PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA

MANJESHWARAM(14038) , KASARAGOD (DT) ,

9947444175 ,YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
 CHAPTER 1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM(14038)
9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

======================================================
1. What is Chemistry? Which are different branches of chemistry?
Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the composition, structure and properties of matter.
Branches of chemistry :
 Organic chemistry
 Inorganic chemistry
 Physical chemistry
 Analytical chemistry
 Biochemistry
 Polymer chemistry
 Industrial chemistry etc.
2. What is Matter? How will you classify it?
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space.
Chemically matter is classified as two. (i) Pure substances and (ii) Mixtures.
3. What are Pure substances? How will you classify it? Explain each .
Pure substances contain only one substance. It cannot be physically separated.
Pure substances are classified as (i) elements and (ii) Compounds.
Elements contain only one type of atoms. Examples: Hydrogen , Oxygen , Carbon , Iron , Gold etc.
Compounds contain different types of atoms. Examples: marble (CaCO3), ice (H2O) etc.
4. What are Mixtures? How will you classify it? Differentiate them.
Mixtures contain more type of substances. It can be physically separated.
These are classified as (i) homogeneous mixture and (ii) heterogeneous mixture.
Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture
Mixtures having uniform composition through out Mixtures having different composition in different parts
The components of the mixture cannot be seen by The components of the mixture can be seen with naked
microscope eye.
Eg:-air, sugar solution, kerosene, petrol, alloys Iron and sulphur, muddy water, sand, smoke, gun
(Brass),916 gold powder, soil

5. Chemical classification of matter

Matter

Pure substances mixtures

Elements compounds homogeneous heterogeneous

6. Define precision and accuracy. Give example.
Precision is the closeness of various measurements for the same quantity.
Accuracy is the agreement of a particular value to the true value of the result.
Example:- If true value is 2 g
Student A → 1.95, 1.93 Precise , not accurate.
Student B → 1.94, 2.05 Neither precise nor accurate.
Student C → 1.99, 2.01 Both precise and accurate.
7. What are Significant figures?
Significant figures are the number of digits in a measurement about which we are certain plus one
additional digit which is uncertain.
8. Which are the rules for determining the number of significant figures?
(I) All non-zero digits are significant.
(II) Trapped zeros are significant.
(III) Leading zeros (Before zeros) are never significant.
(IV) Trailing zeros (End zeros) are significant if it is after the decimal point.
(V) Trailing zeros (End zeros) are non significant if there is no decimal point.
(VI) In scientific notation, powers of ten are non- significant.
(VII) Exact numbers have infinite number of significant figures.
9. Which are Laws of chemical combination? Explain each with example.
(I) Law of conservation of mass :-
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed. OR
In a chemical reaction, total mass of reactants is equal to total mass of products.
Lavoisier proposed this law.
Eg. C + O2 → CO2
12g 32 g 44 g
Total mass of reactants = 12+32=44 g
Total mass of products =44 g
(II) Law of definite proportion:-
A chemical compound always contains the same elements combined together in the same
proportion by mass.
Proposed by Joseph proust.
Example:- Carbon dioxide can be obtained by many methods.
Its formula → CO2 Mass ratio→ 12:32 Simple ratio →3:8
(III) Law of multiple proportion:-
When two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the different masses of one
element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element, are in the small whole number ratio.
Proposed by John Dalton.
Example:- Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form two compounds, water and hydrogen peroxide.
H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O , H2 + O2 → H2O2
2g 16 g 18 g 2g 32 g 34 g
Here hydrogen has fixed mass ( 2 g) . Oxygen has different masses ( 16 and 32)
Its ratio → 16:32 = 1:2
It is simple whole number ratio
More examples:- (i) CO , CO2 (ii) NO , NO2
 (IV) Gay Lussac’s law of gaseous volume:-
When gaseous reactants combine to form gaseous products, there exist a simple whole number
ratio between their volumes.
Example :- H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
Volume ratio of reactants and products → 1: 1: 2
(V) Avogadro law :-
Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
number of molecules. This law is proposed by Avogadro.
For example, if we take hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen in different flasks of same capacity, we will
find that all flasks contain the same number of molecules.
10. What is atom?
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which may or may not have free existence.
Atoms of Helium and Neon can exist freely. Atoms of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc. cannot exist freely
11. What are the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory?
(I) Matter is made up of extremely small, indivisible particles called atoms.
(II) Atoms of the same element are identical. i.e size, shape and mass.
(III) Atoms of different elements are different.
(IV) Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a simple whole number ratio to form
compounds.
(V) Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
12. Define atomic mass .
The atomic mass of an element means how many times an atom of an element is heavier than one-twelfth
of a carbon-12 atom.
Element Relative atomic mass Element Relative atomic mass
Hydrogen , H 1 Sulphur , S 32
Carbon , C 12 Chlorine , Cl 35.5
Nitrogen , N 14 Potassium , K 39
Oxygen , O 16 Calcium , Ca 40
Sodium , Na 23 Iron , Fe 56
Phosphorus , P 31 Bromine , Br 80
Silver , Ag 108
13. Define molecule
Molecule is the simplest particle of an element or a compound which has free existence.
14. Define molecular mass
The molecular mass of a substance( element or compound) means how many times the mass of a molecule
is heavier than one-twelfth ( 1/12) of a carbon-12 atom.
It is obtained by multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them
together.
Molecular mass of glucose ( C6H12O6) = (12 X6) + (1 X 12 ) + (16 X 6) = 72 + 12 + 96 = 180
Molecular mass of sulphuric acid ( H2SO4) = (1 X2) + (32 X 1 ) + (16 X 4) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98
Molecular mass of Calcium carbonate ( CaCO3) = (40 X1) + (12 X 1 ) + (16 X 3) = 40 + 12 + 48 = 100
Molecular mass of Ethanol( C2H5OH) = (12 X2) + (1 X 6 ) + (16 X 1) = 24 + 6 + 16 = 46
Molecular mass of ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 = (14 X2) + (1 X 8 ) + (32 X 1) + (16 X 4) = 132
15. Define Atomic mass unit (amu) or unified mass (u). What is its value ?
One atomic mass unit is equal to one-twelfth( 1/12 ) the mass of an atom of carbon-12 .
𝟏 𝟏𝟐
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒖 =
𝟏𝟐
𝑿
𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝒈
-24
1 amu (u) = 1.66056 x 10 g
16. Define Mole .
Mole is the amount of a substance which contain 6.022 x 10 23 particles (Avogadro’s number)
6.02 x 10 23 particles
22.4 L at STP (Molar volume at STP)
1 gram atom of an element ( eg. 12 g C, 23 g Na)
MOLE 1 gram molecular mass of a substance (eg. 180 g glucose)
1 gram formula mass of an ionic substance (eg. 58.5 g NaCl)
17. Define Molar mass?
The mass of one mole substance is called molar mass.
18. Give different equations to find out the number of moles.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = ( In the case of atoms)
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = ( In the case of molecules)
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝑻𝑷

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 =
𝟐𝟐. 𝟒
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 =
𝟔.𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
19. What is the mass of one mole electron?
0.55 milligram
20. Give the equation of percentage composition (mass percentage)?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
21. What are empirical formula and molecular formula?
Molecular formula is the actual formula of a compound.
Empirical formula is the simplest formula of a compound.
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula , Where n = 1,2,3,………
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝒏=
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Molecular mass = 2 x vapour density
Examples :
EF of glucose ( C6H12O6 ) is CH2O
EF of ethane ( C2H6 ) is CH3
EF of benzene ( C6H6 ) is CH
EF of Hydrogen peroxide( H2O2 ) is HO
EF of butene ( C4H8 ) is CH2
EF of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is CO2
EF of acetic acid [ CH3COOH ] is CH2O
EF of C6H6Cl6 is CHCl
22. What are stoichiometric calculations ?
Calculations of masses or volumes of reactants and products in a chemical reaction are called stoichiometric
calculations.
Consider a reaction, CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
1 mol CH4 + 2 mol O2 → 1 mol CO2 + 2 mol H2O
16 g of CH4 + 2 X 32 g of O2 → 44 g of CO2 + 2 X 18 g of H2O
6.022 X 1023 molecules of CH4 + 2 X 6.022 X 1023 molecules of O2 → 6.022 X 1023 molecules of CO2 +
2 X 6.022 X 10 23 molecules of H2O
22.4 L of CH4 + 2 X 22.4 L of O2 → 22.4 L of CO2 + 2 X 22.4 L of H2O
22400 ml of CH4 + 2 X 22400 ml of O2 →22400 ml of CO2 + 2 X 22400 ml of H2O
 23. What is Limiting reagent (limiting reactant) ?
The reactant that is consumed completely in a reaction is called Limiting reagent
(limiting reactant ).
Example:
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
In this reaction , 2 mole hydrogen react with 1 mole oxygen to produce 2 mole water.
If this reaction is carried out using 2mol H2 and 2mol O2 , 2mol H2 is used up completely and so H2 is the
limiting reagent . Here O2 is excess reagent
24. What is a solution?
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Solutions having only two components are called binary solutions. e.g., Salt water
The component which is in larger amount is called solvent.
The component which is in smaller amount is called solute.
Solute + Solvent → Solution
Salt + Water → Salt water
25. What is concentration of a solution?
The amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution is called concentration.
26. Which are the ways of expressing concentration of a solution?
(a) Mass percent (b) Mole fraction (c) Molarity (d) Molality
27. Give equation for mass percentage of solute .
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Mass percentage is temperature independent.
28. What are difference between molality and molarity
Molarity Molality
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute
solute in one litre of the solution. in one kilogram of the solvent.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊) 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑾𝑨 (𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)

Molarity depends on temperature because it is Molality does not depend on temperature

related to volume, which changes with
temperature.
29. Define mole fraction.
Mole fraction is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of
the solution.
Mole fraction is temperature independent.
Total mole fraction is always one XA + XB = 1

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐧𝐁

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝑿𝐁 ) = =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐀 + 𝐧𝐁

𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐧𝐀

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑿𝐀 ) = =
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐧𝐀 𝐧𝐁
 CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE OF ATOM
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM(14038) ,
9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

=======================================================
1. Electron was discovered by J J Thomson by cathode ray discharge tube experiment.
2. Compare the properties of cathode rays and anode rays.
Cathode rays Anode rays ( Canal rays)
They start from cathode, more rays are produced They are produced from the space between cathode and
from the space between cathode and anode and anode and move towards cathode
move towards anode
They are material particles They are material particles
They travel in straight lines. They travel in straight lines.
They are deflected by both electric and magnetic They are deflected by both electric and magnetic field.
field. Deflection in the electric field is towards Deflection in the electric field is towards negative plate
positive plate shows that they are negatively shows that they are positively charged particles
charged particles
They does not depend on the nature of the gas They depend on the nature of the gas inside discharge
inside discharge tube tube
The charge to mass ratio (e/m) is same for all gases The charge to mass ratio is different for different gases
3. Calculate the mass of electron.
The charge to mass ratio of electron is determined by JJ Thomson by using cathode ray discharge tube.
e/m =1.758 x 1011 Ckg-1
The charge of the electron is determined by Millikan’s oil drop experiment . e = -1.6022 x 10 -19 C
𝒆 𝟏.𝟔𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗
∴ 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 = 𝒆⁄ = = 𝟗. 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏
kg
𝒎 𝟏.𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
4. What is the mass of proton?
-27
Mass of proton =1.672 x 10 kg . It is equal to the mass of hydrogen atom
5. How neutron is discovered? What is its mass?
Neutron is discovered by James Chadwick by bombarding beryllium sheet by alpha (α) particles.
They are neutral particles.
-27
Mass of neutron =1.674 x 10 kg .
Mass of neutron is slightly greater than proton.
6. Give the equation of Atomic number and Mass number
Atomic number = Number of protons = No. of electrons
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons = No. of nucleons
7. How will you find number of neutrons
Number of neutrons= Mass number - Atomic number
8. Define isotopes and isobars. Give examples for each.
(I) Isotopes are atoms of same element having the same atomic number but different mass number.
They contain different number of neutrons.
12 13 14
e.g., 6C , 6C , 6C

(II) Isobars are atoms of different elements which have the same mass number.
e.g., 146C , 147N
9. Explain Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment . Give its important observations and conclusions.
Rutherford bombarded thin gold foil by alpha particles (positive charge) and the movements of rays are
detected by circular zinc sulphide screen.

Observations Conclusions
1 Most of the alpha particles passed through the Most of the space in an atom is empty.
gold foil without any deflections.
2 A few alpha particles were deflected through A heavy positive centre is present at the centre
small angles . of the atom called nucleus.
3 Very few alpha particles are deflected back (1800). Nucleus is very small in size.

10. What are the postulates of Rutherford atom model?

(I) Most of the mass and all positive charge is concentrated at the centre of the atom called nucleus.
(II) Electrons are revolving around the nucleus with very high speeds.
(III) Most of the space inside the atom is empty.
(IV) Electrons and nucleus are held by electrostatic forces of attraction.
11. What are the draw backs (failure) of Rutherford atom model?
(I) Failed to explain the stability of the atom.
(II) Failed to explain hydrogen spectrum.
(III) It does not say anything about the electronic structure of atom.
12. Arrange electromagnetic radiations in order of the wavelength.
Gamma-rays < X-rays <UV rays <visible rays < infra red rays < Micro waves < radio waves
13. Dual nature of electromagnetic radiations
All electromagnetic radiations have particle like properties and wave like properties
Particle nature :- Eg., Photoelectric effect , Black body radiation
Wave nature :- Eg., Diffraction , Interference
14. Some terms related with wave characteristics
(i) Wavelength (λ ) :- It is the distance between two adjacent crusts or two adjacent troughs of a wave .
Its unit is m or cm
(ii) Frequency (γ) :- It is the number of waves that pass through a given point in one second.
Its unit is Hz or s−1
(iii) Wave number :- It is the number of wavelengths per unit length.
OR It is the reciprocal of wavelength .
Its unit is cm−1
𝟏
𝐖𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 (𝛎 ) =
𝛌
(iv) Velocity (c) :- It is defined as the linear distance travelled by the wave in one second
Velocity of light = 3 X 108 m/s
15. Higher the wave length , Shorter the frequency
Higher the frequency, Shorter the wave length
16.The relation connecting frequency (γ) , speed of light (c), and wave length (λ) is c = γ λ
17. Give the postulates of planks quantum theory of radiation.
(i) Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but discontinuously in the form of small
packets of energy called quanta. In the case of light, it is called photon.
(ii) The energy of a quantum of radiation is proportional to its frequency.
Eαν OR E=hν
h= plank’s constant =6.626 x 10-34 Js
18. What is Photoelectric effect? What are its characteristics?
When light falls on certain metals, electrons are emitted is called photoelectric effect.
e.g., Alkali metals (Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium ) show photoelectric effect.
(I) For the ejection of electrons, the incident light must have a minimum frequency called threshold
frequency (ν0). Corresponding minimum energy is called work function
(II) The kinetic energy
rgy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency of the incident radiation.
(III) The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
(IV) The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface.

Equation : h ν = h ν0 + ½ mv2
h ν = energy of incident light , h ν0 =threshold energy (work function) , ½ mv2 = kinetic energy

Kinetic energy , ½ mv2 = h ν - h ν0 = h( ν - ν0 )

19. Explain line spectrum of hydrogen.
When an electric discharge is passed through
hydrogen gas at low pressure
ressure taken in dischar
discharge tube,
H2 molecules dissociate to form hydrogen atoms. The
excited hydrogen atoms emit electromagnetic
radiations of certain frequencies. When this radiation
is passed through spectroscope,, we can see many
lines. It is called hydrogen spectrum.
Hydrogen spectrum consists of several series.
Their wave number and wavelength is determined by
the Rydberg equation.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝝑= = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒄𝒎
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

The spectral series of hydrogen spectrum are

Series Spectral region n1 n2

Lyman series Ultraviolet 1 2,3,….
Balmer series Visible 2 3,4,….
Paschen series Infrared 3 4,5,….
Brackett series Infrared 4 5,6,……
Pfund series Infrared 5 6,7,…….
20. What are the postulates of Bohr atom model?
(I) The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits. These orbits have
definite energies called energy shells or energy levels. These are numbered 1,2,3,4,… or designated as
K,L,M,N,….
(II) As long as electrons remain in a particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy. Therefore these
orbits are called stationary states.
(III) Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of the electron is a whole number
multiple of h/2π . i.e. Angular momentum, mvr =nh/2π n = 1,2,3,……
(IV) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron in it moves from one orbit to other.
The difference in energy , ∆EE = E2 - E1 = hν
21. What are the merits of Bohr atom model?
(I) Bohr’s model can explain the stability of an atom.
(II) Bohr’s model can explain the atomic spectrum of hydrogen
(III) Bohr’s theory helped in calculating energy of an electron in a particular orbit of hydrogen atom.
22. What are the draw backs (Limitations) of Bohr atom model?
(I) It cannot explain the line spectra of multi electron atoms.
(II) It cannot explain Zeeman effect and Stark effect.
(III) It cannot explain de Broglie concept of dual nature of matter.
(IV) It cannot explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
(V) It cannot explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
𝟐.𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖 𝒁𝟐
23. 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕, 𝑬𝒏 = 𝑱/𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
𝒏𝟐
𝟓𝟐.𝟗 𝒏𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 , 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒑𝒎
𝒁
Z = Atomic number , n = Number of orbits
24. What is Dual nature of matter? Give de Broglie equation.
According to de Broglie, all microscopic particles in motion (e.g., Electron) has particle character and wave
character.
𝐡 𝐡
de Broglie equation is, 𝛌 = =
𝐦𝐯 𝐩
Wavelength ( λ) → Wave character.
Momentum (p) → Particle character.
For electron, wave character is significant. It is against Bohr model.
25. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical forms and its significance.
It is not possible to determine simultaneously both the position and velocity (or momentum) of a
microscopic moving particle such as electron with absolute accuracy.
𝒉
Mathematical form is ∆𝒙. ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝛑
∆x = uncertainty in position. ∆p = uncertainty in momentum. h= plank’s constant =6.626 x 10 -34 Js
Momentum, p = mass x velocity , p =mv ∆p= m∆v
𝐡
∆𝐱. 𝐦∆𝐯 ≥ ∆v = uncertainty in velocity
𝟒𝛑
Significance:-This principle rules out the existence of definite paths or trajectories for moving
microscopic particles such as electrons.
26. Write a short note on Quantum mechanical model of atom.
It is developed based on de Broglie concept of Dual nature of matter and Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle.
Its basic equation is Schrodinger equation is 𝑯𝛙=𝐄𝛙
𝑯 = 𝐇𝐚𝐦 𝐥𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐫) , Ψ = wave function , E = energy.
The wave function ψ has no physical significance. It represents the amplitude of the electron wave.
However ψ2 represent the probability density of electron cloud (Orbital).
27. What are orbitals?
An orbital is the region in space around the nucleus where there is maximum probability of finding an
electron having a specific energy.
The concept of orbital is in accordance with the wave nature of electrons and Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle. Different orbitals have different shape.
Orbitals are directional (except s-orbital) and can explain shapes of molecules.
An orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
28. What are Quantum numbers? Which are four Quantum numbers? Explain each.
Quantum numbers are a set of four numbers with the help of which we can get complete information
about the electron in an atom. It is address of an atom.
 There are four quantum numbers.
(I) Principal quantum number (n).
(II) Azimuthal or Angular
ngular momentum quantum number ((l).
(III) Magnetic quantum number (m).
(IV) Spin quantum number(s)
(I) Principal quantum number (n):
(n):-
It represents the main energy level or shell in which the electron is located. It also determines the
average distance of the orbital or electron from the nucleus. n= 1, 2, 3, 4, ……….
n=1 first energy level, n=2 secon
second energy level
(II) Azimuthal or Angular
ngular momentum quantum number (l) ::-
It determines the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of an electron.
It denotes the sub shell in which electron is located in a shell.
Its value determines the shape of the orbital.
For a given value of n, l = 0 to nn-1

l 0 1 2 3
Subshell s p d f
Shape of the orbital Spherical D
Dumb-bell Double dumb-bell complex

For 1st shell (n =1) l =0 one value one sub shell 1s

For 2nd shell (n=2) l =0,1 two values two sub shells 2s 2p
For 3rd shell (n =3) l =0,1,2 three values three sub shells 3s,3p,3d
For 4th shell (n =4) l =0,1,2,3 four values four sub shells 4s,4p,4d,4f
(III) Magnetic quantum number (m) ::-It describes the behavior of the electrons in an external
magnetic field. It refers to the different orientations (orbitals) in a sub shell.
For a given value of l , m= -l …..0……..+l

For s Sub shell( l=0) m =0 one value One s orbital

For p Sub shell( l=1) m = -1,0,+1 Three values Three p orbitals
For d Sub shell( l=2) m ==-2,-1,0,+1,+2 Five values Five d orbitals
For f Sub shell( l=3) m = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2,+3 Seven values Seven f orbitals
(IV) Spin quantum number(s):
number(s):- It describes the spin orientation of electrons.
Spin orientation in two ways – clockwise (+1/2) or anti clockwise (-1/2)
29. Draw the plots of probability density (ψ 2 ) against distance from the nucleus for 1s and 2s orbitals
30. Draw the shapes of s- orbitals, p- orbitals, and d- orbitals.

. S orbital→ Spherical shape

P orbitals → Dumb bell shape

d-orbitals →Double dumb bell shape (Exception : dz 2, It has a dumbbell and a circular collar in xy plane.)
31.

Number of radial nodes = n-l-1

Number of angular nodes = l
Total number of nodes =n-1
Number of subshell in a principal shell =n
Number of orbitals in a shell = n2
Maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2 n2
Number of orbitals in a subshell = 2 l +1
32. State (n+l) rule
(I) Orbitals are filled in the order of increasing value of (n+l) . e.g., 3s < 3p
For 3s , n+l = 3+0 = 3 For 3p , n+l = 3+1 = 4
(II) If the two orbitals have same value of (n+l) value, the one with lower ‘n’ will be filled first.
For For 3d , n+l = 3+2 = 5 For 4p , n+l = 4+1 = 5 so 4p > 3d
33.ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Element Electronic configuration Orbital diagram
1H 1s1

2He 1s2

3Li 1s2 2s1

4Be 1s2 2s2

5B 1s2 2s2 2p1

6C 1s2 2s2 2p2

7N 1s2 2s2 2p3

8O 1s2 2s2 2p4

9F 1s2 2s2 2p5

10Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6

11Na 1s2 2s2 2p63s1

12Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
13Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
14Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
15P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
16S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
17Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
18Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
19K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
20Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

21Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2

22Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
23V 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d54s1
25Mn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2

26Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

27Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
28Ni 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2
29Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
30Zn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

34. Which are rules for writing electronic configuration?

(I) Aufbau principle :-
In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d <5p <6s < 4f < 5d < 6 p
< 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
(II) Pauli’s exclusion principle :-
It states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers.
For the two electrons in the first shell
For 1st electron n=1 , l =0 , m =0 , s =+1/2
For 2nd electron n=1 , l =0 , m =0 , s =-1/2
Here spin quantum number is different.
If third electron is present in first shell, there will be same set of quantum numbers.
It is against Pauli’s exclusion principle
Consequence : An orbital cannot accommodate more than two electrons.
An orbital can accommodate maximum two electrons.
(III) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
This rule states that electron pairing in orbitals of same sub shell will not takes place until each
available orbital of that sub shell is singly occupied (with parallel spin).
N → 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz1

35. Write the exceptional configuration of chromium and copper and give its reason
Chromium : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Copper : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Half filled and completely filled orbitals have more stability due to symmetrical arrangement and
greater exchange energy.

