw driver- for general use
 Square blade screw driver-a strong screw driver used for turning heavy screws, it has the
possibility of increasing hand pressure and turning moment by means of pliers or wrench.
 Philips head screw driver-used for working on cross head screws mostly on electronic or
auto electric circuits.
 Thin blade screw driver- used for installing a screw past an obstacle or a nearby object.
E.g. Inside small holes.

e. Hammers
In electrical work mostly the types of hammers are used like ball peen, cross peen and claw
hammers. These are made of mild steel and the long wooden handles are provided to hold them.
These are used in small house wiring where greater striking power is needed when using certain
tools, especially in operations involving concrete walls such as driving a chisel or start a drill.

f. Files
These are made of hard steel. Handles are provided at the end to hold them. There are different
types like flat file, round file, half round file and triangular file. Each file is used according to the
nature of work. Flat files are particularly used to make the square of metal or wood smooth.
Round or flat round files are used to smooth the hole of metal sheet or wooden things. Triangular
files are used to sharpen the teeth of hand saw.

g. Adjustable Wrenches
Are made of high-grade steel and are different sizes. These are used for tightening or loosening
bolts and nuts, of various motors or equipment. It can be easily regulated to fit nuts of different
sizes.

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h. Socket and die: - The socket and die is used to make external tread on conduit or any
other rod. Different types of dies are used according to the nature of work.
J. Hack saw: - used for cutting conduit tubes and metal blocks.
k. Center Punch: - it is used to make a small mark hole in the metal to be drilled. It is simply
used to guide the drill while making a hole in the metal.
L. Insulating tape: - it is used for covering spliced conductor wires in order to make the
spliced part as mechanically and electrically strong as the original cover.
M. Extension cord: - it is used to conduct electricity from one place to another for a short
time.
N. Micro meter: - it is a measuring instrument. It is very important in measuring the
thickness of wires similar objects or things.

3. Splicing, Termination and Soldering

Insulation Removal
The preferred method of removing insulation is with a wire-stripping tool, if available.
A sharp knife may also be used. When using wire strippers, follow the manufacturer's
instructions for adjusting the machine; this avoids nicking, cutting, or otherwise damaging
the conductors. The hand wire strippers are common hand tools found. The hand wire
strippers are the ones you will most likely be using. Wire strippers vary in size according to
wire size and can be ordered for any size needed.
Hand Wire Stripper
The procedure for stripping wire with the hand wire stripper is as follows.
a. Insert the wire into the center of the correct cutting slot for the wire size to be stripped.
The wire sizes are listed on the cutting jaws of the hand wire strippers.
b. After inserting the wire into the proper slot, close the handles together as far as they will
go.
c. Slowly release the pressure on the handles so as not to allow the cutting blades to make
contact with the stripped conductor.

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Knife Stripping
A sharp knife may be used to strip the insulation from a conductor. The procedure is much the
same as for sharpening a pencil. The knife should be held at approximately a 60º angle to the
conductor. Use extreme care when cutting through the insulation to avoid nicking or cutting the
conductor. This procedure produces a taper on the cut insulation as shown in figure below.

3.1 Splicing:
Good joints and splices are of vital importance in a wiring installation and may result in a
considerable trouble if not made mechanically and electrically secure. If they are made as to

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permit the wires to be worked back and forth, or not soldered properly they will due to the
formation of a coating of film produced by oxidation, cause poor conductivity at the point where
the conductors join and prevent the current from flowing through readily, making the circuits
where these splices occur constantly inefficient and troublesome. On the other hand, due to the
high resistance at the point of loose fitting contact, these poorly constructed joints will cause
abnormal heating and arcing and, if near inflammable material, will result in a fire hazard.

3.1.2 Advantages of proper Splicing

-It makes the installation become mechanically and electrically secure
3.1.3 Types of splicing
There are four basic types of splices
A. The pigtail splices
B. Bunch splicing
C. The T tap splicing
D. The western union splicing
E. Double-branch splice
F. Staggering Splices

1. Pig-tail splice. It is well suited for temporary and permanent connections. It is

particularly useful in close, confined spaces such as switch boxes, outlet box or when fixture
leads are connected to through conductor

Procedures:
a. Skin both wires about 8 cm from the end;
b. Clean bare ends well by gently scraping them with an electrician's knife.
c. Parallel them closely, insulation to insulation, then with a side cutting pliers make a
series of twists about 2.5 cm long.
d. Cut off the excess wires.

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 2. Bunch splice: is joining more than two wires in a pig-tail fashion. It is used at ceiling
fixture outlets, switch boxes, etc., where a number of wires from different outlets in a
branch circuit are brought to one box and spliced together.
3. Western Union splice: This kind of splice is the most frequent one in interior wiring
for joining two lengths of solid wires and extending them from place to place. Although
its greatest use is with small wires where the fingers and pliers can be employed
conveniently, it may be used on large wires with the aid of both wire connectors and
pliers.
Procedure: -
a) Remove about 8 cm of insulation from the ends of both wires.
b) Clean wires by scraping with a knife
c) Using pliers make a neck turn. Then using your thumb and forefinger or
pliers. Make five to eight shoulders on each side.