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
=========================================================================
 3 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM(14038)
, 9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

=======================================================
1. Why do we need to classify elements?
It is very difficult to study chemistry of elements and their compounds individually. To avoid this, periodic
table is developed.
2. Law of triads →proposed by Dobereiner
The middle element of each triad had an atomic weight about half way between the atomic weights of
other two.
Example for triads Li, Na, K
3. Law of octaves → proposed by Newlands.
Newland arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic weights and noted that every eighth
element had properties similar to the first element.
4. State Mendeleev’s periodic law .
The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic masses (atomic weights).
Mendeleev introduced the periodic law of elements for the first time.
5. Mendeleev’s periodic table :-
Based on Mendeleev’s periodic law ,Mendeleev’s periodic table is formed.
It consists of nine vertical columns called groups.
There are 7 horizontal rows called periods.
6. What are the merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table?
(I) Mendeleev’s periodic table made the study of chemistry elements easier and systematic.
(II) He predicted the properties of some undiscovered elements and left vacant places in his periodic
table. Example Eka aluminium (Gallium) and Eka silicon(Germanium).
(III) He placed elements with similar properties together by ignoring their atomic weights.
(IV) He corrected the atomic masses of some elements.
For example the atomic mass of Beryllium from 13.5 to 9
7. What are the demerits of Mendeleev’s periodic table?
(I) There is no proper position for hydrogen.
(II) Isotopes of elements cannot be properly placed.
(III) In certain pair of elements, the increasing order of atomic masses was not followed.
8. State Modern periodic law
The properties of elements are periodic function of their atomic numbers.
Modern periodic law is proposed by Henry Moseley.
9. Long form of periodic table (Modern periodic table)
It is based on modern periodic law.
The elements are arranged in horizontal rows are called periods and vertical columns are called groups.
There are seven periods and 18 groups in the periodic table.
Each group constitutes a family of elements with similar properties.
In the modern periodic table, the period indicates the value of principal quantum number (n).
There are 4 blocks in the periodic table -s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block.
 10. Periods of modern periodic table
Periods Length of periods No. of elements Electron filling sub shells
1 Very short period 2 1s
2 Short period 8 2s, 2p
3 Short period 8 3s, 3p
4 Long period 18 4s, 3d, 4p
5 Long period 18 5s, 4d, 5p
6 Monster period 32 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p
7 Incomplete period Maximum 32 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p

11. Blocks of periodic table

Blocks Groups General electronic Main properties

configuration
s-block 1&2 ns1-2 They are all reactive soft metals with low ionization
energies. They form mainly ionic compounds
p-block 13 to 18 2 1-6 Includes metals, nonmetal and metalloids.
ns np
They form ionic and covalent compounds.
d-block 3 to 12 1-10 1-2 All are hard metals.
(n-1)d ns
They form coloured compounds.
They shows variable oxidation states.
They show catalytic properties and paramagnetism.
f-block Lanthanoids 1-14 0-1 2 Within each series properties are similar.
(n-2)f (n-1)d ns
and Most of the actinoids are radioactive and man made
actinoids

12. s and p block elements (except noble gases ) are called representative elements.
13. d-block elements are called transition elements. Why?
Since d-block elements show transition (change) from highly electropositive s-block elements to highly
electronegative p-block elements.
14. f-block elements are called inner transition elements.
15. How will you predict the position of elements in periodic table?
(I) Write electronic configuration
(II) The principal quantum number of valence shell = period of the element.
(III) The sub shell in which the last electron is filled = block of the element
(IV) Group of the element :
(a) For s -block; group number = number of ‘s’ electrons
(b) For p -block; group number = 12 + number of ‘p’ electrons
(c) For d -block; group number =2 + number of ‘d’ electrons
(d) For f- block; group number = 3
16. Which are periodic properties?
(i)Atomic radius (ii) Ionization energy
(iii) Electron gain enthalpy (iv) Electronegativity (v) Valency
17. What is Atomic radius? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
Atomic radius is defined as the distance from the centre of the nucleus of the atom to the outer most shell
of electrons.
 In a period, from left to right, atomic radii decrease.
From left to right atomic number increases, nuclear charge
increases. But the electrons are added in the same shell. As a
result electrons are attracted closer to the nucleus by increased
effective nuclear charge. This leads to decrease of atomic size.
In a group, from top to bottom, atomic radii increase due to
increase in number of shells.

18. Atomic radii of noble gases are higher than that of halogens. Why?
This is because noble gases are mono atomic. So Vander Waal’s radius is used to express the atomic radius
which is greater than metallic radius or covalent radius.
19. Why cation is smaller and anion is larger than parent atom?
Cation is formed by the loss of electrons. Nuclear charge remains same. So effective nuclear charge
increases, attraction increases and size decreases.
Anion is formed by the gain of electrons. Nuclear charge remains same. So effective nuclear charge
decreases, attraction decreases and size increases.
20. What are isoelectronic species? Give examples. Arrange them in the increasing order of size.
Atoms and ions which contain same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species.
N3- ,O2- , F- , Na+ , Mg2+ , Al3+ (These have different nuclear charge , But contain 10 electrons each)
The order of decreasing size is N3- > O2- > F- >Na+ > Mg2+ > Al3+
Among the isoelectronic species, greater the nuclear charge , smaller the size.
21. What is Ionization energy ? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom
is called ionization energy (ionization enthalpy).

In a
period, from left to right ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in nuclear charge and so valence
electrons are more tightly held by the nucleus.
But some irregularities are observed. Beryllium has higher ionization energy than Boron due to stable
electronic configuration ( 1s22s2) . Similarly nitrogen has higher ionization energy than oxygen due to half
filled stable electronic configuration ( 1s22s22p3).
In a group, Ionization enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
22. What are the factors ors affecting ionization energy
energy?
(i) Atomic size (ii) Nuclear charge (iii) shielding effect or screeningg effect of inner electrons
(iv) penetration effects of electrons (s>p>d>f) (v) electronic configuration.
23. First ionization enthalpy of sodium is lower than that of magnesium but its second ionization energyenerg is
higher than that of magnesium. Explain.
For sodium (1S22S22P63S1) , first electron is removed from 3s orbital , that is easy , because removal of
electron can form stable electronic configuration. So first ionization energy is low (Na Na+→1S22S22P6 )
For Magnesium (1S22S22P63S2) , first electron is removed from completely filled 3s orbital , that is difficult ,
because removal of electron is from stable electronic configuration. So first ionization energy is high.
high
+
But for Na , its second ionization en energy
ergy is high because of stable electronic configuration.
24. What is electron gain enthalpy ( Electron affinity)? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
The amount of energy released when an electron is added to isolated gaseous atom is called electron gain
enthalpy.
X (g) +e− → X(g) − ∆H = ∆egH
In a period, from left to right electron gain enthalpy becomes more and more negative. negative
It is due to increase in nuclear charge.
In a group, Electron gain enthalpy decreases from top to bottom due to increase in atomic size.
25. Electron gain enthalpies of noble gases are zero or positive .Why?
Due to completely filled electronic configuration ( ns2np6).
26. Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less than that of chlorine .Why?
This is due to the very small size of fluorine atom. As a result, inter electronic repulsion in the 2p sub shell
of F is more than that in the relatively larger 3p sub shell in chlorine atom.
27. What are Factors affecting
fecting electron gain enthalpy ?
(i)Atomic size (ii) Nuclear charge, (iii) electronic configuration
28. What is Electronegativity?? Explain its variation along a period and in a group.
Electro negativity
egativity is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards it.
Halogens have highest electro negativity in their periods.
Fluorine is the most electro negative element.
Electro negativity increases from left to right in a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
Electro negativity decreasess from top to bottom in a group due to increase in atomic size.
29. What are Anomalous properties?
The first element of each group in s and p blocks differs from the rest of the elements in many properties
are called anomalous properties.
It is due to the following reasons.
(i) Small size (ii)High charge/radius ratio.(iii)High electro negat
negativity (iv) Non availability of d orbitals.
30. What is Diagonal relationship? What are the reasons for Diagonal relationship?
First element in any group shows similarities with second element in next group. This is called diagonal
relationship.
For example,
xample, Lithium shows resemblance with Magnesium due to diagonal iagonal relationship
Beryllium resembles aluminium due to diagonal relationship.

Reasons :- (i) similar size, (ii)similar ionization energy , (iii) similar electronegativity, (iv)similar
charge/radius ratio
31. What is Valency?
Valency is the combining capacity of an element. It is determined by valence electrons.
Valency = Number of valence electrons
OR 8 − No. of valence electrons
In a group, valency is same, since valence electrons are same.
In a period , valency increases up to 4 and then decreases with respect to hydrogen and with respect to
oxygen, valency increases up to seven.
32. Explain the behavior of different type Oxides?
The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is the most basic (e.g. Na 2O, CaO).
The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme right is acidic ( e.g. Cl 2O7) .
Oxides of the elements in the centre are amphoteric (e.g. Al 2O3 , As2O3 ) or neutral (e.g. CO, NO, N2O)
33. Show by chemical reaction with water that Na2O is basic and Cl2O7 is acidic.
Na2O with water forms a strong base whereas Cl2O7 forms a strong acid.
Na2O + H2O → 2 NaOH ,
Cl2O7 + H2O → 2 HClO4
34. Notation for IUPAC nomenclature of elements
digit name abbreviation digit name abbreviation
0 nil n 5 pent p
1 un u 6 hex h
2 bi b 7 sept s
3 tri t 8 oct o
4 quad q 9 enn e
35.
A B
Most electronegative element Fluorine (F)
Most electron gain enthalpy element Chlorine (Cl)
Most electropositive element Francium (Fr)
Most abundant element in the universe Hydrogen
Most abundant element in the earth crust Oxygen
Most abundant element in the atmosphere Nitrogen
PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS
1. Justify the presence of 18 elements in the 5th period of the periodic table.
Fifth period , orbitals filled up = 5s , 4d , 5p . So No. of elements = 2 + 10 + 6 = 18
2. What is the maximum number of elements that can be accommodated in the seventh period of the periodic
table?
Seventh period , orbitals filled up = 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p So maximum number of elements = 2 + 14 + 10 + 6 = 32
3. Write the electronic configuration and predict their position in periodic table
(I) A (atomic number 14) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 Period = 3 , Group = 4 + 10 = 14 , Block = p
(II) B (atomic number 29) → 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 Period = 4 , Group = 1 +10 = 11 , Block = d
(III) C (atomic number 117) → [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p5 Period = 7 , Group = 7 + 10 = 17 , Block = p
(IV) D ( atomic number 120) → [Rn] 7s25f14 6d10 7p6 8 s2 Period = 8 , Group =2 , Block = s
4. Predict the formula formed by the combination of following elements
(I) Lithium and oxygen → ( Valency of Li = 1 , O = 2 ) → Formula : Li 2O
(II) Magnesium and nitrogen →( Valency of Mg= 2 , N = 3 ) → Formula :Mg 3N2
(III) Aluminium and iodine → ( Valency of Al = 3 , I = 1 ) → Formula : AlI 3
(IV) Silicon and oxygen →( Valency of Si = 4 , O = 2 ) → Si2O4 Formula : SiO2
(V) Phosphorus and chlorine →( Valency of P = 3, 5 , Cl = 1 ) → Formula : PF3 OR PF5
5. Write the IUPAC nomenclature of elements with atomic number from 101 , 120 , 109
101 → Unnilunium (Unu) , 120 →Unbinilium ( Ubn) , 109 →Unnilennium ( Une)
6. The atomic number of element with IUPAC name Ununbium is 112
 CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM(14038)
MANJESHWARA ,
9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

=======================================================
1. State Octet rule
Atoms of various elements enter into chemical combination to attain eight electrons (octet of electrons) in
their valence shell ( outer most shell).
2. What is Chemical bond?
The attractive
tive force between the atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond.
Chemical bonds are
(I) Covalent bond :- Formed byy the sharing of electrons
(II) Ionic bond :- Formed byy the transfer of electrons
3. What is Covalent bond?
The bond formed by mutual sharing of electrons between combining atoms.
(I) H2 molecule :- H - H Single bond between hydrogen atoms

(II) Cl2 molecule :- Cl-Cl

Cl SSingle
ingle bond is formed by sharing of one electron each.
each

(III) O2 molecule :- O=O D

Double
ouble bond is formed by sharing of two electrons each.

(IV) N2 molecule :- N≡N

≡N TTriple
riple bond is formed by the sharing of three electrons each.

(V) CO2 molecule :- Two double bond

bonds with two oxygen atoms

(VI) H2O molecule :- Two single bonds with two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs

(VII) CCl4 molecule :- Four single bonds with four chlorine atoms
4. What are the limitations of octet rule
rule?
(I) It cannot explain the formation of mole
molecules with incomplete octet (eg: BeF2 , BF3)
(II) It cannot explain the formation of molecules with expanded (super) octet (eg: (eg PCl5, SF6)
(III) It cannot explain the formation of compounds by Xe and Kr( eg : XeF2 , XeF6)
(IV) It cannot explain the formation of odd electron molecules (eg: NO, NO2)
5. Define ionic bond. How is it formed? Give examp
examples.
Ionic bond or electrovalent bond is formed by the
complete transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom to another atom.
Positive ion called cation and is formed by the loss of electrons.
Negative ion called anion and is formed by the gain of electrons.
The attractive force between opposite charged ions is called ionic bond. e.g. NaCl , CaF2 , CaO
6. What are the factors favouring ionic bond?
(i) Low ionization energy of the electropositive atom (i.e., metal atom)
(ii) High negative
tive electron gain enthalpy of the electronegative atom.
(iii) High lattice enthalpy of the ionic compound formed.
7. What is lattice energy and its importance?
The lattice enthalpy of an ionic solid is defined as the energy required to completely separate one mole of
the ionic compound in to its gaseous ions.
The higher the lattice energy, higher the stability of the ionic compound formed.
8. What is Formal Charge?
The formal charge is the charge assigned to some atoms in the lewis structure of certain compounds.
FC = V-N- B/2
FC = Formal Charge , V= Number of valence electrons in free atom,
N= Number of non bonding electrons , B= Number of bonding electrons
9. What is resonance? Draw the resonance structure of ozone.
The properties of some compounds cannot be explained by single lewis structure. Such compound exist as
a combination of two or more structures. This phenomenon is called resonance. Its Characteristics are
(I) Resonance stabilizes the molecule.
(II) Resonance averages the bond characteristics as a whole.
Resonance structure of ozone are

10. Polar molecules and non polar molecules

It is a polar molecule
 Polar molecules Non polar molecules
Covalent bonded molecules having partial Covalent bonded molecules having nocharge
positive charge and negative charge are called are called nonpolar molecules.
polar molecules.
Hetero nuclear diatomic molecules( HCl, HBr ) Homo nuclear diatomic molecules (O2 ,H2 N2)
Irregular geometry molecules (H2O , NH3) Regular geometry molecules (BeF2, BF3 ,CH4)
11. What is Dipole moment?? Give its unit
unit.
Dipole moment is defined as the product of the magnitude of charge and the distance between the centre
of charges. Its unit is Debye (D).
Dipole moment ( µ) = charge (q) x distance (r)
12. The dipole moment of CO2 is zero. Why?
CO2 is linear molecule and the two equal bond dipoles are in opposite directions
and cancel each other. So the dipole moment of CO2 is zero.
13. The dipole moment of BeF2 is zero. Why?

BeF2 is linear molecule and the two equal bond dipoles are in opposite directions
and cancel each other. So the dipole moment of BeF2 is zero.

14. The dipole moment of H2O is not zero. Why?

Water
ter molecule has bent structure
structure. Two O-H
H bonds are oriented at an angle of
0
104.5 . The bond dipoles of two O
O-H bonds do not cancel each other.
other So water
molecule has net dipole moment.

15. The dipole moment of BF3 zero. Why?

BF3 has trigonal planar structure in which three B-F
B bonds are
oriented at an angle of 1200 to one another. The
T three bonds lie
in one plane. Here the resultant of any two bond dipole is equal
and opposite to third and the dipole moments of these bonds
cancel one another giving net dipole moment equal to zero.
16. Ammonia (NH3) has higher dipole moment than NF3, even though F is more electronegative than hydrogen.
Why?
Both have pyramidal structure. The individual
dipole moments do not cancel each other. So
they have net dipole moment.

But ammonia has higher dipole moment . It is due to the orbital dipole due to the lone pair is in the same
direction of three N-H bonds.
But in nitrogen tri fluoride,, the resultant dipole of three N
N-FF bonds is in opposite direction to the orbital
orbit
dipole of lone pair. So partiallyy cancelled and dipole moment is low.
17. State Fajan’s rule regarding the partial covalent character of an ionic bond.
Covalent character of ionic bond increases with (i) Small
mall size of cation and large size of anion
(ii) Large
arge charge on both the cation and anion.
Covalent character increases in the order :
(1)LiCl > NaCl > KCl (Here Lithium is small size cation)
(2) NaCl < MgCl2 < AlCl3 (Here Alumin
Aluminium is small size cation)
(3) NaF < NaCl < NaBr < NaI (Here iodine is large size anion)
18. What are the main postulates of valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR)
(I) The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence electron pairs of the central atom.
(II) The electron pairs repel each other
other.. As a result, the electron pairs try to stay as far apart to acquire a
state of minimum energy or maximum stability.
(III) A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair.
(IV) The repulsive interaction decreases in the order.
Lone pair-Lone
Lone pair > Lone pair
pair-Bond pair > Bond pair-Bond pair
Type No. of electron pairs Shape of the molecule Examples Bond angle
AB2 2 (bp) Linear BeF2, BeCl2 180 0
AB3 3(bp) Trigonal planar BF3 120 0
AB4 4(bp) Tetrahedral CH4 109.5 0
AB5 5(bp) Trigonal bi pyramid PCl5 120 0, 90 0
AB6 6(bp) octahedral SF6 90 0
AB3E 3(bp), 1 (lp) Trigonal pyramidal NH3 107 0
AB2 E2 2(bp), 2 (lp) Bent or inverted V shape H2O 104.5 0
AB4E 4(bp), 1 (lp) See- saw SF4
AB3 E2 3(bp), 2 (lp) T shape ClF3
AB2 E3 2 (bp), 3(lp) Linear XeF2
AB5E 5 (bp), 1 (lp) Square Pyramid BrF5
AB4 E2 4(bp), 2 (lp) Square planar XeF4
19. Explain the shape of following molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory.
BeCl2
Be →atomic number 4 , electronic configura on 2,2 . BeBeryllium has two valance
electrons. Bonded
nded with two chlorine atoms. SSo Beryllium has two bond pairs around it.
To minimize repulsion, linear geometry. Bond angle 180 0

BF3
B→ atomic number 5 , Electronic
lectronic configuration 2,3 . B
Boron has three valance
electrons. Bonded with threee fluorine atoms. So Boron has three bond pairs around
it. To minimize repulsion, trigonal planar geometry. Bond angle 120 0

CH4
C→ atomic number 6 , Electronic
lectronic configuration 2,4 .
Carbon has four valance electrons.
Bonded with four hydrogen atoms
atoms. So Carbon has four bond pairs around it.
To minimize repulsion, tetrahedral geometry. Bond angle 109.5 0
 PCl5
P→ atomic number 15, electronic configura on 2,8,5 .
Phosphorus has five valance electrons. Bonded with five chlorine
atoms. So Phosphorus has five bond pairs around it.
To minimize repulsion, trigonal bipyramid geometry. Bond angle 120 0
and 90 0

SF6
S→ atomic number 16, electronic configura on 2,8 ,6 .
Sulphur has six valance electrons. Bonded with six fluorine atoms .
So Sulphur has six bond pairs around it.
To minimize repulsion, octahedral geometry. Bond angle 90 0

NH3
N →atomic number 7 , electronic configura on 2,5 .
Nitrogen has five valance electrons. Bonded with three hydrogen atoms .
So Nitrogen has three bond pairs and one lone pair.
There are two type repulsions.
Bond pair-bond pair repulsion and bond pair- lone pair repulsion.
Bond pair-lone pair repulsion is greater and bond angle is slightly reduced from tetrahedral angle to 107 0 .
Geometry is trigonal pyramidal.

H 2O
O → atomic number 8 , Electronic configuration 2,6 .
Oxygen has six valance electrons. Bonded with two hydrogen atoms.
So Oxygen has two bond pairs and two lone pairs around it.
There are three type repulsions.
Bond pair-bond pair repulsion < bond pair- lone pair repulsion < lone pair – lone pair repulsion.
Due to these repulsions bond angle is reduced from tetrahedral angle to 104.5 0.
Geometry is bent shape or inverted V shape.

XeF4
It has square planar geometry
Four bond pairs and two lone pairs
20. Draw the potential energy curve for the formation of a hydrogen molecule on the basis of inter nuclear
nucle
distance of the hydrogen atoms.

21. The orbital overlap concept of covalent bond formation.(VALENCE BOND THEORY)
(I) Covalent bonds are formed by the overlapping of half filled atomic orbitals present in the valence
shell of the combining atoms.
(II) The orbitals undergoing overlapping must have electrons with opposite spins.
(III) The greater the overlapping , the stronger the bond formed.
22. What are the difference between sigma bond and pi bond?
Sigma bond (σ bond) Pi bond (π bond)
Sigma bond is formed by the end to end (or axial ) Pi bond is formed by the side wise
overlap of atomic orbitals (or lateral ) overlap of atomic orbitals
This can be formed by overlap of s-ss ,s
,s-p ,p-p orbitals This can be formed mainly by overlap of p-p
p orbitals
Sigma bond is strong bond Pi bond is weak bond
Free rotation of atoms around sigma bond is Free rotation
on of atoms around pi bond is not possible
possible
Pz + Pz → sigma bond (σ) , Px + Px →pi bond (π) , Py + Py →pi bond (π)

23. What is Hybridization? Give their Characteristics

Inter mixing of atomic orbitals of same element with slightly different energies and different shape to get
orbitals of same energy and shape is called hybridisation.
Characteristics
(I) The number of hybridised orbitals formed is equal to the number of orbitals that get hybridized.
(II) Hybridized orbitals have same energy and shape and so more effective in forming stable bonds.
(III) The hybrid orbitals are directed in some directions, and give geometry to the molecules.
24. Explain sp3 hybridisation using CH4 as example.

Here one s orbital and three p orbitals undergo hybridisation, and four sp 3 hybridized orbitals are formed.
Tetrahedral geometry. Bond angle is 109.50.
One s orbital + Three p orbitals → Four sp3 hybridized orbitals
25. Explain sp2 hybridisation using BF3 as example

One s orbital + Two p orbitals → Three sp2 hybridized orbitals

Trigonal planar geometry. Bond angle is 1200
26. Explain sp hybridisation using BeCl2 as example

Here one s orbital and one p orbital undergo

hybridisation, and two sp hybridized orbitals are
formed.
One s orbital + One p orbital → Two sp hybridized orbitals
Linear geometry. Bond angle is 1800
27. Explain sp3d hybridisation using PCl5 as example.

One s orbital + Three p orbitals + One d orbital → Five sp3d hybridized orbitals
Trigonal bipyramid geometry. Bond angle is 120 0 and 90 0
28. Explain the geometry of PCl5 molecule and account for its high reactivity.
Hybridisation is sp3d . Trigonal bipyramid geometry.
There are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds.
The axial bonds are slightly longer than equatorial bonds due to greater repulsion from equatorial bonds.
Due to different bond lengths, it unsymmetric and highly reactive.
29. Explain sp3d2 hybridisation using SF6 as example.

One s orbital + Three p orbitals + Two d orbitals → Six sp3d2 hybridized orbitals
Octahedral geometry. Bond angle is 90 0.
30. Hybridisations in hydrocarbons
In alkanes, all carbon atoms are in sp3 hybridisation.
In alkenes , double bonded carbons are in sp2 hybridisation
In
n alkynes , triple bonded carbons are in sp hybridization
Ethane →7 sigma bonds

Ethene (Ethylene) → 5 sigma bonds and 1 pi bond

Ethyne ( Acetylene) → 3 sigma bonds and 2 pi bond

31.Hybridization and shape of the molecules

Hybridization No. of electron Shape of the Examples Bond angle
pairs molecule
sp 2 (bp) Linear BeF2, BeCl2 180 0
sp 2 3(bp) Trigonal planar BF3 120 0
sp 3 4(bp) Tetrahedral CH4 109.5 0
sp 3d 5(bp) Triogonal bi pyramid PCl5 120 0, 90 0
sp 3d 2 6(bp) octahedral SF6 90 0
sp 3 3(bp), 1 (lp) Trigonal pyramidal NH3 107 0
sp 3 2(bp), 2 (lp) Bent or inverted V H2O 104.5 0
shape
32. What are the postulates of Molecular orbital theory (MOT)?
(I) In molecules, electrons are present in molecular orbitals.
(II) Molecular orbitals are formed by the combination of atomic orbitals of same energy and proper
geometry.
(III) The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of combining atomic orbitals.
(IV) Molecular orbitals are associated with the nuclei of all the bonded atoms in a molecule.
(V) In molecular orbitals
ls electrons are filled according to Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and
Hund’s rule.
33. What are the differences between bonding molecular orbital and anti bonding molecular orbital?
BMO ψA + ψ B ABMO ψA - ψ B
BMO is formed by the addition (attraction) of atomic ABMO is formed by the substraction (repulsion) of atomic
orbitals orbitals
It has greater electron density between the nuclei of It has less electron density between the nuclei of bonded
bonded atoms atoms
Its energy is less than the energy of atomic orbitals Its energy is more than the energy of atomic orbitals
34. Define bond order . How is bond order related to bond length and bond strength?
Bond order is defined as half of the difference between the numb
number er of electrons in the bonding molecular
orbitals and the number of electrons in the anti bonding molecular orbitals .
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ]
If the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
If the bond order is zero,, molecule is unstable. Such molecule will not exist.
Bond order is directly proportional to bond strength and bond dissociation energy.
Bond order is inversely proportional to bond length.
Bond order = 1 , single bond ,Bond
Bond order = 2 , double bond , Bond order = 3 , triple bond
35. Explain the stability and magnetic property of H 2 molecule (2 electrons)

σ1s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 0 ] = 1
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 1 , single bond,
No unpaired electrons, diamagnetic.

36. Why He2 molecule will not exist? (4 electrons)

σ 1s2 σ*1s2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 2 ] = 0
Here the bond order is zero , molecule is unstable. So it will
not exist.
37. He2+ is stable. Give reason
σ1s2 σ*1s1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [2 - 1 ] = 0.5
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
38. Electronic configuration of some diatomic molecules and their bond order
Molecule Electronic configuration Bond Stable/ No. of Diamagnetic/
order unstable bonds paramagnetic
2 2 2
Li2 σ1s σ*1s σ2s 1 Stable 1 diamagnetic
Be2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 0 Unstable
2 2 2 2 1 1
B2 σ1s σ*1s σ2s σ*2s π2px = π2py 1 Stable 1 paramagnetic
C2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2 2 Stable 2 diamagnetic
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
F2 σ1s σ*1s σ2s σ*2s σ2pz π2px = π2py 1 Stable 1 diamagnetic
π*2px2 = π*2py2
Ne2 σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 0 Unstable
2 2 2
π*2px = π*2py σ*2pz
39. With the help of molecular orbitals , find bond order of N 2 and explain its stability(14 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 π2px2 = π2py2 σ2pz2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 4 ] = 3
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 3 , triple bond.
Here all electrons are paired , the molecule is diamagnetic.
40. Calculate the bond order and predict the magnetic property of O 2 molecule (16 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 6 ] = 2 ,
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 2 , double bond.
Here unpaired electrons are present in π*2px and π*2py , so oxygen molecule is paramagnetic.
 41. With the help of molecular orbitals , find bond order of F 2 of explain its stability (18 electrons)
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 8 ] = 1 .
Here the bond order is positive , molecule is stable.
Bond order = 1 , single bond , Here all electrons are paired , the molecule is diamagnetic.
42.Molecular orbital diagrams
For heavier molecules (O2, F2, Ne2) For lighter molecules (B
B 2, C 2, N 2)
σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < σ2pz < σ1s < σ*1s < σ2s < σ*2s < π2px = π2py
π2px = π2py < π*2px = π*2py < σ*2pz < σ2pz < π*2px = π*2py < σ*2pz

43. Calulate bond order . Compare the stability ( Bond dissociation enthalpy ). Arrange in the increasing order
of bond length O2, O2+ and O2- , O22-

O2 (16 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 6 ] = 2
O2+ (16-1 = 15 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px1 = π*2py0
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 5 ] = 2.5

O2- (16 + 1 = 17 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py1
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 7 ] = 1.5

O22- (16 + 2 = 18 electrons) → σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2 σ2pz2 π2px2 = π2py2 π*2px2 = π*2py2
Bond order = ½ [Nb - Na ] = ½ [10 - 8 ] = 1

Bond order order : O22- < O2- < O2 < O2+

Bond strength (Bond stability , Bond dissociation enthalpy ) order : O 22- < O2- < O2 < O2+

Bond length order O22- > O2- > O2 > O2+

44. What is hydrogen bond? Which are different type hydrogen bonds? Explain each
Hydrogen bond is defined as the attractive force between hydrogen atom bonded tto
o fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen and an electronegative atom of the same or adjacent molecule.

There are two types of hydrogen bonds

(I) Inter
ter molecular hydrogen bond ::- Hydrogen
ydrogen bond between different molecules of same type or
different type.
It increases the boiling point.
e.g., H bonding in HF, …….H…….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..

(II) Intra molecular hydrogen bond

bond:- Hydrogen bond within the same molecule.
It decreases the boiling point.
e.g., Hydrogen bonding in Ortho nitr
nitro phenol
45. Ortho nitro phenol and para nitro phenol can be separated by steam distillation. Explain

In ortho nitro phenol intra molecular hydrogen bond is possible and so its boiling point is low and steam
volatile.
But in para nitro phenol, inter molecular hydrogen bonding and so boiling point is high and so it is not
steam volatile. So these can be separated by steam disti
distillation.
46. H2O is liquid ,H2S is gas at room temperature. Give reason

In water , molecules are associated by inter molecular hydrogen bonds. So it exist

exists as liquid at room
temperature.
But in hydrogen sulphide , no hydrogen bond is possible. So it exists as alone and so gas.
47. HF is liquid while HCl is gas at room temperature. Give reason
In between HF molecules, inter molecular hydrogen bonds are possible and so liquid.
But not in HCl
…….H-F……H-F…….H-F……..H-F…..

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL
CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
=========================================================================
 CHAPTER 6: THERMODYNAMICS
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM(14038)
9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

======================================================
1. Define system and surrounding.
System :- The part of universe under study
Surroundings :- The remaining part of the universe that interact with system
Universe = System + Surrounding
2. Explain open system, closed system and isolated system with example.
(I) Open system :- A system which can exchange both energy and matter with the surroundings.
e.g. Hot water in a cup
(II) Closed system :- A system can exchange only energy but not matter with the surroundings.
e.g. Hot water in a closed steel tumbler.
(III) Isolated system :- A system which can neither exchange matter nor energy with the surroundings.
e.g. Hot water in a perfectly insulated thermos flask.
3. What are state functions and path functions? Give examples for each.
A function or property that depends only on the initial state and final state of the system and not on
the path followed is called state function.
Examples :- Temperature(T) , Pressure (P), Volume (V) , Internal energy (U) , Enthalpy (H) , Entropy (S) ,
Gibbs free energy (G)
A function or property that depends on the initial state and final state of the system and on the path
followed also is called path function.
Examples:- Heat(q) , work (w)
4. What are extensive and intensive properties? Give examples for each.
(I) Extensive properties :- These are properties which depend on the amount of matter present in
the system.
Examples: - Mass (m) , Volume (V) , Length (l), Internal energy (U) , Enthalpy (H) , Entropy (S) ,
Gibbs free energy (G), heat capacity etc
(II) Intensive properties:- These are properties which are independent on the amount of matter
present in the system.
Examples : - Temperature ,pressure, density , refractive index , viscosity , surface tension ,
specific heat , molar heat capacity
5. Explain (a) isothermal process (b) isobaric process (c) isochoric process (d) adiabatic process.
Types of process Explanation Condition
Isothermal process A process which takes place at constant temperature ∆T= 0
Isobaric process A process which takes place at constant pressure ∆P= 0
Isochoric process A process which takes place at constant volume ∆V= 0
Adiabatic process A process which takes place at constant heat d q= 0
6. What are reversible and irreversible processes
Reversible process:- A process is thermodynamically reversible if it can be reversed at any stage by a very
small change in some conditions such as temperature, pressure or concentration. At every stage the
process is in thermodynamic equilibrium and the process will take place infinitesimally slowly.
 Irreversible process:- A process which cannot be reversed by a small change in any one of the controlling
properties is called an irreversible process.
An irreversible process proceeds to one direction and it does not remain in equilibrium
7. What is Internal energy (U) ? How internal energy can be changed?
Internal energy is the total energy present within a substance.
Internal energy is the sum of all types of molecular energies like translational energy, rotational energy,
vibrational energy, electronic energy , nuclear energy etc.
It is a state function and extensive property. It can be changed by the following ways:
(i) By allowing heat to flow in to the system or out of the system
(ii) By doing work on the system or by the system.
8. State First law of thermo dynamics and give its mathematical form.
It is law of conservation of energy. It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Mathematical form is ∆U = q + w
∆U = change in internal energy, q = heat, w = work
For expansion work ( w = - P∆V) , ∆U = q − P∆V
Work done on the system, w = +ve, Work done by the system, w = −ve,
Heat absorbed by the system, q = +ve , Heat liberated by the system , q = −ve
9. Write the expression for
(i) Work done by the gas in irreversible expansion or compression
W = −Pext∆V = −Pext(Vf-Vi)
(ii) Work done in isothermal reversible expansion or compression of an ideal gas.
Wrev = −2.303 nRT log Vf/Vi OR
Wrev = − 2.303 nRT log Pi/Pf
10. What is the the significance of ∆U ?
Change in internal energy (∆U) is the heat absorbed or evolved at constant volume.
∆U = q − P∆V
For a process taking place at constant volume (∆V = 0 ). So ∆U = qv
11. Define Enthalpy (H)
Enthalpy is the heat content of the system.
Enthalpy is the sum of the internal energy and pressure volume energy .
H = U + PV
It is a state function and extensive property.
12. Give the relation connecting ∆H and ∆U.
∆H = ∆U + P ∆V OR
∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT
Where ∆n= nP − nR
13. What is the significance of ∆H?
Change in enthaly (∆H) is the heat absorbed or evolved at constant pressure.
∆H = ∆U + P ∆V ( at constant pressure )
From first law of thermodynamics , ∆U = q − P∆V
∆U + P∆V = q
Therefore ∆H = qp .

14. The relation connecting q p and q v is

q p = q v + ∆n RT
15. What are exothermic and endothermic reactions? Give its sign of ∆H.
Exothermic reactions Endothermic reactions
The reactions which takes by the liberation of The reactions which takes by the absorption of
heat is called exothermic reactions heat is called endothermic reactions
Eg. C+O2→CO2 ∆H = −393.5 kJ Eg. N2+O2→ 2 NO ∆H = 180.5 kJ
For exothermic reactions, ∆H = −ve. For endothermic reactions, ∆H = +ve.

16. Define Heat capacity, Specific heat capacity (specific heat), Molar heat capacity ?
Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise its temperature through 1 0C
It is an extensive property.
Specific heat capacity (specific heat) :-It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram
of the substance through 10C .
Molar heat capacity :- It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mol substance
through 10C .
Specific heat capacity and molar heat capacity are intensive properties.
17. Derive the relation between Cp and Cv for an ideal gas.
Cp → Molar heat capacity at constant pressure. C v →Molar heat capacity at constant volume.
q =C∆T
qv = Cv∆T = ∆U and qp = Cp∆T = ∆H
H = U + PV
∆H = ∆U + ∆(PV) OR
∆H = ∆U + ∆(RT) (For 1 mol of ideal gas) OR
∆H = ∆U + R∆T
Substituting the value of ∆H and ∆U in the above equation
Cp∆T = Cv∆T + R∆T
Cp = C v + R OR
Cp − Cv = R
18. What is Thermo chemical equation?
A chemical equation which indicates the enthalpy change occurring during the reaction is called thermo
chemical equation.
Eg. C(s) +O2(g)→CO2 (g) ∆H = −393.5 kJ
(I) For exothermic reactions, ∆H = −ve, For endothermic reactions, ∆H = +ve.
(II) Physical states of reactants and products should be specified.
(III) When the coefficients in the chemical equations are multiplied or divided, the value of ∆H must
be multiplied or divided.
(IV) When a chemical equation is reversed, the sign of ∆H is reversed. (magnitude remain same)
19. Define each of the following.
(a) Enthalpy of reaction:The enthalpy change during a chemical reaction.
∆rH = Sum of enthalpies of products − Sum of enthalpies of reactants
The enthalpy change during a chemical reaction when all participating substances are in standard state is
called standard enthalpy of reaction. (standard state: pure forms, 1 bar pressure, 298 K temperature)
(b) Standard enthalpy of combustion :-It is defined as the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is
completely burned in the presence of air or oxygen when all their reactants and products are in their
standard state.
Enthalpy combustion is always negative.
(c) Standard enthalpy of formation :The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its
elements in their stable states.
(d) Enthalpy of solution:The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is dissolved in a specified amount
of solvent.
(e) Standard enthalpy of fusion :The enthalpy change when one mole of a solid is converted to its liquid state
at its melting point under standard pressure 1 bar.
(f) Standard enthalpy of vapourisation: The enthalpy change when one mole of a liquid is converted to its
gaseous state at its boiling point under standard pressure 1 bar.
(g) Standard enthalpy of sublimation:The enthalpy change when one mole of a solid is directly converted to
its gaseous state at a constant temperature and 1 bar pressure.
20. Importance of standard enthalpy of formation:-It is useful for calculating standard enthalpies of a reaction
Standard enthalpy change of a reaction =
Standard enthalpies of formation of products - Standard enthalpies of formation of reactants.
The standard enthalpy of formation of all elements in their standard state is taken as zero.
O2→ 0, H2→ 0, N2→ 0, Cgraphite→ 0, Srhombic→ 0
21. State and illustrate Hess’s Law of Constant Heat of Summation.
It states that the enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is the same whether the
reaction takes place in one step or several steps.

∆Hr = ∆H1 +∆H2 + ∆H3

22. Give some applications of Hess’s law.

(I) It is used to determine the enthalpies of reaction.
(II) It is used to determine the enthalpy of formation
(III) It is used to determine the enthalpy of transition of allotropic forms.
(IV) It is used to determine the bond enthalpy and lattice enthalpy.
23. Define Bond enthalpy
The amount of heat required to break one mole of covalent bonds to gaseous products is called bond
dissociation enthalpy.
For diatomic molecules, bond dissociation enthalpy and bond enthalpy are same.
 In the case of poly atomic molecules, bond dissociation enthalpy is different for different bonds within
the same molecule. In such cases, bond enthalpy is the average of bond dissociation enthalpies of
various similar bonds.
24. How will you calculate enthalpy change of a reaction from bond enthalpies?
∆𝑯𝟎𝒓 = 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 − 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔
25. What is Lattice enthalpy ?
The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change when one mole of the ionic compound
dissociates in to its gaseous ions.
We cannot calculate lattice enthalpy directly by experiment. So Born Haber cycle is used to calculate it.
26. Draw Born Haber cycle for the determination of lattice enthalpy.
(Construct an enthalpy diagram for the determination of lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride)

∆𝑯𝟎𝒇 = ∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 + 𝑰𝑬 + ∆𝑯𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔 + 𝑬𝑨 + 𝑼

𝑼 = ∆𝑯𝟎𝒇 − (∆𝑯𝒔𝒖𝒃 + 𝑰𝑬 + ∆𝑯𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔 + 𝑬𝑨)
27. What is spontaneous process and non spontaneous process?
Spontaneous process is a process that takes place without the help of any external agency.
e.g. Flow of water from high level to low level, flow of heat from hot body to cold body
Non spontaneous process is a process that takes place with the help of an external agency.
E.g. flow of water from low level to high level.
28. Which are driving forces for spontaneous process?
(a) Decrease in energy (b) increase in disorder or randomness of the system
29. Define Entropy (S) ?
Entropy (S) is a measure of degree of disorder or randomness of the system.
Its unit is J/K/mol
𝐪𝐫𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞
𝐓
30. Predict in which of the following entropy increases(∆S = +ve) entropy decreases(∆S = -ve)
(a) Melting of ice → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(b) Adding a drop of ink in water→ entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(c) 2 N2O5(g) → 4 NO2(g) + O2(g) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(d) Condensation of steam in to water→ entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
 (e) Freezing of water in to ice→ entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
(f) Solid camphor converted to camphor vapour→ entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(g) 2 NaHCO3 (s) → Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (g) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(h) 4 Fe + O2 (g) →2 Fe2O3 (s) → entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
(i) Graphite to diamond→ entropy decreases (∆S = −ve)
(j) H2 (273 K)→ H2 (300 K) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(k) I 2 (s)→ I 2 (g) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)
(l) NaCl (s) + H2O → NaCl (aq) → entropy increases (∆S = +ve)

31. State Second law of thermo dynamics and gives equation

It states that the entropy of the universe increases in the course of every spontaneous (natural) change.
∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding > 0
∆Suniverse > 0
32. State third law of thermo dynamics
The entropy of any pure crystalline substance approaches zero as the temperature approaches absolute
zero. This is called third law of thermodynamics
33. Define Gibb’s free energy (G)
Gibbs energy is defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work.

G =H – TS
34. The relation connecting ∆G, ∆H, and ∆S is

∆G= ∆H −T ∆S.
35. Explain Gibb’s energy and spontaneity.
(i) If ∆G is negative, the process will be spontaneous.
(ii) If ∆G is zero, the process is in equilibrium.
(iii) If ∆G is positive, the process will be non spontaneous.
36. What are the conditions for ∆G to be negative (spontaneous process)
(I) Exothermic process (∆H = −ve) and ∆S = +ve , ∆G will be always negative and the reaction is
spontaneous.
(II) Exothermic process (∆H = −ve) and ∆S = −ve , ∆G will be negative only when
∆H > T ∆S and the reaction is spontaneous only at low temperature.
(III) Endothermic process (∆H = +ve) and ∆S = +ve , ∆G will be negative only when
∆H < T ∆S and the reaction is spontaneous only at high temperature.
(IV) Endothermic process (∆H = +ve) and ∆S = − ve , ∆G will be always positive and the reaction is always
non spontaneous.
37. The relation connecting standard Gibb’s energy (∆G0 ) and equilibrium constant(K) is
0
∆G = − 2.303 RT logK

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) ,

9947444175, YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
=========================================================================================
 CHAPTER 7: EQUILIBRIUM

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) ,

9947444175, YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
=======================================================
1. State Henry’s law and give its one application.
Henry’s law states that the mass of a gas dissolved in a given mass of solvent at a particular temperature is
directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the solvent.
i.e., 𝒎 ∝ 𝒑 or m=kp
Example: Soda water.
In soda water bottle, there is an equilibrium between the carbon dioxide molecule in the gaseous state and
the molecules dissolved in the liquid.
When soda bottle is opened, pressure decreases, solubility decreases, dissolved gases escape out rapidly
with a sound fizz.
2. What are the general characteristics of physical equilibrium?
(I) Equilibrium can be established only in closed systems.
(II) The measurable properties remain constant.
(III) The equilibrium is always dynamic. This means that two opposite processes occur at the same rate.
3. What are reversible and irreversible reactions .
A reaction which takes place both in forward and backward directions under the same conditions is called
reversible reactions.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g) ,
2SO 2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 SO3 (g)
A reaction in which the products do not react to give back the reactant is called irreversible reactions.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
4. Explain the concept of chemical equilibrium.
Consider a general reversible reaction, 𝑨 + 𝑩 ⇌ 𝑪 + 𝑫

Suppose the reaction is carried out in a closed container.