4. Center or T-tap Splice :( single branch or double branch)

a) Single branch splice: is used where it is necessary to attach (branch) an additional
wire to a continuous wire called Main wire (anywhere along the length of another wire)

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 Procedure:
i) Remove about 3cm of insulation from the main wire
ii) ii)Remove about 8 cm of insulation from the wire to be attached
iii) Clean both wires by scraping with a knife.
iv) Place the branch (connecting) wire across the main wire insulation to insulation at an
angle of 90 degrees and make a neck turn to ensure against a loose or slipping splice.
The shoulders finger-tight and closer. Cut-off the excess wire. Do not allow the close-
cut wire to project from the splice. But wind it until it fits snugly. Now it is ready for
soldering and taping.

b) Double-branch splice: is used where two branch wires leading in opposite directions are to
be connected to a main wire at one point. It is particularly used in exposed open wiring. The
procedure is similar to that of the single branch splice.
5. Staggering Splices
Joining small multi-conductor cables often presents a problem. Each conductor must be spliced
and taped. If the splices are directly opposite each other, the overall size of the joint becomes
large and bulky. A smoother and less bulky joint can be made by staggering the splices

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7. Splicing of flexible (stranded) wire to a solid wire-pig-tail fashion. Permanent wiring is
usually made with solid conductors. Fixture and appliances are generally wired with flexible
(stranded) conductors.
The bend-back along the splice will provide an excellent solder bed.
8. Flexible(stranded) cord splicing: (double Western Union Splice):
The splice must be staggered, i.e. One splice should not being before the other splice
ends. This method will help to avoid accidental contacts between the wires themselves or
any accidentally encountered metal surfaces. Further, this method makes less bulky
splice.
9. Britannia connection: is solid wire splicing by bending with wrapping wire.
Both wires must be of the same material, else:
a) at the joint as heat evolves emf is created
b) due to difference in coefficient of expansion the splices could be loose,
10. Wrap splicing: a multi-stranded wire
Wires spliced with an oval shaped connector tube
Wires spliced with a connector tube by means of screws
T-tap (Western Union Style)

3.2. Terminations
Definition of termination
Termination: The process of connecting lugs or connectors to the wires as well as the
preparation of the wire ends so as to enable them to be connected to the terminals of electrical
equipment is called termination. Single-strand copper (solid) wires in sizes up to 10 sq.mm and
multi-core (stranded) wires in sizes up to 2.5 sq.mm may be connected to the terminals of
various instruments and apparatus without lugs. In this case the ends of multi-strand conductors
should be tinned while single strand aluminum wires, before being connected to the terminals,
should be scraped bright and coated with Vaseline to protect them from oxidizing. Heavy gauge
copper wires and multi-core aluminum wires should be fitted with special lugs.
3.2.1 Types of termination
3.2.1.1. Ring-end termination

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Procedure: A) Ring-end termination for solid- wire
1. Skin about 20-25mm of the wire.
2. Scrap the bare wire by knife and prepare it as in figure.
3. Using a round nose plier bend back the wire to form a ring as shown in figure
below.
4. Tin the ring-end terminal for to protect the wire from oxidation.
5. Check the diameter of the ring by means of the screw.
6. Shape out the ring.
7. Fasten the ring by the screw and make sure that it is securely connected.
Note: The wire should be lopped in the same direction as the tightening of the Screw.

B) Ring end termination for stranded- wire : is generally used for terminating
small gauge stranded wires.
Procedure: Ring-end termination for stranded- wire
1. Skin about 20-25mm of the wire.
2. Twist the multi-core wire to make it solid wire.
3. Using a round nose plier bend back the wire to form a ring as shown in figure
below.
4. Tin the ring-end terminal for to protect the wire from oxidation and to make the
ring stronger.
5. Check the diameter of the ring by means of the screw.
6. Shape out the ring.
Fasten the ring by the screw and make sure that it is securely connected.

C) Stub-end termination

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Procedure: Stub-end termination for the solid wire
1. Measure about 10 to 15 mm of the wire depending upon the terminal to which the
wire is to be connected.
2. Skin this portion of the wire.
3. Scrap the bare wire by knife.
4. Tin the bare wire.
5. Fasten this end of the wire by the contact screw and check the quality of the
contact, e.g. attach the wire to a banana plug.

Procedure: Stub-end termination for stranded wire

1. Skin about 10-15mm of the wire depending upon the terminal to which it is to be
connected.
2. Clean the strands of the wire and prepare it as in fig.
3. Twist the strands together to form a solid wire.
4. Tin the bare end of the wire by dipping it in the solder bath after coating it with
flux.
5. Cover the root of the terminal with insulating tape.
6. Insert the terminated end of the wire into the outlet terminal and fasten it by the
screw.