In the beginning, the concentration of A and B are
maximum and concentration of C and D are minimum
(zero).
As the reaction proceeds, the concentration of A and B
decreases and concentration of C and D increases.
Hence the forward reaction will be high in the beginning
and it will decrease gradually because of the fall in
concentration of A and B.
On the other hand, the velocity of backward reaction
increases due to increase in concentration of C and D.
Finally a stage is reached in which the rate of forward
reaction will become equal to the rate of backward
reaction. This stage is called chemical equilibrium.
5. Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature. Explain.
At equilibrium, the reaction will be still going on in the forward and backward reaction.
But the rate of forward reaction will become equal to the rate of backward reaction.
To understand dynamic nature of equilibrium, synthesis of ammonia by Haber process is carried out in two
closed systems under identical conditions.
In the first system N2 and H2 are heated and at equilibrium N2 ,H2 and NH3 will be present.
In the second system N2 and D2 are heated and at equilibrium N2 ,D2 and ND3 will be present.
After this , both systems are mixed and analysed.
It contain N2 ,H2,, D2 , NH3 , NH2D, NHD2 and ND3
Here mixing of isotopes takes place. This shows that at equilibrium the reaction is still going on in both
forward and backward directions. But the rate is same.
6. What are the characteristics of chemical equilibrium?
(I) Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature.
(II) The observable properties of the system such as pressure, concentration, colour etc. become
constant at equilibrium and remain unchanged thereafter.
(III) Chemical equilibrium can be attained from either direction. i.e., from the direction of reactants and
from the direction of products.
(IV) Chemical equilibrium can be attained only in closed systems.
7. What is law of chemical equilibrium and equilibrium constant?
[𝑪][𝑫]
Consider a general reversible reaction, 𝑨 + 𝑩 ⇌ 𝑪 + 𝑫 , 𝑲𝒄 = [𝑨][𝑩]
Consider a general reversible reaction,𝒂𝑨 + 𝒃𝑩 ⇌ 𝒄𝑪 + 𝒅𝑫
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
At a given temperature, the product of molar concentration of products divided by the product of molar
concentration of reactants with each concentration term raised to a power equal to its coefficients in the
balanced chemical equation is a constant. This constant is called equilibrium constant. This law is called law
of chemical equilibrium.
In the case of gaseous reaction, it can be written in terms partial pressure also.
𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅
𝑫
𝑲𝒑 =
𝒑𝒂 𝒃
𝑨 𝒑𝑩
8. Give the relation between Kp and Kc .
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
Kp = Equilibrium constant in terms of pressure. Kc = Equilibrium constant in terms of concentration.
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products - No. of mole of gaseous reactants.
If ∆n = 0 , Kp = Kc
If ∆n = 1 , Kp = Kc (RT)
Derivation:
Consider a general reversible reaction,𝒂𝑨 + 𝒃𝑩 ⇌ 𝒄𝑪 + 𝒅𝑫
[𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃
𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅𝑫
𝑲𝒑 = 𝒂
𝒑𝑨 𝒑𝒃𝑩
 According to ideal gas equation , PV = nRT
𝒏𝑹𝑻
∴𝑷= = 𝑪𝑹𝑻 = [ ]𝑹𝑻
𝑽

PA = [A]RT, PB = [B]RT, PC = [C]RT, PD = [D]RT

𝒑𝒄𝑪 𝒑𝒅𝑫 ([𝐂]𝐑𝐓)𝒄 ([𝐃]𝐑𝐓)𝒅 [𝑪]𝒄 [𝑫]𝒅

𝑲𝒑 = = = (𝑹𝑻)(𝒄 𝒅) (𝒂 𝒃)
= 𝑲𝒄 (𝑹𝑻)∆𝒏
𝒑𝒂𝑨 𝒑𝒃𝑩 ([𝐀]𝐑𝐓)𝒂 ([𝐁]𝐑𝐓)𝒃 [𝑨]𝒂 [𝑩]𝒃

Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
9. What are homogeneous equilibria and heterogeneous equilibria?
The equilibria in which all reactants and products are in same phase are known as homogeneous equilibria.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g)
2SO 2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 SO3 (g)
The equilibria in which reactants and products are in different phase are known as heterogeneous
equilibria.
CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
C(s) + H 2O (g) ⇌ CO (g) + H2 (g)
10. What are the characteristics of equilibrium constant?
(I) The equilibrium constant has a definite value for every reversible reaction at a particular temperature.
However, it varies with change in temperature.
(II) The value of equilibrium constant is independent of initial concentration of reactants.
(III) For a reversible reaction, the equilibrium constant for the reverse reaction will be the reciprocal of the
equilibrium constant for the forward reaction.
(IV) The value of equilibrium constant is not affected by the addition of a catalyst to the reaction.
This is because the catalyst increases the speed of both forward reaction and backward reaction to the
same extent.
11. What are the applications of equilibrium constant?
(I) Prediction of extent of reaction:-
Larger the value of equilibrium constant , greater is the extent to which the reactants are converted
into the products.
If Kc > 10 3 , products predominates over the reactants.
If Kc < 10 -3 , reactants predominates over the products.
If Kc is between 10 3 and 10 -3 , appreciable concentration of reactants and products.
(II) Prediction of direction of reaction.
If Qc > Kc , the reaction will proceed in the backward direction .(in the direction of reactants)
If Qc < Kc , the reaction will proceed in the forward direction. .(in the direction of products)
If Qc = Kc , the reaction will be in equilibrium.
(III) Calculation of equilibrium concentration:-
(IV) If the equilibrium constant of a reaction is known , equilibrium concentration of a substance in the
equilibrium mixture can be calculated.
12. State Le-chatelier principle.
If a system in equilibrium is subjected to change in concentration, temperature or pressure, the equilibrium
shifts in the direction that tends to reduce the effect of the change.
13. How do the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure affect of the rate of a chemical reaction?
(I) Effect of change of concentration:-
If the concentration of any one of the reactants is increased, the equilibrium will shift in the forward
direction and more of the products will be formed.
If the concentration of any one of the products is increased, the equilibrium will shift in the backward
direction and more of the reactants will be formed.
Removal of a product equilibrium mixture will shift the equilibrium in the forward direction.
(II) Effect of change of temperature:-
If the forward reaction is exothermic, the backward reaction will be endothermic and vice versa.
Increase of temperature will shift the equilibrium in the direction of endothermic reaction
(in the direction of absorption of heat).
Decrease of temperature will shift the equilibrium in the direction of exothermic reaction
(in the direction of heat is produced).
(III) Effect of change of pressure:-
Pressure has effect only when the change of number of moles of gaseous substances.
Increase of pressure will shift the equilibrium in the direction in which the pressure is reduced.
( decrease in the number of molecules).
Decrease of pressure will shift the equilibrium in the direction in which the pressure is increased
(increase in the number of molecules).
14. What happens when catalyst is added to equilibrium?
The equilibrium is not affected by the addition of a catalyst to the reaction. This is because the catalyst
increases the speed of both forward reaction and backward reaction to the same extent.
But it help to achieve the equilibrium quickly.
15. What happens when inert gas is added to equilibrium?
The equilibrium remains undisturbed by the addition of inert gas.
It is because the addition of an inert gas at constant volume does not the molar concentration or partial
pressure of the substance involved in the reaction.
16. Explain the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure in the following reaction.
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g), ∆H = -92.4 kJ.
(I) Effect of concentration:- If we increase the concentration of N2 or H2, the equilibrium will shift in
forward direction and more NH3 is formed. If we remove NH3 formed by cooling, the equilibrium
will shift in forward direction and more NH3 is formed.
(II) Effect of pressure:- Here forward reaction is accompanied by the decrease in the number of moles,
so high pressure will favour forward reaction and more NH3 is formed.
(III) Effect of temperature:- Here forward reaction is exothermic and so low temperature will favour
forward reaction. But at very low temperature, N2 and H2 will be less reactive and so optimum
temperature is used (500 0C).
17. Explain the effect of concentration, temperature and pressure in the following reaction.
2SO 2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 SO3 (g) ∆H = -92.4 kJ.
(I) Effect of concentration:- If we increase the concentration of SO 2 or O2 , the equilibrium will shift in
forward direction and more SO3 is formed. If we remove SO3 formed, the equilibrium will shift in
forward direction and more SO3 is formed.
 (II) Effect of pressure :-Here forward reaction is accompanied by the decrease in the number of moles,
so high pressure will favour forward reaction and more SO3 is formed.
(III) Effect of temperature:-Here forward reaction is exothermic and so low temperature will favour
forward reaction. But at very low temperature, SO2 and O2 will be less reactive and so optimum
temperature is used (450 0C).
18. Explain the effect of pressure in the following reactions.
(I) PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Here forward reaction is accompanied by the increase in the number of moles, so low pressure
will favour forward reaction. High pressure will favour backward reaction.
(II) H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2 HI (g)
Pressure has effect only when the change of number of moles of gaseous substances. Here no
change in number of molecules of reactants and products. So pressure has no effect.
19. Explain the effect of temperature in the following reactions.
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2 NO(g), ∆H = 180 kJ.
Here forward reaction is endothermic, and hence increase in temperature will favour forward reaction.
20. An aqueous solution of CuSO4 is acidic while that of Na2SO4 is neutral. Explain.
CuSO4 +2 H2O →Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4
Here Cu(OH)2 is weak base and H2SO4 is strong acid. H2SO4 ionises completely. More H+ ions are formed
and so acidic solution.
Na2SO4 +2 H2O →2 NaOH+ H2SO4 ( 2 Na+ + 2 OH- + 2 H+ + SO42-)
Here NaOH and H2SO4 are formed. Both are strong and ionizes completely. So H+ and OH− concentrations
are equal and neutral solution.
21. Explain the effect of pressure in the following equilibrium
(I) CO(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌CH4(g) + H2O(g)
Number of moles of gaseous reactants= 1+3 =4
Number of moles of gaseous products = 1+1 =2
When pressure increases , the equilibrium will shift in the direction in which the number of
molecules are decreased. Here forward direction.
(II) N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g).
Number of moles of gaseous reactants= 1+1 =2
Number of moles of gaseous products =2
22. Define Ionic equilibrium?
The equilibrium established between ionized molecules and unionized molecules in solution of weak
electrolyte is called ionic equilibrium.
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
23. Explain Arrhenius concept of acids and bases with examples
Arrhenius acid is a substance which give hydrogen ion(H+) in aqueous solution.
e.g., HCl, CH3COOH etc.
Arrhenius base is a substance which give hydroxyl ion(OH-) in aqueous solution.
e.g., NaOH, NH4OH etc.
24. Explain Bronsted Lowry concept of acids and bases with examples.
Bronsted acid is a proton(H+) donor.
Bronsted base is a proton(H+) acceptor.
CH3COOH + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
25. What are conjugated acid base pairs with examples
Conjugated acid = Base + H+
Conjugated base = Acid - H+
The pairs of acids and bases which are formed by the loss or gain of proton are called conjugated acid
base pairs.
CH3COOH + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O+ + CH3COO-
Acid Base Acid Base
-
Here CH3COO is a conjugate base of acid CH3COOH
H3O+ is a conjugate acid of base H2O
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
Base Acid Acid Base
-
Here OH is a conjugate base of acid H2O. NH4+ is a conjugate acid of base NH3
Conjugate base of strong acid is weak and conjugate base of weak acid is strong.
Species Conjugate acid Conjugate base
H2 O H3 O + OH-
HCO3 – H2CO3 CO3 2–
HSO4 – H2SO4 SO4 2–
NH3 NH4+ NH2 –
26. Explain Lewis concept of acids and bases with examples.
Lewis acids are electron pair acceptors.
Lewis acids are electron deficient molecules or cations (Positive ions) e.g. , BF 3 , AlCl3 , Mg2+ , Co3+ , H+
Lewis bases are electron pair donors.
Lewis bases are neutral molecules having lone pair or anions (Negative ions) e.g. , NH3 , H2O , OH- , Cl-
27. What are Amphoteric substances?
Substances which can act as both acid and base. E.g., H2O , HCO3- , HSO4-

28. Explain ionization constant of weak acid and its importance.

[𝑯𝟑 𝑶 ][𝑿 ]
HX + H 2 O ⇌ H 3 O+ + X- 𝑲𝒂 =
[𝑯𝑿
𝑯𝑿]
Ka = ionization constant of acid.
Larger the value of Ka , higher the concentration of H3O+ , and stronger the acid.
𝑲𝒂
Degree of dissociation of weak acid , 𝜶=
𝑪
C = concentration.
29. Explain ionization constant of weak base and its importance.
[𝑴 ][𝑶𝑯 ]
MOH ⇌ M+ + OH- 𝑲𝒃 =
[𝑴𝑶𝑯]
Kb = ionization constant of base.
 Larger the value of Kb, higher the concentration of OH- , and stronger the base.
𝑲𝒃
Degree of dissociation of weak base, 𝜶 =
𝑪
30. Define ionic product of water. What is its value at 298 K?
Water undergo self ionization as follows.
[𝑯𝟑 𝑶 ][𝑶𝑯 ]
H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH- 𝑲=
[𝑯𝟐 𝑶]𝟐
K[H2O]2 = Kw = [H3O+ ] [ OH-]
Ionic product of water is the product of concentration of hydronium ion and hydroxyl ion.
Its value at 298 K is 1 x 10-14
In pure water , concentration of hydronium ion and hydroxyl ion is equal. [H 3O+ ] =1 x 10-7 , [ OH-]=1 x 10-7
31. Define PH and calculate the PH of neutral solution.
PH is defined as negative logarithm of hydronium concentration.
PH = −log[H3O+ ]
For neutral solution, [H3O+ ] =1 x 10-7 , [OH-] =1 x 10-7
PH = - log(1 x 10-7) = 7
For acidic solution PH is less than 7.
For basic solution PH is greater than 7
For neutral solution PH is 7
32. The relation between PH and POH is PH + POH =14
33. The relation between Ka and Kb is Ka x K b = K w
34. The relation between pKa and pKb is P Ka + P Kb = P Kw =14
35. What is Buffer solution? Which are two types? Explain each
Buffer solution is a solution which resists the change in pH value by the addition of small amount
of acid or base.
Blood is an example of natural buffer.
These are two types
(I) Acidic buffer:- Its pH is less than 7. It is mixture of weak acid and its salt with strong base.
eg. , solution of acetic acid and sodium acetate.
(II) Basic buffer:- Its pH is more than 7. It is mixture of weak base and its salt with strong acid.
eg. , solution of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
36. Give Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for acidic buffer and basic buffer.
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑶𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒃 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆]
37. Define Common ion effect and give examples.
Common ion effect is defined as the suppression of dissociation of weak electrolyte by the addition of
strong electrolyte containing common ion.
e.g. The ionisation of ammonium hydroxide is suppressed by adding ammonium chloride.
The ionisation of acetic acid is suppressed by adding sodium acetate.
38. The solubility of sparingly soluble salt is less than 0.01 M
39. Define Solubility product.
Solubility product is the product of concentration of ions in saturated solution. OR
Solubility product is the product of concentration of ions of sparingly soluble salt.
For AgCl salt , Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]
For BaSO4 salt , Ksp = [Ba2+][ SO42-]
For PbCl2 salt , Ksp = [Pb2+][ Cl-]2
For Al(OH)3 salt , Ksp = [Al3+][ OH-]3
For Ca3(PO4)2 salt , Ksp = [Ca2+]3[ PO4 3- ]2
40. Give the relations connecting solubility product and solubility.
Solubility product is used to calculate solubility of sparingly soluble salts.
For AB type salt , , Ksp = S2
For AB2 type salt , , Ksp = 4 S3
For AB3 type salt , , Ksp = 27 S4
41. What is Salt hydrolysis ? Explain.
Salt on hydrolysis with water give acidic or basic solution is called salt hydrolysis.
(i) Salt of a strong acid and weak base gives acidic solution. It converts blue litmus paper to red.
Examples : NH4Cl , FeCl3 , CuSO4
NH4Cl + H2O ⇌ NH4OH + HCl
HCl is strong acid and ionizes completely give H+ ions and so the solution is acidic.
(ii) Salt of a weak acid and strong base gives basic solution. It converts red litmus paper to blue.
Examples : CH3COONa ,Na2CO3 , KCN
CH3COONa + H2O ⇌ CH3COOH + NaOH
NaOH is strong baseand ionizes completely give OH- ions and so the solution is basic.
(iii) Salt of a weak acid and weak base gives acidic or basic solution depending on the P Ka and P Kb of
the acid or base formed. E.g. Ammonium acetate (CH3COON H4), ammonium carbonate
PH = 7 + ½ ( P Ka - P Kb )
(iv) Salt of a strong acid and strong base gives neutral solution. Examples : NaCl, NaNO 3 , KCl
42. Classify the following solutions into acidic, basic and neutral.
NaCl, NH4NO3, NaCN, NaNO2 ,CH3COONa, NH4Cl, CH3COONH4
Solution:
Acidic: NH4NO3 , NH4Cl
Basic: CH3COONa
Neutral: NaCl
============================================================================================
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175,
YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

========================================================================
 UNIT 8 : REDOX REACTIONS
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175,
YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

=====================================================
1. Define Redox reactions
Reactions in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously are called redox reactions.
Reduction + oxidation→ Redox reac on
Examples from our daily life : (I) Rusting of iron (II) Operation of cells and batteries (III) Combustion of
cooking gas , coal , wood etc.
2. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of classical concept

Oxidation Reduction
Addition of oxygen. C + O2 → CO2 Removal of oxygen. ZnO + C → Zn + CO
Removal of hydrogen, 2H2S + O2 → 2S + 2H2O Addition of hydrogen. 2H2S + O2 → 2S + 2H2O
Addition of electronegative element. Removal of electronegative element.
Mg + Cl2→ MgCl2 2 FeCl3+ H2→ 2 FeCl2+ 2HCl
Removal of electropositive element. Addition of electropositive element.
𝟐𝑲𝟒 [𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵)𝟔 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 𝟐 𝑯𝒈𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝑺𝒏𝑪𝒍𝟐 → 𝑯𝒈𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝑺𝒏𝑪𝒍𝟒
→ 𝟐𝑲𝟑 [𝑭𝒆(𝑪𝑵)𝟔 + 𝟐 𝑲𝑶𝑯
3. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of electronic concept
Oxidation: Removal of electrons. Zn→ Zn2+ + 2e-
Reduction: Addition of electrons. Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu
4. Give examples for redox reactions that takes place in aqueous solution .
(I) When zinc metal is added to blue coloured copper sulphate solution, zinc displaces copper and
solution become colourless. Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Here Zn is oxidized to Zn2+ and Cu2+ is reduced to Cu.
Here Zn is reducing agent (reductant), Cu2+ is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
(II) When copper metal is added to silver nitrate solution, copper displaces silver.
Cu + 2 Ag+ → Cu2+ + 2 Ag
Here Cu is oxidized to Cu2+ and Ag+ is reduced to Ag.
Here Cu is reducing agent (reductant), Ag+ is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
5. Define the term Oxidation state (oxidation number)
The charge that an atom would have in a compound or ion.
6. Rules assigning oxidation number.
(I) In free state (O2, Cl2, N2, H2, Cu , Na , Fe , P4 , S8 ) → 0
(II) For mono atomic ion, charge is the oxidation state (Ag + → +1, Cu2+ →+2 , Cl - →-1, O 2- →-2)
(III) Fluorine→ -1 (in compounds)
(IV) Hydrogen → +1 (in compounds)(exception in metal hydrides like NaH -1)
(V) Oxygen → -2 (in compounds)(exception in peroxides like H 2O2 → -1, in OF2→+2)
(VI) Alkali metals→+1 ,Alkaline earth metals→ +2 in their compounds
(VII) For neutral molecule total charge equal to zero
(VIII) For poly atomic ions, sum is equal to the charge of the ion.
 7. Define oxidation and reduction on the basis of oxidation number concept
Oxidation: Increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: Decrease in oxidation number.
-2 0 -1 0
H2S + Cl2→ 2HCl + S
Here the oxidation number of sulphur in H2S is -2, it is increased to zero (oxidation ).
Here the oxidation number of chlorine in Cl 2 is 0, it is decreased to -1 (Reduction ).
H2S is reducing agent (reductant), Cl2 is oxidizing agent (oxidant).
8. What is Oxidant and reductant?
The substance undergoing oxidation is reducing agent(reductant) and the substance undergoing
reduction is oxidizing agent (oxidant)
9. Which is the substance undergoing oxidation, reduction, oxidant and reductant in the reactions.
0 +4 +2
(I) Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Pb undergo oxidation , PbO2 undergo reduction, PbO2 is oxidizing agent, Pb is reducing agent.
+4 -1 +2 0
(II) MnO2 +4 HCl→MnCl2+Cl2+2H2O
HCl undergo oxidation , MnO2 undergo reduction, MnO2 is oxidizing agent, HCl is reducing agent.
-2 +5 +4 0
(III) H2S +2 HNO3 → 2NO2+ 2H2O+S
H2S undergo oxidation, HNO3 undergo reduction, HNO3 is oxidizing agent, H2S is reducing agent.
10. Explain the different types of redox reactions with examples.
(I) Combination reactions:-A reaction in which one element combines with another element or
compound to form product is called combination reactions.
2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O ,
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 +2 H2O
(II) Decomposition reactions:- A reaction in which a compound breaks down to form two or
more components in which one of the product should be in the elemental state.
2KClO3→2KCl+3 O2 ,
2 NaCl → 2 Na + Cl2
(III) Displacement reactions:-A reaction in which an atom or ion in a compound is replaced by
another atom or ion.
CuSO4 + Zn →Cu + ZnsO4 (metal displaces a metal)
2 Na + 2 H2O→ 2 NaOH + H2 (metal displaces a non metal)
(IV) Disproportionation reactions:-A reaction in which the same species undergo simultaneous
oxidation and reduction is called disproportionation reaction.
The element should be in the intermediate oxidation state.
-1 -2 0
(i) 2 H2O2→2H2O +O2
0 -3 +1
(ii) P4 + 3 NaOH + 3 H2O→ PH3 + 3 NaH2PO2
11. All decomposition reactions are not redox reactions. Give example.
Decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon di oxide is not a redox reaction. In this
reaction, no change in the oxidation number of any elements.
+2 +4 -2 +2 -2 +4 -2

CaCO3→ CaO+ CO2

12. ClO3− undergo disproportionation, but ClO4− does not. Explain.
In ClO4− , the oxidation state of chlorine is +7. This is the highest oxidation state of chlorine.
It can only decrease its oxidation number, but cannot increase it. So ClO 4- does not undergo
disproportionation reaction .
In ClO3- , the oxidation state of chlorine is +5. It can increase or decrease its oxidation number. So it
undergo disproportionation reaction.
+5 -1 +7
4 ClO3- → Cl - + 3 ClO4−
13. Balance the following equation using oxidation number method. Cu +NO 3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
0 +5 +4 +2
Cu +NO3−
→ NO2+ Cu2+
(II) Find out increase and decrease of Oxidation Number and equalize Cu +2 NO 3− → NO2+ Cu2+
(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. Cu +2 NO3− →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding H + ( since it is in acidic medium)
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Cu +2 NO3− + 4 H+ →2 NO2+ Cu2+ +2 H2O
14. Balance the following equation using oxidation number method , Permanganate ion react with bromide
in basic medium to form manganese dioxide and bromate ion.
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
+7 -1 +4 +5
MnO4−
+ Br →MnO2 + BrO3− ( Oxidation number of Mn decreases by 3 and oxidation
−

number of Br increased by 6)
(II) Equalize increase and decrease in oxidation number. Multiply permanganate ion by 2 .
2MnO4- + Br- →MnO2 + BrO3-
(III) Equalize atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. 2MnO4- + Br- →2 MnO2 + BrO3-
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding OH- ( since it is in basic medium)
2MnO4- + Br- →2 MnO2 + BrO3- + 2 OH-
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
2MnO4- + Br- + H2O →2 MnO2 + BrO3- + 2 OH-
15. Write the balanced chemical equation of K2Cr2O7 with Na2SO3 in acidic medium to form chromium (III)
ion and sulphate ion.
(I) Write skeleton equation and assign oxidation number.
+6 +4 +3 +6
Cr2O72- +SO32- →Cr3+ + SO42- - ( Oxidation number of Cr decreases by 6 ( 2 x 3 ) and oxidation number
of S increased by 2)
(II) Equalize increase and decrease in oxidation number. Here multiply SO 32- ion by 3 .
Cr2O72- +3 SO32- →Cr3+ + SO42-
(III) Equalize atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen. Cr2O72- +3 SO32- → 2Cr3+ + 3 SO42-
(IV) Equalize the charge on both side by adding H + ( since it is in acidic medium)
Cr2O72- +3 SO32- + 8 H+ →2 Cr3+ +3 SO42-
(V) Balancing hydrogen atom by adding H2O and check the number of oxygen atoms.
Cr2O72- +3 SO32- + 8 H+ →2 Cr3+ +3 SO42- + 4 H2O
16. Balance the following reaction by half reaction method 𝑭𝒆𝟐 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝑪𝒓𝟑 (acidic
medium)
(I) Split the skeleton in to two half –oxidation half and reduction half
Oxidation half : 𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 → 𝑪𝒓𝟑
(II) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 ,
𝟐 𝟑
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓
(III) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H+
𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 ,
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(IV) Balance the charges by adding electrons
𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝟏 𝒆 ,
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝟔𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(V) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟐 → 𝟔 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝟔 𝒆 ,
𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 + 𝟔𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(VI) Adding the two half reactions 𝟔𝑭𝒆𝟐 + 𝑪𝒓𝟐 𝑶𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏𝟒 𝑯 → 𝟔 𝑭𝒆𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑪𝒓𝟑 + 𝟕 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
17. Permanganate ion oxidizes iodide ion to iodine in basic medium. Balance the equation by half reaction
method. The skeletal equation is 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝑰 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝑰𝟐
(I) Split in to two half
Oxidation half : 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐
Reduction half : 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐
(II) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen.
𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐

𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐

(III) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H+ . Since it is basic medium add OH- on
both side equal to H+ ions. Replace H+ and OH- by H2O. Cancel excess water molecules.
𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
(IV) Balance the charges by adding electrons
𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒆
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟑 𝒆 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯
(V) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
𝟑(𝟐 𝑰 → 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒆 )
𝟐 (𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟑 𝒆 → 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑶𝑯 )
𝑶𝑹
𝟔 𝑰 → 𝟑 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟔 𝒆
𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟔 𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟖 𝑶𝑯
(VI) Adding the two half reactions 𝟔 𝑰 + 𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒 + 𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝟑 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐 + 𝟖 𝑶𝑯
 18. Stock notations :-Here oxidation number is written as roman numerals in bracket after the symbol of
the metal in molecular formula.
(a) Mn(IV)O2 (b) HAu(III)Cl4 (c) Fe(II)O
19. Explain redox reactions as the basis of titrations
(i) Permanganometric titration: KMnO4(Potassium permanganate) solution is titrated against reducing
agents such as Fe2+, oxalic acid etc. Potassium permanganate itself act as indicator. The end point is
the appearance of a pale pink colour.
(ii) Dichrometry: K2Cr2O7 (Potassium dichromate) solution is titrated against reducing agents such as
Fe2+, oxalic acid etc. The indicator in Dichrometry is diphenyl amine. The end point is the
appearance of blue colour.
(iii) Iodometry: The indicator in iodometry is starch. Starch gives blue colour with iodine.
For example, Cu2+ present in CuSO4 solution can be estimated by its reaction with iodide ion (KI)
2 Cu2+ + 4 I− → Cu2I2 + I2
The iodine so produced is titrated against sodium thiosulphate solution.
20. Explain electrochemical cell or galvanic cell as an application of redox reactions
A device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy is called electrochemical cell (galvanic cell).
e.g., Daniell cell.

Anode→ Zinc rod dipped in ZnSO4

Cathode→ copper rod dipped in CuSO4
Anode and cathode are connected by wire and volt meter externally and by salt bridge internally.
At anode (oxidation) Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
At cathode (reduction) Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu
Overall reaction Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Voltage is 1.1 V
Representation of Daniel cell is
Zn / Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu
21. Give some applications of redox reactions.
(I) Electro chemical cell or galvanic cell( e.g., Daniel cell)
(II) The strength of oxidant or reductant can be determined volumetrically ( Permanganometry ,
Dichrometry, Iodometry)

============================================================================================
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) ,
9947444175, YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
 CHAPTER :12

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY- SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM (14038) , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM

================================================================
1. Organic chemistry is the study of hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
2. Urea:- First synthesized organic compound in the laboratory by Frederic Wohler.
3. Why organic compounds are larger in number?
(a) Due to tetra valency of carbon (b) Due to the ability to form single bond and multiple bonds
(c) Due to catenation (d) Due to isomerism.
4. What is Catenation? Which element has highest catenation property?
Self linking property of an element to form long chains and rings is called Catenation
Carbon has highest catenation property.
5. What is Functional group?
Functional group is an atom or group of atoms that determine the properties of an organic compound.
Functional group Name of functional Name of organic
group compounds
-OH Hydroxyl group Alcohols
-NH2 Amino group Amines
-COOH Carboxyl group Carboxylic acids
-CO- Carbonyl group Ketones
-CHO Aldehydic group Aldehydes
-X (-F , -Cl , -Br , -I ) Halo group Halo compounds
6. What is homologous series ?
A series or group of organic compounds in which adjacent members are differed by –CH 2 group is called
homologous series. They contain same functional groups. They have similar chemical properties and
show gradual change in physical properties. They can be prepared by some general methods of
preparation.
Eg:- alkanes , alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, amines, carboxylic acids etc.
7. Nomenclaturre of organic compounds
Alkanes → Root word + ane
Alkenes → Root word + ene
Alkynes → Root word + yne
Number of Root word Number of carbon atoms Root word
carbon atoms
1 Meth- 6 Hex-
2 Eth- 7 Hept-
3 Prop- 8 Oct-
4 But- 9 Non-
4 Pent- 10 Dec-
 Compound IUPAC Name Root word Suffix
CH3−CH3 Ethane Eth- ane
CH3−CH2−CH3 Propane Prop- ane
CH3−CH2− CH2− CH3 Butane But- ane
CH3−CH2− CH2− CH2−CH3 Pentane Pent- ane
CH2=CH2 Ethene Eth- ene
CH2=CH−CH3 Propene Prop- ene
CH2=CH− CH2− CH3 Butene But- ene
CH≡CH Ethyne Eth- yne
CH≡C−CH3 Propyne Prop- yne
8. Some alkyl groups
CH3− Methyl
CH3−CH2− Ethyl
CH3−CH2− CH2− Propyl
CH3
CH3─CH─ Isopropyl
CH3−CH2− CH2− CH2− Butyl
9. Structure and nomenclature of some compounds
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3─CH─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH3 2,4,7 – Trimethyloctane

CH3 – CH2 – CH- CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3

CH2-CH3 CH3 3-Ethyl-5-methylheptane
methylheptane

10. Nomenclature of cyclic compounds

1-Methyl-3-propylcyclohexane
propylcyclohexane
11. Nomenclature of aromatic compounds

1,2 – Dibromobenzene 1,3 – Dibromobenzene

1,4 – Dibromobenzene

1-Chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene

2-Chloro-1-methyl-4-nitrobenzene

12. Nomenclature of compounds having functional groups

Decreasing order of priority
 Hexa-
Hexa 1,3-dien-5-yne

5-oxohexanoic
oxohexanoic acid
13.Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
i) CH3─CH2─CH─CH2─CH2─CH─CH2─CH3
OH CH3
ii) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-COOH COOH
Ans:
i) 6-Methyloctan-3-ol
ii) Hex-3-en-1-oic acid
14. What is isomerism? Which are two types of isomerism?
Compounds having same molecular formula but different properties are called isomers and the
phenomenon is called isomerism. There are two types (i) structural isomerism and (ii) stereo isomerism

15.Structural isomerism :-
Structural isomers have same molecular formula but different structural formula.
(i) Chain isomerism : They have same molecular formula but different carbon chains.

They have molecular formula C5H12

(ii) Position isomerism : They have same molecular formula but differ in the position of functional
group. OH
(a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH , CH3 CH2 CHCH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O
Butan-1-ol Butan-2-ol
(b) 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 , 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
But-2-ene
ene But
But-1-ene
ene Molecular formula : C4H8
(iii) Functional group isomerism : They have same molecular formula but different functional groups.
(a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2OH CH3 CH2O CH2 CH3
Molecular formula : C4H10O
 (b)

Molecular formula : C3H6O

(iv) Metamerism : It arises due to different alkyl groups on either side of the same functional group.
CH3 CH2O CH2CH3 , CH3 OCH2CH2 CH3 Molecular formula : C4H10O
16. Stereo isomerism :-Stereo
Stereo isomers have same molecular formula, same structural formula, but
difference in spatial arrangement. This isomerism is stereo isomerism.
These are two types (i) Geometrical is
isomerism and (ii) Optical isomerism
17. Fission of a covalent bond
Homolysis or homolytic
molytic cleavage Heterolysis or heterolytic cleavage
Covalent bond breaks in such a way that , each Covalent bond breaks in such a way that the
of the bonded atom gives one electron each. shared pair of electrons remains with one of
the parts.
Free radicals are produced by homolysis Carbo cations (carbonium ions) and
carbanions are produced by heterolysis

18. Which are reaction intermediates? Explain each

(i) Carbo cations (carbonium ion)
ion): The groups containing positively charged carbon is called carbocation.
Carbocation is trigonal planar and sp2 hybridised.
The stability order is 10 < 20 <30

(ii) Carbanions: The groups containing negatively charged carbon is called carbanion. It is sp3 hybridised.
The stability order is 30 <20 < 10
(CH3)3C- < (CH3)2CH CH- < CH3CH2- < CH3-
(iii) Free radicals: The groups containing unpaired electron. The stability order is 10 <20 <30

19. What are nucleophiles and electrophiles ? Give examples for each.
Nucleophiles:- Nucleus loving species. A reagent that brings an electron pair is called nucleophile.
Eg: OH- , Cl- , CN- , RCOO- , carbanions (negative ions) , NH 3 , H2O (molecules having lone pair)
Electrophiles:- Electron
lectron loving species. A reagent that takes away an electron pair is called an
electrophile. Eg:- H+ , Cl+ , carbocations (positive ions), BF3, AlCl3 (electron deficient molecules)
 20. Explain the different types of electron displaceme
displacement effects in covalent bonds.
(I) Inductive effect:-
It is the permanent polarization of a sigma bond due to the presence of polar group.
It is a permanent effect.
Positive inductive effect (+I) :- By electron releasing groups . e.g. alkyl groups

Negative inductive effect (--I) : By electron withdrawing groups e.g. –NO2 , -CN
CN , -COOH , -F, -Cl
(II) Electromeric effect:-
It is a temporary effect .It is complete transfer of pi electrons of multiple bond in the presence of
attacking reagent. When attacking reagent is removed, shift back to its original condition.
Positive electromeric effect (+E) ::- pi electron shifting towards attacking reagent

Negative electromeric effect ((-E) : -pi

pi electron shifting away from the attacking reagent

(III) Resonance effect (Mesomeric effect): It is the charge produced in the molecule by the interaction of
two π- bonds or between a π- bond and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom.
Positive
sitive mesomeric effect (+M) : Electron shifting towards conjugated system.
–OH , -OR, –NH2 , halogens

Negative
gative mesomeric effect ((-M) : Electron
lectron shifting away from the conjugated system.
–NO2 , -CN , -COOH

(IV) Hyper conjugation:

It is a permanent effect.
Here the sigma electrons of C-H
H bond of alkyl group enter in to partial conjugation with the unsaturated
system or with the unshared p orbital.
 The hyper conjugative structures of propene are

The hyper conjugative structures of ethyl carbocations are

21. Purification techniques:

Purification When it is used Examples
techniques
Sublimation It is used to separate sublimable Naphthalene, iodine, camphor
compounds from non sublimable
impurities
Crystallisation It is based on the difference in the A mixture of benzoic acid and
solubilities of the compound and the naphthalene can be separated
impurities in a suitable solvent. from hot water in which benzoic
acid dissolves but naphthalene
does not
Distillation To separate (1) volatile liquids fromChloroform (bp. 334K) and
non volatile impurities (2)the liquids
Aniline(bp. 457 K)
having sufficient difference in their
boiling points
Fractional distillation To separate liquids having close Crude oil, toluene and
boiling points cyclohexane, ethanol and water
Distillation under reduced To purify liquids which decompose at Glycerol can be separated from
pressure or below its boiling points spent lye.
Steam distillation To separate substances which are Aniline water mixture
steam volatile and are immiscible with
water
Differential extraction When an organic compound is present
in aqueous solution, it is separated by Benzoic acid from water is
shaking it with an organic solvent in extracted by using benzene
which it is more soluble than in water
22. What is chromatography? Which are different types of chromatography?
Chromatography means colour writing.
This method is used to separate mixtures into their components, purify components and also to test the
purity of compounds.
These are two types
(I) Adsorption chromatography (II) Partition chromatography( Paper chromatography).
23. Name two types of chromatographic techniques based on adsorption.
(I) Column chromatography
(II) Thin layer chromatography
24. Explain column chromatography and Thin layer chromatography.
(I) Column chromatography :-The compound to be separated is converted in to movable phase and
passed through a column of adsorbent packed in a glass tube ( Stationary phase). Silica gel or
alumina gel is used as adsorbent. The components are adsorbed at different places depending
on their degree of adsorption. The most readily adsorbed component is retained near the top
and other come down to various distances in the column.
(II) Thin layer chromatography :-Thin layer of adsorbent is coated on a glass plate is called
chromatography plate. The mixture is to be separated is spotted 2 cm above the plate. It is
placed in jar containing eluant. As the eluant rises up the plate, the components are separated.
The relative adsorption of components are expressed in terms of retardation factor (R f factor)
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝑹𝒇 =
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
Colorless spots are converted to coloured spots by putting the plate in ultraviolet light or placing in
iodine jar.
25. Explain partition chromatography (e.g. paper chromatography).
It is based on differential partitioning of components of a mixture between stationary phase and mobile
phase. Chromatographic paper trapped water is stationary phase. Mixture is spotted at the base of the
paper. The paper is suspended in solvent. As the solvent rises up , the components are partitioned.
26. Detection of carbon and hydrogen
Organic compound is heated with cupric oxide. Carbon is converted to carbon dioxide which turns lime
water milky. Hydrogen is converted to water which turns anhydrous copper sulphate to blue.
27. Detection of nitrogen, sulphur and halogen: Lassaigne’ s test
It is done using sodium fusion extract (Lassaigne’ s extract) .It is prepared by heating organic compound
with sodium in a fusion tube. When red hot, it is plunged in to water taken in a china dish. The solution
is boiled and filtered. Filtrate is called sodium fusion extract (Lassaigne’ s extract) .
It is prepared to convert covalent bonded organic compounds into water soluble ionic compounds.
No. Experiment Observation Inference
1 Extract is treated with ferrous sulphate Prussian blue colour Presence of nitrogen
and concentrated sulphuric acid
2 To extract sodium nitro prusside is Violet colour Presence of sulphur
added
3 To extract acetic acid and lead acetate Black precipitate (PbS) Presence of sulphur
is added
4. To extract nitric acid and silver nitrate White precipitate (AgCl) Presence of chlorine
is added soluble in ammonium
hydroxide
Pale yellow (AgBr) precipitate Presence of bromine
slightly soluble in ammonium
hydroxide

Yellow precipitate(AgI) Presence of iodine

insoluble in ammonium
hydroxide

28. Ferriferrocyanide, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3:- The blue coloured compound in the Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen.
29. In the Lassaigne’s test for halogen, they are precipitated as silver halide( AgX )
 30. Explain the detection of phosphorous in an organic compound.
The organic compound is heated with sodium peroxide, phosphate is formed. This solution is boiled
with nitric acid ammonium molybdate . Yellow colour or yellow precipitate is formed.
The yellow precipitate is ammonium phosphomolybdate
31. Explain Leibig’s method for the estimation of carbon and hydrogen.
Organic compound is heated with copper (II) oxide, carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and hydrogen
to water.
From the weight of carbon dioxide, percentage of carbon is calculated. .
From the weight of water, the percentage of hydrogen can be calculated.
𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 =
𝟒𝟒 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
32. Explain different methods for the estimation nitrogen in an organic compound.
(i) Dumas method : Nitrogen containing organic compound is heated with copper oxide, Molecular
nitrogen (N2) is formed . From the volume of nitrogen gas collected, we can determine the percentage
of nitrogen.
𝟐𝟖 𝑿 𝑽 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑿 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝑻𝑷 =
𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝑿 𝑻𝟏
P1 = atmospheric pressure – Aqueous tension.
(ii) Kjeldahl’s method : Organic compound containing nitrogen is heated with sulphuric acid. Ammonium
sulphate is formed. It is heated with sodium hydroxide . Ammonia gas is formed. The volume of
ammonia is determined by titrating with standard acid.
From the volume of ammonia gas collected, we can determine the percentage of nitrogen.
𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

Kjeldahl’s method is not applicable to nitro and azo groups and nitrogen present in rings (e.g
pyridine). Nitrogen of these compounds does not change to ammonium sulphate under these
conditions.
33. Estimation of halogen : Carius method:- Halogen containing organic compound is heated with nitric
acid and silver nitrate. Halogen is precipitated as silver halide (AgX).
From the weight of silver halide, we can determine the percentage of halogen.
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

Atomic masses ( Cl= 35.5 , Br = 80 , Ag = 108)

34. Estimation of sulphur :Carius method:
Sulphur is precipitated as barium sulphate (BaSO4) by adding barium chloride.
From the weight of BaSO4, we can determine the percentage of sulphur .
𝟑𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓 =
𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
35. Estimation of Phosphorus: Phosphorus containing organic compound is heated with nitric acid and
ammonium molybdate. Phosphorus is precipitated as ammonium phospho molybdate.
From the weight of ammonium phospho molybdate, we can determine the percentage of phosphorus.
𝟑𝟏 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒃𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒔 =
𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟕 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
36. Estimation of oxygen:
Percentage of oxygen = 100- (sum of percentage of all other elements )
 CHAPTER 13 : HYDROCARBONS
PREPARED BY:
Y: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM
(14038) ,9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM

================================================================
1. Classification of hydrocarbons

2. How will you prepare alkanes?

(i) By the hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes in the presence of Ni or Pd or Pt catalyst.
𝑵𝒊 / 𝑷𝒅 / 𝑷𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
/ /
𝐶
𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶𝐻 + 2 𝐻 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻 − 𝐶𝐻
(ii) Alkyl halide on reduction with Zn and HCl, alkane is formed.
𝒁𝒏/𝑯
CH3 CH2Cl + H2 ⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH3 + HCl
(iii) By Wurtz reatction : Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes with even
number of carbon atoms. This reaction is known as wurtz reaction.
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑿 − 𝑹 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹 − 𝑹 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑿
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓
Bromo methane Ethane
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯 𝑪 𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓
Bromo ethane n-Butane
(iv) By decarboxylation of sodium salt of carboxylic acid with soda lime, one carbon less alkane is formed.
Soda lime is a mixture of caustic soda (NaOH)and quick lime(CaO).
𝑪𝒂𝑶 , 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑹𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑹𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
(a) When sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate) is heated with soda lime, methane is formed.
𝑪𝒂𝑶 , 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐 𝑪𝑶𝟑
(b) When
hen sodium butanoate is heated with soda lime, propane is formed.
𝑪𝒂𝑶 ,∆
CH3 CH2 CH2COONa + NaOH ⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH2 CH3 + Na2CO3
(v) By the Kolbe’s electrolysis of aqueous solution sodium salt of carboxylic acid, alkane with even number
of carbon atom is formed.
 e.g. sodium acetate (sodium ethanoate) on Kolbe’s electrolysis ethane is formed.
𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒔
𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐 𝑶 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 + 𝟐𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐
3. Explain the variation of boiling point among hydro carbons.
(I) As length of hydrocarbon increases, boiling point increases due to increase in Vander waals force
of attraction. E.g. methane < ethane<propane< butane<pentane
(II) As branch of hydrocarbon increases, boiling point decreases due to decrease in vanderwaals force
of attraction. e.g. n-pentane> isopentane> neopentane
4. What are Substitution reactions? Give example
One atom or group of atoms is replaced by the other atoms or group of atom is called substitution
reaction.
Eg. Halogenation of methane in the presence of light or at high temperature.
𝒉𝒗
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝒉𝒗
𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑫𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝒉𝒗
𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝟐 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑻𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆
𝒉𝒗
𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑪𝑪𝒍𝟒 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑻𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒆
5. Combustion reaction of alkanes :-
Alkanes on combustion with air or oxygen gives carbon dioxide and water is produced. It is an exothermic
reaction.
𝟏
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝟖𝟗𝟎𝑲𝑱𝒎𝒐𝒍
6. By the controlled oxidation of hydrocarbons, useful products are obtained. Give examples.
𝑪𝒖/𝟓𝟐𝟑𝑲/𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑶𝑯
Methanol
𝑴𝒐𝟐 𝑶𝟑 ,∆
𝑪𝑯𝟒 + 𝑶𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
Methanal
7. What is isomerisation ? Give example
Normal alkanes on heating with anhydrous aluminium chlorideand HCl, branched chain alkanes are formed
is called isomerisation.
𝑨𝒏𝒉𝒚.𝑨𝒍𝑪𝒍𝟑 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
CH3 (CH2)4CH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 – CH - CH2 - CH2 -CH3 + CH3 - CH2 – CH - CH2 -CH3
CH3 CH3
n- Hexane 2- methyl pentane 3- methyl pentane
8. Explain aromatization or reforming with example.