Lug-end termination

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 3.3. Soldering
After splicing, conductors must be soldered. Soldering adds security to the splice and
discourages conductor oxidation. To do an effective soldering job, the parts to be soldered must
be clean. Use sand paper or lightly scrap the conductor with a knife.
Soldering is the connection of two or more work pieces both electrically and mechanically
through anther material called solder or lead. The solder is used to add security to the splicing
and prevents conductor oxidation. In order to get this proper connection, we need a very clean
surface without any dirt or oxide on it. Therefore, we use soldering flux or paste that cleans the
surface chemically
After the splice is completed and is mechanically secure, apply heat with soldering iron or solder
gun. Remove the heat momentarily and apply small amount of flux once again, apply the heat
until the flux sizzles. Touch solders to the splice and if its surface hot is enough, the solder will
flow freely and neatly throughout the splice.
A well soldered splice will be smooth, clean and have a shinny surface. Only enough solder to
cover the connection is necessary, avoid a buildup of solder.

What is a Solder?

Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a
temperature of about 200°C. The more tin there is in the solder the lower its melting point is.
Alloys have lower melting point than the pure metal. Coating a surface with solder is called
'tinning' because of the tin content of solder. Lead is poisonous and you should always wash your
hands after using solder.

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Electric Soldering iron
Depending on the size of our work piece we use soldering gun with different power rating. The
soldering iron must produce sufficient heat for heating the entire work piece, i.e. we need to use
high power soldering iron for thick wires and copper bars. Low powdered nonce for thin wires
and small parts. For soldering two pieces choose the right size of soldering iron. Keep your
soldering gun in good condition. Tighten the screws to fix the soldering copper.
Soldering can be done with the aid of either a soldering iron or a blow torch. The former is used
if a source of electric energy is available while the later can be used in place where there is no
electricity as well as in cases where a uniform heating of a wide area is required.
Soldering gun is used for soldering wire connections or other materials which can be easily
soldered.

Fig a) 30W Soldering iron b) 300W Soldering Gun

For electronics use, a soldering iron is generally the tool of choice as its small tip and low heat
capacity is suited for printed circuit board work (such as assembling kits).
A soldering gun is generally used in heavy duty soldering such as joining heavy gauge wires,
soldering brackets to a chassis. In general majority of electronics work requires soldering iron.
The techniques for using a soldering gun are basically the same with the only difference being
that heat is only generated when the trigger is pressed

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Soldering Flux
During the soldering operation, an auxiliary medium is mostly used to increase the flow
properties of molten solder or to improve the degree of wetting. Such a medium is called flux. It
performs three functions, such is:
 It is an additional cleaning agent
 Aids in tinning or coating conductors when solder is applied
 Ensure adhesion (strength) of solder to the splice
Acid type flux must never be used in electrical soldering jobs, because acid will cause corrosion.
The flux should have the following properties:-
 It will provide a liquid cover over the material
 It will dissolve any oxide on the metal surface or on the solder and carry such unwanted
elements.
 It will rapidly displaced from metal by the molten soldering operation
 Deposits should be removable after the completion of the solder.
Remember that when soldering, the flux in the solder will release smoke as it is heated. This
smoke is harmful to your eyes and lungs. Therefore, always work in a well ventilated area and
avoid breathing the smoke created. Hot solder is also dangerous. Eye protection is also advised.

Soldering iron stand

You must have a safe place to put the iron when you are not holding it. The stand should include
a sponge which can be dampened for cleaning the tip of the iron.

Desoldering
At some stage you will probably need to
desolder a joint to remove or re-position a
wire or component. There are two ways to
remove the solder:

1. With a desoldering pump (solder

sucker)

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  Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks.
 Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint.
 Wait a second or two for the solder to melt.
 Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten solder into the
tool.
 Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible.
 The pump will need emptying occasionally by unscrewing the nozzle.

 Solder sucker: a tool for removing

solder when de-soldering a joint to correct a
mistake or replace a component.

How to Solder?
First a few safety precautions:
 Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.
They are very hot and will give you a nasty burn.
 Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment!
 Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating. Avoid
breathing it by keeping your head to the side of, not above, your work.
 Wash your hands after using solder.
Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.

Important points to be remember during soldering

1. Keep the soldering iron well tinned, because the oxide that forms on a tinned iron is a poor
conductor of heat
2. Keep the iron at proper temperature because an overheated iron causes corrosion to form more
quickly on the iron

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3. Hold the iron against the joint, until the solder flows freely, because the soldering lead will not
flow to the joint unless sufficient heat is applied.
4. Always apply solder and flux directly to the joint
5. Always have the wires or the surface clean
6. Clean soldering iron
7. Moderate temperature of soldering iron
8. Do not allow the soldering tip to touch any electrical part or wire insulation
10. be careful not to drop or use too much solder on the joints, this can be the cause of shorts
11. Grip the soldering iron only by its handle
12. Remove the plug from the source of power as soon as the soldering has been completed
Note: in good soldering all the metallic parts of the joints are evenly coated with solder.

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