Normal alkanes having six or more carbon atoms on

heating at high temperature and pressure in the
presence of catalyst like chromium oxide, benzene and
its homologues are formed.
9. Explain pyrolysis or cracking with example
The decomposition of bigger hydrocarbons in to simple hydrocarbons
ydrocarbons by heating at high temperature is
called cracking or pyrolysis.
𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟒 𝑯𝟖 + 𝑪𝟐 𝑯𝟐
𝟕𝟕𝟑 𝑲
𝑪𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟒 ⎯⎯ 𝑪𝟑 𝑯𝟔 + 𝑪𝑯𝟒
10. What are Conformations ?
The different spatial arrangements of atoms arising due to free rotation around a carbon-carbon
carbon
single bond are called conformations.
11. What are different types of conformations of ethane? Compare their stability.
Sawhorse
whorse projections of ethane Newman projections of ethane

Ethane has staggered ,eclipsed and skew conformations.

Staggered conformation is more stable. This is because hydrogen atoms of two carbon atoms are at
maximum distance and repulsion is minimum and stability is maximum.
Eclipsed conformation has hydrogen atoms closed together , repulsion maximum
maximum,, stability minimum.
The intermediate conformations are called skew conformations
12. What is meant by geometrical isomerism?
The isomerism arises due to restricted rotation about carbon
carbon- carbon double bond is called
geometrical isomerism.
For geometrical isomerism,
somerism, the groups attached to each carbon must be different.
If the same group same side is called cis isomer.
If the same group opposite side is called trans isomer.
Cis isomer is more polar.
Trans isomer is more stable
13. Draw the geometrical isomers of 2--butene and but-2-enoic acid.

14. What is Lindlar’s catalyst? Give its use.

Partially deactivated palladised charcoal is called Lindlar’s catalyst.
Alkynes on reduction
uction with Lindlar’s catalyst,
catalyst,we get cis alkene.
15. How will you prepare alkenes?

(i) By hydrogenation of alkynes:

Hydrogenation of alkyne with Lindlar catalyst gives cis alkene.

Hydrogenation of alkyne with sodium in liquid ammonia gives trans alkene.
(ii) By dehydrohalgenation(Removal of hydrogen halide) of alkyl halide using alcoholic potash,
alkene is formed.
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑿 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
Alcoholic potassium hydroxide is a dehydrohalogenating agent.
(iii) By the dehalogenation (Removal of halogen) of vicinal dihalides (halogens on adjacent carbons),
alkene is formed.
𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑩𝒓 + 𝒁𝒏 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝒁𝒏𝑩𝒓𝟐
(iv) By the dehydration (Removal of water) of alcohols , aklkene is formed.
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄.𝑯𝟐 𝑺𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐
Concentrated sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent.
16. Give a test for unsaturation
Reddish brown colour of bromine water is discharged when it is added to unsaturated system ( alkenes and
alkynes).
𝑪𝑪𝒍𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑩𝒓 ⎯ 𝑩𝒓 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓 (1,2 –dibromo ethane )

17. State and explain Markownikkoff’s rule

Markownikkoff’s rule :- It states that “ when unsymmetrical reagent is added to unsymmetric
alkene, the negative part of the addendum (adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing
lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
When HBr is added to 1-propene, the major product is 2-bromopropane
Br
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1- propene 2- bromopropane (Major) 1-bromopropane (Minor)

18. What is peroxide effect or kharasch effect or anti markownikkoff’s rule? Give an example.
In the presence of organic peroxides, addition of HBr to unsymmetric alkene takes place against
Markwnikkoff’s rule.
Only HBr shows peroxide effect.
 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑩𝒓
1- Bromo propane (Major product )
19. What is Baeyer’s reagent. Give its oxidation reaction with alkene.
Dilute alkaline potassium permanganage is called Baeyer’s reagent. When it is added to unsaturated
compound, its pink colour is discharged. It is also a test for unsaturation.
𝑫𝒊𝒍.𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + [𝑶] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑯𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯
Ethane-1,2-diol (glycol)
20. What is Ozonolysis ?
Alkenes react with ozone molecule give ozonide which on reduction with zinc dust and water give
aldehydes and ketones .
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶
1-propene Ethanal Methanal
O O
21. An alkene on ozonolysis give two molecule of methanal . Identify the alkene .Give its reaction.
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝑶 ( Methanal )
Ethene
O O
22. But-2-ene + ozone → 2 Ethanal
𝒁𝒏 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 + 𝑶𝟑 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝟐 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 ( Ethanal )
2-butene
O O
23. An alkene on ozonolysis followed by reduction of ozonide formed with zinc and water give a mixture of 3-
pentanone and ethanal. Identify the alkene .
3-ethyl pent-2-ene is the alkene.

24. Give examples for polymerization of alkenes

Polythene and polypropene are plastics.

25. Give the preparation of acetylene (ethyne)
(i) From calcium carbide.:-- Calcium carbide on treatment with water gives acetylene(ethyne)
𝑪𝒂𝑪𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑪𝒂(𝑶𝑯)𝟐
(ii) From 1,2 –dibromoethane
dibromoethane : On dehydrohalogenation using alcoholic KOH

26. How will you convert acetylene to acetaldehyde?

𝑯𝒈𝟐 /𝑯 /𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯 − 𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯(𝑶𝑯) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯
𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑯𝑶
Acetylene (ethyne) is treated with water in the presence of suphuric acid and mercuric suphate,
acetaldehyde (ethanal ) is formed.
27. How will you convert propyne to propanone(acetone)
propanone(acetone)?
𝑯𝒈𝟐 /𝑯 /𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯 − 𝑶𝑯 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪(𝑶𝑯) = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶 𝑪𝑯𝟑
Propyne is treated with water in the presence of suphuric acid and mercuric suphate, propanone
(acetone) is formed.
28. How will you convert s acetylene to benzene?

When acetylene (ethyne) is passed through red hot iron tube, benzene is formed.
29. Acidity order: 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 > 𝐶𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 > 𝐶𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑

𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 > 𝐶𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 > 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑

30. 1-alkynes
alkynes are acidic. Give reason. Give example
In 1-alkynes,triple
,triple bonded carbon is ‘sp’ hybridized state. It is more electronegative due to 50 % s
character. Hence carbon can attract the shared electron pair of C C-H
H bond. So hydrogen can release as
proton. So 1-alkynes
alkynes are acidic.
Examples:
(i) 1-alkynes react with active
ctive metals gives hydrogen gas.
𝟏
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂 → 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐
𝟐
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
(ii) 1-alkynes
alkynes react with base NaNH2 . 𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝟐𝑵𝒂𝑵𝑯𝟐 ⎯ 𝑵𝒂 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪 − 𝑵𝒂 + 𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟑

31. Explain the structure of benzene.

(i) The molecular formula of benzene is C 6H6 .
(ii) Benzene can form a triozonide, indicates that benzene contain three double bonds.
(iii) Benzene can produce only one mono substituted derivative indicates that all carbon and
hydrogen atoms are equal.
(iv) Kekule structure of benzene is
 (v) Kekuke structure indicates the poss
possibility
ibility of two types of disubstituted derivatives. However
benzene form only one type disubstituted derivative.

(vi) Benzene has resonance structures

(vii) Even though benzene contain three double bonds, benzene is stable.

In benzene, each carbon is in sp2 hybridised state.

Each carbon has one unhybridised p orbital. So
continuous overlap is possible. So pi electrons are
delocalized. These delocalized pi electrons are
responsible for the stability of benzene.

32. State huckel’s rule aromaticity.

A cyclic , conjugated
onjugated , planar system is aromatic if it contains (4n +2) pi electrons in the ring.
Where n = 1,2,3 etc

Benzene Cyclopentadienyl anion Cyclohepta trienyl cation

These are planar molecules, complete delocalization of pi electrons in th
thee ring is possible,
Huckel rule obeys. So these are aromatic. 4n +2 = 6 (here n=1)
33. With the help of huckel’s explain 1,4
1,4- hexadiene and 1,3-butadiene
butadiene are not aromatic.

1,3-butadiene
No. of pi electrons = 4 (2 π bonds x 2 e -1 )

4n +2 = 4 ( n = 0.5) Hence the value of n is 0.5. So it does not obey Huckel rule and is not aromatic.
34. Naphthalene is aromatic. Explain using Huckel rule.

Naphthalene is planar, complete delocalization of pi electrons are possible.

No. of pi electrons = 10 (5 π bonds x 2 e -1 ) 4n +2 = 10 ( n = 2)
Hence the value of n is 2. So it obeys Huckel rule and is aromatic.
35. Both anthracene and phenanthrene are aromatic. Explain using Huckel rule.

Both anthracene and phenanthracene are planar,

complete delocalization of pi electrons are possible.
No. of pi electrons = 14 (7 π bonds x 2 e -1 )
4n +2 = 14 ( n = 3) Hence the value of n is 3. So it
obeys Huckel rule and is aromatic.
36. Cyclo octatetraene is not aromatic . Explain

No. of pi electrons = 8 (4 π bonds x 2 e -1 )

4n +2 = 8 ( n = 1.5) Hence the value of n is 1.5.
So it does not obeys Huckel rule and is not aromatic.

37. How will you prepare benzene ?

(I) From acetylene (ethyne) :-
When acetylene (ethyne) is passed through red hot iron tube, benzene is formed.

(II) From sodium benzoate :-

Benzene is formed by the decarboxylation of sodium benzoate with soda lime.

(III) From Phenol :- When phenol is heated with zinc dust benzene is formed
38. Electrophilic substitution reaction :-Positively charged electrophile replaces hydrogen of the benzene ring.
(i) Halogenation: Benzene is converted to chlorobenzene when chlorine is added in the presence
anhydrous aluminium chloride.

(ii) Nitration: Benzene is converted to nitrobenzene in the presence of nitrating mixture(Mixture of

concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid)

(iii) Sulphonation : Benzene is converted to benzene sulphonic acid by adding fuming sulphuric acid

(iv) Friedel –Craft alkylation(benzene to toluene):- When benzene is treated with methyl chloride in the
presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, toluene is formed. It is called Fridel-Craft alkylation

(v) Fridel-Craft acylation (convert benzene to aceto phenone)

When benzene is treated with acetyl

chloride in the presence of anhydrous
aluminium chloride, acetophenone is
formed.
39. What happens when excess chlorine is added to benzene in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride?

Hexachlorobenzene (C6Cl6 ) is formed.

40. How will you convert benzene to cyclohexane?

Benzene add three molecule of hydrogen give cyclohexane.

41. What is Gammexane or BHC ? Give its preparation.

Under ultra violet light, three chlorine molecule is added to benzene to produce benzene hexa chloride
( C6 H6Cl6) . It is known as gammexane (BHC) . It is used as an insecticide.
42. Draw the isomers of dimethyl benzene(Xylene)

Ortho xylene meta xylene para xylene

43. Which are ortho para directing groups and meta directing groups?

Groups which direct the incoming electophile to

ortho and para positions are called ortho para
directing groups. e.g. –OH , -NH2 , –CH3 etc
(groups containing lone pair and alkyl groups)

Groups which direct the incoming

electophile to meta positions are called
meta diecting groups. e.g. –CN , -NO2 , –
CHO , -COOH etc ( multiple bonded groups)
 PROBLEMS
1 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY
1. How many significant figures are present in the following measurements
(I) .285 cm → 3 Significant figures
(II) .0052 → 2 Significant figures
(III) 2.005 → 4 Significant figures
(IV) 2.60 m → 3 Significant figures
(V) 100 → 1 Significant figure
(VI) 100.0 → 4 Significant figures
(VII) 6.022 x 1023 → 4 Significant figures
(VIII) 30 eggs → Infinite significant figures
2. Chlorine has two isotopes of atomic mass units 34.9689 and 36.9659. The relative abundance of the
isotopes is 0.7577 and 0.2423 respectively. Find the average atomic mass of chlorine.
(𝟑𝟒. 𝟗𝟔𝟖𝟗 𝐗𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟕𝟕) + (𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗 𝐗𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟑 )
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 = = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟒𝟓𝟐𝟕
𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟕𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟑
3. Calculate the molar mass of naturally occurring argon from the following data.

Isotope % abundance Molar mass

36
Ar 0.337 35.96755
38
Ar 0.063 37.96272
40
Ar 99.600 39.9624
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒓𝒈𝒐𝒏
(𝟑𝟓. 𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟓𝟓 𝐗𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟕) + (𝟑𝟕. 𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟕𝟐 𝐗𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑 ) + (𝟑𝟗. 𝟗𝟔𝟐𝟒 𝐗 𝟗𝟗. 𝟔𝟎𝟎 )
=
𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟑 + 𝟗𝟗. 𝟔𝟎𝟎
= 𝟑𝟗. 𝟗𝟒𝟖
4. How many moles of dioxygen are present in 64 g of dioxygen ?
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟔𝟒
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = = = 𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟑𝟐
5. Find the number of oxygen atoms in 4 g of O2.
𝟒 𝟒
𝟒 𝒈 𝑶𝟐 = 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑶𝟐 = 𝑿 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝟐
𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟐
𝟒
= 𝟐𝑿 𝑿 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒔
𝟑𝟐
6. What is the number of hydrogen atoms in one mole of methane
One mole methane (CH4) = 6.02 x 10 23 methane (CH4) molecules
= 4 X 6.02 x 10 23 hydrogen atoms
7. Calculate the number of moles in 1litre of water (density of water is 1 g/ml). Also calculate the number of
molecules in 1 L of water.
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐫𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐦𝐥 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐠𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 = = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟏𝟖
= 𝟓𝟓. 𝟓𝟓 𝐗𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝐇𝟐 𝐎
8. Calculate the percentage composition of water.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏%
𝟏𝟖
 𝟏𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = 𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟖%
𝟏𝟖
9. Calculate the percentage of oxygen in potassium chlorate.
Solution:
Molecular mass of KClO3 = 39 + 35.5 + 48 = 122.5
𝟒𝟖
∴ 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 = 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟏𝟖 %
𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓
10. What is the percentage of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in ethanol?
Solution:
Molecular mass of Ethanol( C2H5OH) = (12 X2) + (1 X 6 ) + (16 X 1) = 24 + 6 + 16 = 46
𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟎𝟒
𝟒𝟔
𝟏𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟖
𝟒𝟔
𝟐𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧 = = 𝟓𝟐. 𝟏𝟕
𝟒𝟔
11. A compound contains 4.07% hydrogen, 24.27% carbon, and 71.65 % chlorine. Its molecular mass is 98.96.
What are its empirical formula and molecular formula?

Elements Atomic Percentage 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 Simple ratio Whole

mass (%) 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 number
=
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ratio
Hydrogen 1 4.07% 4.07/1 =4.07 4.07/2.01 = 2
2.02
Carbon 12 24.27% 24.27/12 =2.02 2.02/2.01 =1 1
Chlorine 35.5 71.65 % 71.65/35.5=2.01 2.01/2.01 =1 1
Empirical formula = CH2Cl
Empirical formula mass = (12 x1) + (1 x 2) + (35.5 x 1) = 49.5
Molecular mass = 98.96
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟗𝟖.𝟗𝟔
𝒏= = =𝟐
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟒𝟗.𝟓
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula =2 (CH2Cl) = C2H4Cl2
12. A compound contains 9.09% hydrogen, 54.55% carbon, and the rest oxygen. Its molecular mass is 88. What
are its empirical formula and molecular formula?

Elements Atomic Percentage 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 Simple ratio Whole

mass (%) 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 number
=
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 ratio
Hydrogen 1 9.09% 9.09/1 =9.09 9.09/2.26 = 4.002 4
Carbon 12 54.55% 54.55/12 = 4.54 4.54/2.26 =2.008 2
Oxygen 16 36.26 % 36.26 /16=2.26 2.26/2.26=1 1
Empirical formula = C2H4O
Empirical formula mass =( 12 x2) + (1 x 4) + (16 x 1 ) = 24 + 4 + 16 = 44
Molecular mass = 88
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟖𝟖
𝒏= = =𝟐
𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝟒𝟒
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula =2 (C2H4O) = C4H8O2
13. Determine the empirical formula of oxide of iron which contains 69.9 % iron and 30.1 % oxygen by mass.

Elements Atomic Percentage (%) 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 = Simple ratio Whole
mass 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
number ratio
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔

Fe 56 69.9 69.9 /56 =1.25 1.25/1.25 =1 2

O 16 30.1 30.1/16 = 1.88 1.88/1.25 =1.5 3

Empirical formula = Fe2O3
14. Calculate the amount of CO2 formed by the complete combustion of 80 g of methane.
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
1 mol CH4 (16 g CH4) → 1 mol CO2 ( 44 g CO2 )
𝟒𝟒
𝟏 𝒈 𝑪𝑯𝟒 → 𝒈 𝑪𝑶𝟐
𝟏𝟔
𝟒𝟒
∴ 𝟖𝟎 𝒈 𝑪𝑯𝟒 → 𝑿 𝟖𝟎 𝒈 𝑪𝑶𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎 𝒈 𝑪𝑶𝟐
𝟏𝟔
15. Calculate the amount of water produced by the combustion of 16 g of methane.
Solution: CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
1 mol CH4 → 2 mol H2O
16 g CH4 → 2 X 18 g H2O = 36 g H2O
16. How many moles of methane are required to produce 22 g carbon dioxide after combustion. Solution:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
1 mol CH4 → 1 mol CO2 ( 44 g CO2 )
To produce 44 g CO2 , 1 mol CH4 is required .
To produce 22 g CO2 , 0.5 mol CH4 is required .
17. Calculate the volume of oxygen at STP that can be produced by heating 12.25 g of KClO 3?
Solution : 2 KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3 O2
Molecular mass of KClO3 = 39 + 35.5 + 48 = 122.5
According to equation 2 mol KClO3 gives 3 mol O2
Therefore 2 X 122.5 g KClO3g gives 3 mol O2 = 3 X 22.4 L O2
𝟑 𝐗 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝟏 𝒈 𝑲𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟑 =
𝟐 𝐗 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓
𝟑 𝐗 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒
∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒈 𝑲𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟑 = 𝑿 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟔 𝑳
𝟐 𝐗 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟓
18. Calculate the volume of ammonia gas produced at STP when 140 g of nitrogen gas reacts with 30 g of
hydrogen gas. (Atomic mass: N = 14u, H = 1 u)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
1 mol N2 3 mol H2 2 mol NH3
28 g N2 6 g H2 2 X 22.4 L NH3
140 g of nitrogen = 140/28 = 5 mol
30 g of hydrogen gas = 30/2 =15 mol
1 mol N2 → 2 mol NH3
5 mol N2 → (5 X 2) mol NH3 = 10 mol NH3 = 10 X 22.4 L NH3 = 224 L NH3
19. Calculate the number of moles of O2 required to produce 240 g of MgO by burning magnesium metal.
2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
1 mol O2 → 2 mol MgO = 2( 24 + 16) = 2 X 40 = 80 g MgO
 Number of moles of O2 required to produce 80 g of MgO = 1 mol
𝟏
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐎𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞 𝟏 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐌𝐠𝐎 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟖𝟎
𝟏
𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐎𝟐 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐌𝐠𝐎 = 𝐗 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥 = 𝟑 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟖𝟎
20. Dinitrogen and dihydrogen react with each other to produce ammonia.
(I) Calculate the mass of ammonia produced if 2.00 × 103 g dinitrogen reacts with 1.00 × 103 g of
dihydrogen.
(II) Which reactant remain unreacted?
(III) What would be its mass?
Solution:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
1 mol N2 3 mol H2 2 mol NH3
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝟐 = = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟒 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐍𝟐
𝟐𝟖
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐠𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐇𝟐
𝟐
According to equation 1 mol N2 require 3 mol H2 .
Hence for 71.4 mol nitrogen , the moles of hydrogen required = 71.4 X 3 = 214.2 mol H 2
Here 71.4 mol nitrogen is used up. So nitrogen is limiting reagent.
(I) According to equation 1 mol N2 gives 2 mol NH3
Therefore 71.4 mol N2 → 2 x 71.4 mol NH3 = 142.8 mol NH3 = 142.8 X 17 = 2427 g = 2.427 kg of
ammonia
(II) Dihydrogen (H2) remain unreacted.
(III) Mass of H2 unreacted = 500 mol – 214.2 mol = 285.8 mol =285.8 X 2 = 571.6 g =0.5716 kg of H 2
21. 50 kg of N2 and 10 kg of H2 are mixed to produce NH3. Calculate the amount of NH3 formed. Identify the
limiting reagent in the production of NH3 in this reaction.
Solution : N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟓𝟎 𝐤𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝟐 = 𝟓𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐍𝟐 = = 𝟏𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐍𝟐
𝟐𝟖
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐇𝟐
𝟐
According to equation 1 mol N2 require 3 mol H2 .
Hence for 1786 mol nitrogen , the moles of hydrogen required = 1786 X 3 = 5358 mol H 2
But we have only 5000 mol H2 , Hence dihydrogen is the limiting reagent .
So ammonia will be formed from available hydrogen 5000 mol .
Since 3 mol hydrogen gives 2 mol NH3
𝟐
𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑
𝟑
𝟐
∴ 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐬 𝐗 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑
𝟑
𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑 = 𝟏𝟕
𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐍𝐇𝟑 = 𝟏𝟕 𝐗 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 = 𝟓𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟏 𝐠 = 𝟓𝟔. 𝟔 𝐤𝐠
22. 1.5 g of hydrogen react with 14.5 g of oxygen to form water.
(a) Which is the limiting reactant
(b) Calculate the maximum amount of water formed in the reaction
(c) Calculate the maximum amount of the reactant which remains unreacted.
Solution: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
𝟏. 𝟓
𝟏. 𝟓𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐇𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐇𝟐
𝟐
𝟏𝟒. 𝟓
𝟏𝟒. 𝟓 𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐎𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝐎𝟐
𝟑𝟐
 (i) According to equation 2 mol H2 require 1 mol O2
𝟏
𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎𝟐
𝟐
𝟏
∴ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐬 𝐗 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐎𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟐
But moles of oxygen actually present = 0.453
Therefore Oxygen is present in excess. Hence dihydrogen (H2) is the limiting reagent.
(ii) 2 mol H2 → 2 mol H2O
Therefore 1 mol H2 → 1 mol H2O
Therefore 0.75 mol H2 → 0.75 mol H2O = 0.75 X 18 g = 13.5 g H2O
(iii) Number of moles of O2 present in the reaction = 0.453 mol
Number of moles of O2 used up in the reaction = 0.375 mol
Number of moles of O2 remains unreacted = 0.453−0.375 = 0.078 mol
Mass of O2 remains unreacted = 0.078 X 32 = 2.50 g
23. A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water. Calculate the mass percentage of
solute.
Solution: Mass of solute ,A = 2 g , Mass of solvent water = 18 g Mass of solution = 2+ 18 =20 g
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝟐
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎 %
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟐𝟎
3
24. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 4.9 g of sulphuric acid in 500 cm of water.

Solution: Molecular mass of sulphuric acid ( H2SO4) = (1 X2) + (32 X 1 ) + (16 X 4) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟒. 𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝑴
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊) 𝟗𝟖 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
25. Calculate the volume of 0.5 M sodium hydroxide solution needed to prepare 200 ml of 0.150 M solution
M1V1 = M2 V2
0.5 X V1 = 0.150 X 200
𝟎.𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝐗 𝟐𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝑽𝟏 = = 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒍
𝟎.𝟓
26. Calculate the mass of NaOH required to make 500 ml of 0.5 molar aqueous solution.
Molecular mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑴𝑩 𝑿 𝑽(𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊) 𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝑩 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓 =
𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓 𝑿𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝑩 = = 𝟏𝟎 𝒈
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
The mass of NaOH required = 10 g
27. The density of 3M solution of NaCl is 1.25 gmL-1 .Calculate molality of the solution.
Solution: Molarity = 3 M = 3 mol L−1
Mass of NaCl in 1 L solution = 3 x 58.5 = 175.5
Mass of 1 L solution = 1000 x 1.25 = 1250 g
( since density 1.25 g mL-1 , Density = mass/ volume , Mass = Volume x Density )
Mass of water (solvent) in solution = 1250-175.5 = 1074.5 g = 1.0745 kg
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝟑
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕𝟒𝟓
2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following species.
𝟖𝟎 𝟖𝟖 𝟑𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟑𝟓𝑩𝒓 , 𝟑𝟖𝑺𝒓, 𝟏𝟔𝑺 , , 𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈 𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
Species Number of protons Number of neutrons
Number of electrons
𝟖𝟎
𝟑𝟓𝑩𝒓 35 80 – 35 = 45
35
𝟖𝟖
𝟑𝟖𝑺𝒓 38 88−38= 50 38
𝟑𝟐 𝟐
𝟏𝟔𝑺 16 32−16 = 16 16 +2 =18
𝟑𝟓
𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍 17 35−17= 18 17 + 1 = 18
𝟐𝟒
𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈
𝟐 12 24 -12 =12 12-2 =
10
2. The number of protons, electrons and neutrons in a species are equal to 17, 18 and 18 respectively.
Give the correct symbol.
𝟑𝟓
Answer : 𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
3. The number of electrons, protons and neutrons in a species are equal to 18, 16 and 16 respectively.
Assign the proper symbol to the species.
𝟑𝟐 𝟐
Answer : 𝟏𝟔𝑺
4. The Vividh Bharati station of All India Radio, Delhi, broadcasts on a frequency of 1,368 kHz (kilo hertz).
Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by transmitter.
Solution: The wavelength, λ= c/ν
The speed of electromagnetic radiation in vacuum ( c ) = 3 X 10 8 m/s
Frequency(ν) = 1368 kHz = 1368 X 1000 Hz = 1368000 Hz (s −1)
𝐜 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝛌= = = 𝟐𝟏𝟗. 𝟑 𝐦
𝛎 𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
5. The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red (750 nm). Express these
wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1nm = 10–9 m)
𝐜 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
Solution : 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐢𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 (𝛎) = = = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝐇𝐳
𝛌 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
𝐜 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 (𝛎) == = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝐇𝐳
𝛌 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
6. Calculate (a) wave number and (b) frequency of yellow radiation having wavelength 5800 Å.
Solution : λ=5800Å = 5800 × 10–10 m
𝟏
(a) 𝐖𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 (𝛎 ) = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟒 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐦 𝟏
𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝐜 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
(b) 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐲𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 (𝛎) = = = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟕𝟐 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝐇𝐳 (𝐬 𝟏
)
𝛌 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
7. Calculate the energy of a radiation having a wavelength of 4000 A 0.
𝒉𝒄 𝟔.𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟏𝟗
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝑 = = = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
𝝀 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
8. Calculate energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency is 5 ×10 14 Hz.
Solution: Energy (E) = hν h = 6.626 ×10 –34 J s ν = 5×1014 s–1
Energy of one photon = (6.626 ×10–34) × (5 ×1014 ) = 3.313 ×10–19 J
Energy of one mole of photons = (3.313 ×10–19 ) × (6.022 × 1023) = 199.51 kJ mol–1
9. A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the number of photons
emitted per second by the bulb.
Solution : Power of the bulb = 100 watt = 100 J s –1
𝐡𝐜 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐄 = 𝐡𝛎 = = = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟔𝟗 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝐉
𝛌 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒅 = = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
𝟒. 𝟗𝟔𝟗 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗
10. When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 300 nm falls on the surface of sodium, electrons are
emitted with a kinetic energy of 1.68 ×105 J mol–1. What is the minimum energy needed to remove an
electron from sodium? What is the maximum wavelength that will cause a photoelectron to be emitted?
𝐡𝐜 𝟔.𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
Solution : 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐭𝐨𝐧 𝐄 = 𝐡𝛎 = = = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒
𝐉
𝛌 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
–34 23 5 –1
Energy of one mole of photons = (6.626 ×10 ) × (6.022 × 10 ) = 3.99 X 10 J mol
The minimum energy needed to remove one mole of electrons from sodium
= h ν – Kinetic energy = 3.99 X105 –1.68 X 105 = 2.31 × 105 J mol–1
𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 𝐗𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧 = = 3.84 X 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝐉
𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑
𝐡𝐜 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡, 𝛌 = = = 𝟓𝟏𝟕 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝐦 = 𝟓𝟏𝟕 𝐧𝐦
𝐄 3.84 X 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗
11. What are the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted during a transition from n = 5 state to the
n = 2 state in the hydrogen atom?
Solution: n1 = 2 and n2 = 5
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 − = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟐𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝝀 𝟐 𝟓 𝟒 𝟐𝟓
𝟏
∴ 𝝀 , 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟑𝟒 = 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟕
𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 𝒎
𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟐
= 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝒎 = 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝒏𝒎
𝒄 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝝑= = = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝑯𝒛
𝝀 𝟒𝟑𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟗
12. Calculate the wavelength of the first line and last line in Balmer series of the hydrogen spectrum
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝝀 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
For first line in Balmer series , n1 = 2 and n2 = 3
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟓
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 , = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 − = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝑿 𝟑𝟔 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟐𝒄𝒎 𝟏
𝝀 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟗
𝟏
∴ 𝝀 , 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟓𝟔 = 𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝒄𝒎
𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟑𝟐
= 𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 𝒎 = 𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝒎 = 𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝒏𝒎

For last line in Balmer series , n1 = 2 and n2 = ∞

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 , = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝟐 − 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 − 𝟎 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟔𝟕𝟕 𝑿 𝟒 𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟗 𝒄𝒎
𝝀 𝟐 ∞ 𝟒
𝟏
∴ 𝝀 , 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟔𝟒 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝒄𝒎 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 𝒎
𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟏𝟗
= 𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 𝒎 = 𝟑𝟔𝟒 𝒏𝒎
13. Find the maximum number of emission lines, when the excited electron of hydrogen atom in n =6, drops to
the ground state.
𝒏(𝒏 𝟏) 𝟔(𝟔 𝟏)
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 = = = 𝟏𝟓 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔
𝟐 𝟐
14. Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+ . What is the radius of this orbit?
Solution: For first orbit , n = 1 , For He , Z = 2
 −𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖 𝒁𝟐
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕, 𝑬𝒏 = 𝑱
𝒏𝟐
−𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟖
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕, 𝑬𝟏 = = −𝟖. 𝟕𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
𝟏𝟐
𝟓𝟐.𝟗 𝒏𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 , 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒑𝒎
𝒁
𝟓𝟐. 𝟗 𝑿𝟏𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 , 𝒓𝟏 = = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 𝒑𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝟓 𝒏𝒎
𝟐
15. The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is -2.18 x 10 -18 Jatom-1. What is the energy
associated with the fifth orbit?
𝟐.𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟖
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕, 𝑬𝟓 = = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟐𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
𝟓𝟐
2+
16. Calculate the radius of the second orbit of Li .
𝟓𝟐. 𝟗 𝒏𝟐 𝟓𝟐. 𝟗 𝑿𝟐𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 , 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒑𝒎 = = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟓𝟑 𝒑𝒎
𝒁 𝟑
17. Calculate the radius of the Bohr’s fifth orbit of hydrogen atom.
𝟓𝟐. 𝟗 𝒏𝟐 𝟓𝟐. 𝟗 𝑿𝟓𝟐
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒕 , 𝒓 = = = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒑𝒎
𝒁 𝟏
18. What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/s
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒
𝛌= = = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝒎
𝐦𝐯 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐗 𝟏𝟎
19. The mass of an electron is 9.1×10–31 kg. If its K.E. is 3.0×10–25 J, calculate its wavelength.
Solution : K. E. = ½ mv2
𝟐 𝑿 𝑲.𝑬 𝟐 𝑿 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟓
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 , 𝒗 = = = 𝟖𝟏𝟐 𝐦/𝐬
𝒎 𝟗.𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝟏𝟎
𝛌= = = 𝟖𝟗𝟔𝟕𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝒎 = 𝟖𝟗𝟔𝟕𝐀𝟎
𝐦𝐯 𝟗. 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏 𝐗 𝟖𝟏𝟐
20. A photon has a wavelength of 3.6 A0. Calculate its mass.
𝐡
Solution: Planck's constant, h = 6.626 x 10-34 Js. Velocity of light = 3 x108 m/s , 𝛌=
𝐦𝐯
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝟐𝟗
𝐦= = = 𝟔. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈
𝛌𝐯 𝟑. 𝟔 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝐗 𝟑 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟖
21. Calculate the uncertainty in the velocity of an electron, if the uncertainty in its position is 100 pm.
Solution: ∆x = 100 pm = 100 X 10-12 m
𝐡
∆𝐱. 𝐦∆𝐯 =
𝟒𝛑
𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒
∆𝐯 = = = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟗 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝟒𝛑 . ∆𝐱. 𝐦 𝟒 𝐗 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝐗 𝟗. 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏
22. A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed of 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured within accuracy of 2%,
calculate the uncertainty in the position.
Solution : mass = 40 g = 40 X 10-3 kg
The uncertainty in the speed is 2 % , i.e., 45 X 2/100 = 0.9 m/s
𝐡
∆𝐱. 𝐦∆𝐯 =
𝟒𝛑

𝐡 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟒 𝟑𝟑
∆𝐱. = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟔 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝐦
𝟒𝛑𝐦∆𝐯 𝟒 𝐗 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝐗 𝟒𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎 𝟑 𝐗 𝟎. 𝟗

23. What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal quantum number n = 3 ?
 Total number of orbitals = n2 = 32 = 9
24. Represent the orbitals given below:
i) n = 1, l = 0 ii) n = 2, l = 1. iii) n = 4, l = 0 iv) n = 3, l = 2 v) n=4 , l=3
Solution : (i) 1s (ii) 2p (iii) 4s (iv) 3d (v) 4 f
25. An electron is in 4f orbital. What possible values for the quantum numbers n, l, m and s can it have?
For 4f , n=4 , l=3 , m = -3 ,-2 ,-1, 0 , +1 , +2 , +3 , s = +1/2 or -1/2
26. An electron is in 3d orbital. What possible values for the quantum numbers n, l, m and s can it have?
For 3d , n=3 , l=2 , m = -2 ,-1, 0 , +1 , +2 , s = +1/2 or -1/2
27. Find the number of electrons in the subshell with azimuthal quantum number l =2.
Azimuthal quantum number l =2 means d subshell. d sub shell contains maximum 10 electrons
28. Find the spherical nodes of 4s , 2p and 4d orbitals.
No. of spherical nodes = n-l-1
For 4s , No. of spherical nodes = n-l-1 = 4 – 0 - 1 = 3
For 2p , No. of spherical nodes = n-l-1 = 2 – 1 - 1 = 0
For 4d , No. of spherical nodes = n-l-1 = 4 – 2 - 1 = 1
29. Which is higher in energy 3d or 4s? Why?
For 3d , n+l = 3 + 2 = 5
For 4s , n+l = 4 + 0 = 4
3d has higher (n+ l) value and so it has higher energy.
30. How many orbitals are possible for (i) the main energy level with n=4 (ii) the subshell with n=5, l=3 .
Solution:
(i) For n=4 , Total number of orbitals = n2 = 42 = 16
(ii) 5f . f subshell has 7 orbitals. Number of orbitals in a subshell = (2l +1 ) = (2 X 3 )+ 1 =7
31. The number of unpaired electrons present in Ni is …2……. (Atomic number of Ni = 28) 3d 8 4s2

4 CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

1. Write the Lewis dot structure of CO molecule.
Solution:
Step 1. Count the total number of valence electrons of carbon and oxygen atoms.
The valence electrons =4 + 6 =10.
Step 2.Write the skeletal structure of CO , CO
Step 3. Draw a single bond between C and O and complete the octet on O, the remaining two electrons
are the lone pair on C.

This does not complete the octet on carbon and so give multiple bonds (Here triple bond) between C
and O atoms.

This satisfies the octet rule condition for both atoms.

2. Write the Lewis structure of the nitrite ion, NO2 – .
Solution :
Step 1. Count the total number of valence electrons of the nitrogen atom, the oxygen atoms and the
additional one negative charge (equal to one electron)
Total valence electrons = 5 + (2 × 6) +1 = 18 electrons
 Step 2. Write the skeletal structure of NO2 – , O N O
Step 3. Draw a single bond (electron pair) between the nitrogen and each of the oxygen atoms
completing the octets on oxygen atoms.

This does not complete the octet on nitrogen if the remaining two electrons constitute lone pair on it.
Provide double bond between nitrogen and one of the oxygen atoms

This leads to the following Lewis dot structures.

3. Arrange the following molecules in the decreasing order of bond angle CH 4 ,NH3 ,H2O , CO2
Solution: CO2 (1800) > CH4 > NH3 > H2O
4. Arrange the following molecules in the order of decreasing C-C bond length (a) C 2H2 (b) C2H4 (c) C2H6
Solution: C2H6 > C2H4 > C2H2
5. A molecule XY3 contains three sigma bonds and there is alone pair of electron on the atom X.
(a) Predict the shape of the molecule → Pyramidal geometry
(b) If there is no lone pair on X, What is the geometry of the molecule? →Trigonal planar geometry

6. THERMODYNAMICS
1. Calculate the change in internal energy of a system which absorb 100 J of heat and does 215 J of work.
Solution: ∆U = q + w = 100 + (−215) = 100-215 = -115 J
2. Internal change in a process /system is related to the heat and work involved in the process. Complete the
following table for a system of gas enclosed in a vessel.
Heat absorbed or evolved by the gas (q) Work done by/ on the gas (w) Change in internal energy ∆U)
No heat absorbed or evolved by the gas 150 J work done on the gas (a)…………………J
200 J heat absorbed by the gas 50 J work done by the gas (b)…………………J
250 J fo heat evolved by the gas (c)……. J work done on the gas 150 J

(d)………… J heat absorbed by the gas 300 J work done by the gas 150 J

Solution:
(a) ∆U = q + w =0+ 150= 150 J
(b) ∆U = q + w =200+ (-50) = 150 J
(c) ∆U = q + w , Therefore w = ∆U – q = 150 – (–250) = 400 J
(d) ∆U = q + w , Therefore q = ∆U – w = 150 – (–300) = 450 J
3. What is the difference in internal energy of a system, if 100 J of energy is radiated out without doing any
work?
Solution: ∆U = q + w = –100+ 0 = –100 J
4. Calculate the amount of work done when 1 mole of a gas expand from a volume of 1 litre to a volume of 5
litres against the constant external pressure of 1 atm. (1 litre atmosphere=101.3 J)
W = −Pext∆V = −Pext(Vf − Vi) = −1 ( 5-1) = −4 litre atmosphere = −4 X 101.3 = − 405 J
5. 3 mol of an ideal gas at 1.5 atm and 25 0C expands isothermally in a reversible manner to twice its original
volume against an external pressure of 1 atm. Calculate the work done.
Wrev = − 2.303 nRT log Vf/Vi = − 2.303 X 3 X 8.314 X 298 log ( 2V/V) = −5152.38 kJ
6. Calculate the work done for the reversible isothermal expansion of 1 mol of an ideal gas at 27 0C from a
volume of 10 dm3 to a volume of 20 dm3.
Wrev = − 2.303 nRT log Vf/Vi = −2.303 X 1 X 8.314 X 300 log ( 20/10) = −1729 J
7. The heat of combustion of methane at constant volume measured in a bomb calorimeter at 298 K is found
to be −885389 Jmol-1. Calculate the value of heat of combustion at constant pressure.
Solution : Combustion of methane is 𝑪𝑯𝟒 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
∆U = −885389 Jmol-1 , ∆n= nP - nR = 1 –( 1+2) = 1 –3 =–2 , R = 8.314 J K–1mol–1
∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT = −885389 + (–2 ) X 8.314 X 298 = −885389 – 4955 = –890344 J
8. Molar enthalpy change for vapourisation of 1mol of water at 100 0C and 1 bar pressure is 41 kJ mol-1.
Assuming water vapour to be a perfect gas, calculate the internal energy change when (i) 1 mol of water is
vapourised at 1 bar pressure and 100 0C (ii) 1 mol of water is converted to ice.
Solution:
(i) Vapourisation is 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒈)
∆n= nP - nR = 1 – 0 =1 , R = 8.314 J K–1mol–1 , ∆H = 41 kJ = 41000 J , T = 100 + 273 =373 K
∆H = ∆U + ∆n RT
∆U = ∆H − ∆n RT = 41000 − 1 X 8.314 X 373 = 37990 Jmol− 1
(ii) Ice to water 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒔) → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
∆n= nP - nR =0,
When ∆n =0 , ∆H = ∆U
∆H = 41000 J = 41 kJ
9. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction 𝑪𝑯𝟒 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
Given that the standard enthalpies of formation of 𝑪𝑯𝟒 (𝒈), 𝑪𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍) are −74.8 k Jmol−1,
−393.5 kJ mol−1 and −285.8 k Jmol−1 respectively.
Solution: ∆𝑯𝟎 ( 𝑶𝟐 ) = 𝟎
Standard enthalpy change of a reaction = Standard enthalpies of formation of products – Standard
enthalpies of reactants
∆𝑯𝟎 = ∆𝑯𝟎 (𝑪𝑶𝟐 ) + 𝟐 ∆𝑯𝟎 (𝑯𝟐 𝑶) − ∆𝑯𝟎 (𝑪𝑯𝟒 ) + 𝟐 ∆𝑯𝟎 ( 𝑶𝟐 )
= [−393.5 + 2 X (−285.8)] – [ −74.8 + (2 X0 ) ]= −965.1 + 74.8 = −890.3 kJ Jmol −1
10. The enthalpy of combustion of CH4, C (graphite) and H2 at 298 K are −890.2 kJmol-1, −393.4 kJmol-1, −285.7
kJmol-1 respectively. Calculate the enthalpy of formation of CH4.
Solution: C + 2 H2 →CH4 , ∆H0 = ?
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O , ∆H0 = −890.3 …………(1)
C + O2 →CO2 , ∆H0 = -393.4 kJ ……………….(2)
H2 + 1/2 O2 → H2O , ∆H0 = - 285.7 kJ ……………….(3)
Equation (2) + 2 X Equation (3) – Equation (1)
C + O2 + 2 (H2 + 1/2 O2 ) – ( CH4 + 2 O2) → CO2 + 2 H2O – (CO2 + 2 H2O) ,
∆H0 = -393.4 + 2 X (- 285.7 ) – (−890.3) = –74.6 kJ
C + 2 H2 – CH4 → 0 , ∆H0 = –74.6 kJ
C + 2 H2 → CH4 , ∆H0 = –74.6 kJ
11. Calculate the enthalpy of formation of methanol from the following data.
CH3OH + 3/2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O ∆H0 = -726 kJ
C + O2 → CO2 ∆H0 = -393kJ
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O ∆H0 = - 286 kJ
Solution: C + 2 H2 + ½ O2 → CH3OH , ∆H0 = ?
CH3OH + 3/2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O ∆H0 = -726 kJ ……………….(1)
C + O2 → CO2 ∆H0 = -393kJ ……………… (2)
 H2 + ½ O2 → H2O ∆H0 = - 286 kJ …………………..(3)
Equation (2) + 2 X Equation (3) – Equation (1)
C + O2 + 2 (H2 + ½ O2 ) – (CH3OH + 3/2 O2 ) → CO2 + 2 H2O – (CO2 + 2 H2O) ,
∆H0 = -393 + 2 X (- 286) – (−726) = –239 kJ
C + 2 H2 + ½ O2 → CH3OH , ∆H0 = –239 kJ
12. Calculate the enthalpy change for the allotropic transformation from monoclinic sulphur to Rhombic
sulphur from the following data.
S (rhombic) + O2→ SO2(g); ΔH0 = -295.1kJ
S(monoclinic) + O2 →SO2(g); ΔH0 = -296.4 kJ

Solution: S(monoclinic) → S (rhombic) , ΔH0 = ?

S (rhombic) + O2→ SO2(g); ΔH0 = -295.1kJ …………….(1)
S(monoclinic) + O2 →SO2(g); ΔH0 = -296.4 kJ ……………..(2)
Equation (2) – Equation (1)
[S(monoclinic) + O2] –[ S (rhombic) + O2] →SO2 – SO2 ΔH0 = – 296.4 –(–295.1) =–1.3 kJ
0
S(monoclinic)–S (rhombic) → 0 , ΔH =–1.3 kJ
S(monoclinic) → S (rhombic) , ΔH0 =–1.3 kJ
13. Calculate ∆ rH 0 for the reaction H2 + Br2 → 2 HBr , given that the bond energies of H2 , Br2 , and HBr
are 435 , 192 ,and 364 kJmol-1 respectively.
Solution:
∆𝑯𝟎𝒓 = 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 − 𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔

∆𝑯𝟎𝒓 = [𝑩. 𝑬 ( 𝑯𝟐 ) + 𝑩. 𝑬 ( 𝑩𝒓𝟐 )] − [𝟐 𝑩. 𝑬 ( 𝑯𝑩𝒓)] = 𝟒𝟑𝟓 + 𝟏𝟗𝟐 − 𝟐(𝟑𝟔𝟒) = −𝟏𝟎𝟏 𝒌𝑱

14. Find the temperature above which the reaction MgO + C → Mg + CO becomes spontaneous.
(∆H 0= 490 kJmol-1 , ∆S 0=198 JK-1mol-1 )
Solution: ∆H0= 490 kJ/mol = 490000 J/mol , ∆S0= 198 J/K/mol. , T = ?
∆G0= ∆H0 −T ∆S0
At equilibrium , ∆G 0= 0 , Therefore 0= ∆H0 −T ∆S0 , ∆H0 = T ∆S0
∆𝐇 𝟎 𝟒𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
∴ 𝑻 = 𝟎
= = 𝟐𝟒𝟕𝟒. 𝟕 𝑲
∆𝐒 𝟏𝟗𝟖
i.e., The process is at equilibrium at T = 2474.7 K
Here ∆H0 is positive , the reaction will be spontaneous(∆G0 = − ve) above 2474.7 K
15. Calculate the standard free energy change for the conversion of oxygen to ozone at 298 K, if the equilibrium
constant for the conversion is 2.47 x 10 -29.
∆G0 = –2.303 RT logK = –2.303 X 8.314 X 298 X log (2.47 x 10 -29) = 163000 J/mol
16. The equilibrium constant for the reaction is 10. What will be the value of ∆G 0 at 300 K.
∆G0 = – 2.303 RT logK = –2.303 X 8.314 X 300 X log10 = − 5744.14 J/mol
17. What is the value of equilibrium constant for the following reaction at 400 K
2 NOCl (g) ⇌ 2 NO(g) + Cl2 (∆H0=77.2 kJmol-1 ∆S0=122 JK-1mol-1 at 400 K)
Solution: ∆H0= 77.2 kJ/mol = 77200 J/mol , ∆S0= 122 J/K/mol. , T = 400 K
Substituting these values in ∆G0 = ∆H0 −T ∆S0 = 77200 − 400 X 122 = 28400 J/mol
∆G0 = –2.303 RT logK
∆ 𝐆𝟎 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲 = − =− = −𝟑. 𝟕𝟎𝟖
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻 𝟐.
−4
𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑿 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝟒𝟎𝟎
Therefore K = Anti log of ( − 3.708 ) = 1.959 X 10
18. The value of ∆G0 for the phosphorylation of glucose is 13.8 kJ/mol. Find the value of Kc at298 K.
 Solution : ∆G0 = 13.8 kJ/mol = 1300J/mol
∆G0 = –2.303 RT logK
∆ 𝐆𝟎 𝟏𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲 = − =− = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟖
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑿 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝟐𝟗𝟖
Therefore K = Anti log of ( − 0.2278 ) = 3.81 X 10 −3
19. Hydrolysis of sucrose gives, Sucrose + H2O⇌ Glucose + Fructose. Equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction is
2 ×1013 at 300K. Calculate ∆G at 300K.
Solution:
∆G0 = –2.303 RT logK = –2.303 X 8.314 X 300 X log(2 ×1013) = – 7.64 ×104 J/mol

7.EQUILIBRIUM
1. Write the expression for equilibrium constant for the following reactions
(I) CuSO4.5H2O(s) ⇌CuSO4.3H2O(s) + 2 H2O(g)
(II) Ag2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ⇌ 2 AgNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(III) CaCO3(s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(IV) 2NOCl(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) + Cl2(g)
Solution:
(I) Kc = [H2O]2 , Kp = p2 H2O
[𝑨𝒈𝑵𝑶𝟑 ]𝟐
(II) 𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 ]𝟐

(III) Kc = [CO2] , Kp = p CO2

[𝑵𝑶]𝟐 [𝑪𝒍𝟐 ] 𝒑𝟐 (𝑵𝑶)𝒑(𝑪𝒍𝟐 )
(IV) 𝑲𝒄 = 𝑲𝒑 =
[𝑵𝑶𝑪𝒍]𝟐 𝒑𝟐 (𝑵𝑶𝑪𝒍)

2. The following concentrations were obtained for the formation of NH 3 from N2 and H2 at equilibrium at 500K.
[N2] = 1.5 × 10–2M. [H2] = 3.0 ×10–2 M and [NH3] = 1.2 ×10–2M. Calculate equilibrium constant.
Solution : N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g)
[𝑵𝑯𝟑 ]𝟐 (𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 )𝟐
𝑲𝒄 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒
[𝑵𝟐 ][𝑯𝟐 ]𝟑 (𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 ) 𝐱 (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 )𝟑
3. At equilibrium, the concentrations of N2=3.0 × 10–3 M, O2 = 4.2 × 10–3 M and NO= 2.8 × 10–3 M in a sealed
vessel at 800K. What will be Kc for the reaction N 2(g)+ O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g)
[𝑵𝑶]𝟐 (𝟐.𝟖 ×𝟏𝟎 𝟑 )𝟐
Solution : 𝑲𝒄 = [𝑵 = (𝟑.𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎 𝟑 ) 𝐱 (𝟒.𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎 𝟑 )
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐
𝟐 ][𝑶𝟐 ]
4. An equilibrium system for the reaction between hydrogen and iodine to give hydrogen iodide at 700K in a 5
litre flask contains 0.6 mole of H2, 0.6 mole of I2, and 3.6 mole of HI. Calculate the equilibrium constant of
the reaction at 700K.
Solution : H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2 HI (g),
[H2] = 0.6/5 = 0.12 mol L-1 , [I2] = 0.6/5 = 0.12 mol L-1 [HI] = 3.6/5 = 0.72 mol L-1
[𝑯𝑰]𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟕𝟐)𝟐
𝑲𝒄 = = = 𝟑𝟔
[𝑯𝟐 ][𝑰𝟐 ] 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
5. Calculate Kc for the reaction, PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g) . PCl5 (g), PCl3 (g) , and Cl2 (g) are at equilibrium at
500K and having concentration 1.41M ,1.59M and 1.59M respectively
[𝑷𝑪𝒍𝟑 ][𝑪𝒍𝟐 ] 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 𝑿 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗
𝑲𝒄 = 𝟐
= = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗
[𝑷𝑪𝒍𝟓 ] 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏
6. For the reaction, 2 NOCl (g) ⇌ 2 NO (g) + Cl2 (g), the value of Kc is 3.75 x 10-6 at 1069K. Calculate Kp
 Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products - No. of mole of gaseous reactants = (2+1) –(2) = 1
∆n =1 , Kp = 3.75 x 10-6 (0.0821X 1069)1 = 329 x 10-6
7. For the reaction N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⇌ 2 NH3 (g), the value of Kp is 2.75 x 10-8 at 300 K. Calculate Kc .
Kp = Kc (RT)∆n
∆n = No. of mole of gaseous products –No. of mole of gaseous reactants = (2) –(1+3) = 2-4 =-2
𝑲𝒑 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝑲𝒄 = = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐗 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏𝐗 𝟑𝟎𝟎)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟖𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟖
(𝑹𝑻)∆𝒏 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟏𝐗 𝟑𝟎𝟎) 𝟐

8. Write the Kc for the reaction .4 NH3(g) + 5 O2 (g) ⇌ 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(l)

What happens to the value of the equilibrium constant (Kc) when the above reaction is reversed?
[𝑵𝑶]𝟒
𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑵𝑯𝟑 ]𝟒 [𝑶𝟐 ]𝟓
When the above reaction is reversed, the equilibrium constant (Kc) will become its reciprocal (1/Kc)
9. The value of Kc for the reaction 2A ⇌B + C is 2 x 10−3 . At a given time, the concentration of the reaction
mixture is [A] = [B] =[C] = 3 x 10-4 M. In which direction the reaction will proceed?
Solution: Kc = 2 x 10−3 , [A] = [B] =[C] = 3 x 10-4 M
[𝑩][𝑪] (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 )𝐗(𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 )
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐪𝐮𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭𝑸𝒄 = = =𝟏
[𝑨]𝟐 (𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 )𝟐
Here Qc > Kc . So the reaction will proceed in the reverse direction.
10. What will be the conjugate bases for the following Brönsted acids: HF, H 2SO4 and HCO3 – ?
Solution: Conjugated base = Acid - H+
Conjugated bases → F– , HSO4 – and CO3 2–
11. Write the conjugate acids for the following Brönsted bases: NH2 – , NH3 and HCOO– .
Solution : Conjugated acid = Base + H+
Conjugated acid → NH3, NH4 + and HCOOH
12. Calculate the concentration of hydrogen ion(or hydronium ion) of a soft drink whose pH is 4.4
Solution: [H3O+ ] =? , pH = 4.4
PH =−log[H3O+ ] = 4.4
log[H3O+ ] = −4.4
[H3O+ ] = Anti log(−4.4 ) = 3.981 X 10-3 M
13. The concentration of HCl is 0.01 Molar . Calculate its pH
[H3O+ ] = 0.01 Molar = 1 X 10-2 Molar
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(1 X 10-2) = 2
14. The concentration of H+ ion in a soft drink is 3.8 x 10-3M. Calculate its pH. Identify it is acidic or basic.
Solution: [H3O+ ] =3.8 x 10-3M
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(3.8 x 10-3) = 2.42
PH of this soft drink is 2.42. It is less than 7 and so it is acidic
15. Calculate pH of 1 x 10-8 M solution of HCl
Solution :
[H3O+] from HCl = 1 X 10−8 Molar
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(1 x 10−8) = 8
But it is not possible, because the PH of acid is always less than 7
Here two source of [H3O+ ] are present , HCl and H2O
H2O + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + OH−
HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + Cl−
 In very dilute solutions, both sources of H3O+ must be considered
[H3O+ ] from HCl = 10−8
[H3O+ ] from H2O = 10−7
Total [H3O+ ] = 10−8 + 10−7 = 10−8 + 10 x 10−8 = (1+ 10) 10−8 = 11 x 10−8
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log (11 x 10−8) = 6.98
16. The ionization constant of HF is 3.2 × 10–4. Calculate the degree of dissociation of HF in its 0.02 M solution.
Calculate the concentration of all species present (H3O+ , F– and HF) in the solution and its pH.
𝑲𝒂 𝟑.𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒
Solution: 𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 , 𝜶 = = = 0.126
𝑪 𝟎.𝟎𝟐

HF + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + F-
c-c α= c(1- α) cα cα
[H3O+] = [ F-] = c α = 0.02 X 0.126 = 0.0025 M
[HF] = c(1 - α) = 0.02 (1 - 0.126 ) = 0.0175 M
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(0.0025) = 2.60
17. Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M acetic acid solution with the degree of ionization 1.32 X 10 -2
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Solution: [H3O+] = c α = 0.01 X 1.32 X 10-2= 1.32 X 10-3 molL-1
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(1.32 X 10-3) = 2.88
18. Calculate the pH of 0.08M solution of hypochlorous acid, HOCl. The ionization constant of the acid is 2.5 ×
10–5. Determine the percent dissociation of HOCl.
Solution: HOCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + ClO–
𝑲𝒂 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟓
𝟐
𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 , 𝜶 = = = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
𝑪 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖
Percentage of dissociation = 1.8 X 10-2 X 100 = 1.8
[H3O+] = c α = 0.08 X 1.8 X 10-2 = 1.44 X 10-3 molL-1
PH = − log[H3O+ ] = −log(1.44 X 10-3) = 2.85

19. Calculate the pH of the buffer solution formed by mixing 0.2 M NH 4Cl and 0.1 M NH3 .
Kb of ammonia is 1.77 X 10-5
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑶𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒃 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆]
PKb = - log Kb = - log(1.77 X 10-5) = 4.752
𝟎.𝟐
𝑷𝑶𝑯 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟐 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟓𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟎 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟓
𝟎.𝟏
PH + POH =14
PH =14 - POH =14 – 5.05 = 8.95
20. Calculate the pH of an acidic buffer containing 0.1M CH3COOH and 0.5 M CH3COONa.
[Ka for CH3COOH is 1.8 x 10-6]
[𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕]
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒃𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓, 𝑷𝑯 = 𝑷𝑲𝒂 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅]
PKa = - log Ka = - log(1.8 x 10-6) = 5.774
𝟎. 𝟓
𝑷𝑯 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝟒 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 = 𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟗𝟎 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟒𝟑
𝟎. 𝟏 -2 -1
21. The solubility of Al(OH)3 in water at 298 K is 16 x 10 molL . Calculate the solubility product of it.
Solution: For Al(OH)3 salt , Ksp = [Al3+][ OH-]3
For AB3 type salt , , Ksp = 27 S4 = 27 (16 x 10-2)4 = 0.0176
22. The solubility of Pb(OH)2 in water at 298 K is 5 x 10 -5 molL-1. Calculate the solubility product of it
Solution: For AB2 type salt , , Ksp = 4 S3 = 4 (5 x 10 -5)3 = 500 X 10 -15
23. Calculate the solubility of CaSO4 at 298 K, if its solubility product constant (Ksp) is 9 x 10-6.
For CaSO4 salt , Ksp = [Ca2+][ SO42-]
For AB type salt , , Ksp = S2 , 𝒔 = 𝑲𝒔𝒑 = √𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟔 = 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑
24. The solubility product of silver chromate (Ag2CrO4) at 298K is 4.0 x 10-12. Calculate solubility at 298K
𝟑 𝟒.𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐
For AB2 type salt , , Ksp = 4 S3 ,
𝟑 𝑲𝒔𝒑 𝟒
∴𝑺= = = 𝟏 𝑿 𝟏𝟎
𝟒 𝟒
25. The pKa of acetic acid and pKb of ammonium hydroxide are 4.76 and 4.75 respectively. Calculate the pH of
ammonium acetate solution.
Solution: PH = 7 + ½ ( P Ka - P Kb ) = 7 + ½ [4.76 – 4.75] = 7 + ½ [0.01] = 7 + 0.005 = 7.005

8 REDOX REACTIONS
1. The oxidation number of oxygen in super oxides
Ans: (c) -1/2
2. The oxidation number of an atom in the elementary form is……………
Ans : Zero
3. Calculate the oxidation state of chromium in the following species. (a) K 2Cr2O7 (b) 𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟐𝟒
(a) K2Cr2O7 (b) 𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟐𝟒
2(+1) + 2 X + 7(-2) = 0 X + 4 ( -2) = -2
+2 + 2X -14 = 0 X-8 = -2
2X = 12 X = -2 +8 = +6
X = 12/2 = +6
4. Calculate the oxidation states of sulphur in the following species. H 2SO4 Na2S2O3 𝑺𝑶𝟐𝟑
(I) H2SO4 (II) Na2S2O3 (III) 𝑺𝑶𝟐𝟑
2(+1) + X + 4(-2) = 0 2(+1) + 2 X + 3(-2) = 0 X + 3 ( -2) = -2
+2 + X - 8 = 0 +2 + 2X - 6 = 0 X- 6 = -2
X = +6 2X = 4 X = -2 +6 = +4
X = 4/2 = +2
5. Arrange the following in the decreasing order of oxidation state of nitrogen .
𝑵𝑯𝟑 , 𝑵𝑶𝟐 , 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 , 𝑵𝑶𝟐 , 𝑯𝑵𝟑 , 𝑵𝟐 𝑯𝟒

𝑵𝑯𝟑 𝑵𝑶𝟐 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑

X + 3 (+1) = 0 X + 2 ( -2) = -1 +1 + X + 3(-2) = 0
X + 3 =0 X-4 = -1 +1 + X - 6 = 0
X = -3 X = -1 +4 = +3 X = +5
𝑵𝑶𝟐 𝑯𝑵𝟑 𝑵𝟐 𝑯 𝟒
X + 2 ( -2) = 0 +1 + 3 X = 0 𝟐𝑿 + 𝟒 (+𝟏) = 𝟎
X-4=0 3X = -1 2X = -4
X = +4 X =-1/3 X = -4/2 = -2
-3 +3 +5 +4 -1/3 -2
𝑵𝑯𝟑 , 𝑵𝑶𝟐 , 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 , 𝑵𝑶𝟐 , 𝑯𝑵𝟑 , 𝑵𝟐 𝑯𝟒
Decreasing order of oxidation states:
𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟑 > 𝑵𝑶𝟐 > 𝑵𝑶𝟐 > 𝑯𝑵𝟑 > 𝑵𝟐 𝑯𝟒 > 𝑵𝑯𝟑
6. Calculate the oxidation number of chlorine in ClO 4−
X + 4(-2) = -1
X-8 = -1
X=+7
7. Calculate the oxidation number of Cr in K2Cr2O7 and P in H2P2O5.
Ans:
Oxidation no. of Cr in K2Cr2O7 = +6
Oxidation no. of P in H2P2O5= +4
(Hints : 2(+1) + 2x + 7(-2) = 0 , +2 +2x-14 =0 , 2x-12 =0 , 2x = 12 , x = 12/2 =6
2(+1) + 2x + 5(-2) = 0 , +2 +2x-10 =0 , 2x- 8 =0 , 2x = 8 , x = 8/2 = 4)

8. Balance the following Redox process by ion-electron method ( Half reaction method :
P4(s) + OH− (aq) → PH3(g) + HPO2 − (aq) Basic medium

Ans:
(I) Write the skeletal equation and find the oxidation number.
0 -3 +2
P4 + OH → PH3 + HPO2 −
−

( Oxidation number of Phosphorus decreased by 3 and increased by 2)

(II) Split the skeleton in to two half –oxidation half and reduction half

Oxidation half : P4 → HPO2 −

Reduction half : P4 → PH3

(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
Oxidation half : P4 → 4 HPO2 −
Reduction half : P4 → 4 PH3
(IV) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H +. Since it is basic medium add
OH- on both sides equal to H+ ions. Replace H+ and OH- by H2O. Cancel excess water
molecules.
Oxidation half : P4 + 8 H2O + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 12 H+ + 12 OH−
P4 + 8 H2O + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 12 H2O
P4 + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 4 H2O
Reduction half : P4 + 12 H+ + 12 OH− → 4 PH3 + 12 OH−
P4 + 12 H2O → 4 PH3 + 12 OH−
(V) Balance the charges by adding electrons
P4 + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 4 H2O + 8 e−
P4 + 12 H2O + 12 e− → 4 PH3 + 12 OH−
(VI) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
3 (P4 + 12 OH− → 4 HPO2 − + 4 H2O + 8 e− )
3 P4 + 36 OH− → 12 HPO2 − + 12 H2O + 24 e−
2 ( P4 + 12 H2O + 12 e− → 4 PH3 + 12 OH− )
2 P4 + 24 H2O + 24 e− → 8 PH3 + 24 OH−
(VII) Adding the two half reactions
3 P4 + 36 OH− + 2 P4 +24 H2O + 24 e− →12 HPO2 − +12 H2O + 24 e− +8 PH3 + 24 OH−
5 P4 + 12 OH− +12 H2O → 12 HPO2 − + 8 PH3
 9. Balance the following redox reaction using oxidation number method or ion-electron method:

𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 (𝒈) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) → 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 (𝒂𝒒) + 𝑶𝟐 (𝒈) + 𝑯 (in acid medium)

Solution:
(I) Write the skeletal equation and find the oxidation state
+7 −1 +3 0
𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯
( +7 oxidation state of Cl in Cl2O7 decreases to +3 in ClO2− and -1 oxidation number of
Oxygen in H2O2 increases to zero in O2)
(II) Split the skeleton in to two half –oxidation half and reduction half
Oxidation half : 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐
–
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐
(III) Balance atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen
Oxidation half : 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐
–
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐
(IV) Balance oxygen by adding water and hydrogen by adding H +
Oxidation half : 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔 𝑯 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(V) Balance the charges by adding electrons
Oxidation half : 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯 + 𝟐 𝒆
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔 𝑯 + 𝟖 𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(VI) Equalize the number of electrons in both half reactions.
Oxidation half : 𝟒 (𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯 + 𝟐 𝒆 )
𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟒 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟖 𝑯 + 𝟖 𝒆
Reduction half : 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔 𝑯 + 𝟖 𝒆 → 𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
(VII) Adding the two half reactions
𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 + 𝟔 𝑯 + 𝟖 𝒆 → 𝟒 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟖 𝑯 + 𝟖 𝒆 + 𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝟒 𝑯𝟐 𝑶𝟐 + 𝑪𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟕 → 𝟒 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑯 + 𝟐 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶

12 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. 0.41 g of an organic compound gave on combustion 0.8010 g of CO 2 and 0.4212 g of water. Calculate the
percentage of carbon and hydrogen in it.
𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟐 𝑿𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐗𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 = = = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟐𝟖%
𝟒𝟒 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟒𝟒 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏
𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟏%
𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟖 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏
2. 0.2325 g of an organic compound produced 31.7 cm3 of moist nitrogen by Dumas method at 25 0C and 755.8
mm of Hg pressure. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the organic compound if the aqueous tension at
25 0C is 23.8 mm.
Solution : Temperature = 25 0C = 25 + 273 298 K , Volume of nitrogen gas =31.7 cm3
Observed pressure = 755.8 mm of Hg , Aqueous tension = 23.8 mm of Hg.
Pressure of dry nitrogen = 755.8 - 23.8 = 732 mm of Hg
 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑿 𝟐𝟕𝟑 𝟕𝟑𝟐 𝑿 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝑻𝑷 = = = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝑿 𝑻𝟏 𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝑿 𝟐𝟗𝟖

𝟐𝟖 𝑿 𝑽 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟖 𝑿𝟐𝟕. 𝟗𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎

% 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟒%
𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟓

3. For the estimation of nitrogen in Kjeldahl’s method, the ammonia evolved from 0.5 g of an organic
compound neutralized 10 ml of 1 M H2SO4. Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the organic compound.
Solution : Basicity of H2SO4 =2
𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟒 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟓
= 𝟓𝟔 %
4. A sample of 0.50 g of an organic compound was treated according to Kjeldahl’s method. Ammonia evolved
was absorbed in 50 ml of 0.5 M H2SO4.The residual acid required 60 ml of 0.5 M NaOH solution for
neutralization. Find the percentage composition of nitrogen in the compound.
Solution:
Mass of organic compound = 0.50g
50 ml of 0.5 M H2SO4 = 25 ml (50 X 0.5) of 1M H2SO4
60 ml of 0.5 M NaOH = 30 ml(60 X 0.5) of 1 M NaOH solution
Therefore 30 ml of 1 M NaOH solution requires 15 ml of 1M H 2SO4 solution for neutralization.
Therefore volume of acid left unreacted = 15 ml of 1M H 2SO4
Therefore volume of acid used up for neutralization = 25-15 =10 ml of 1M H 2SO4
Basicity of H2SO4 =2
𝟏𝟒 𝑿 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝑿 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟒 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟏𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒏 = =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟓
= 𝟓𝟔 %
5. 0.15 g of an organic compound gave 0.12 g of silver bromide by Carius method. Find the percentage of
bromine in it.
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝟖𝟎 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟎𝟒 %
𝟏𝟖𝟖 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓
6. 0.3780 g of an organic compound gave 0.5740 g of AgCl by Carius method. Find the percentage of chlorine
in it.
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒆 =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝟑𝟓. 𝟓 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟒𝟎 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝟕 %
𝟏𝟒𝟑. 𝟓 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟖𝟎
7. 0.468 g of an organic compound gave 0.668 g of BaSO4 by Carius method. Find the percentage of sulphur in
it.
𝟑𝟐 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟐 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟖 𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎
% 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓 = = = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟔 %
𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝑿 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝑿 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟖
========================================================================

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS BANGARA MANJESHWARAM

(14038) , MOB: 9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM