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Class: XI
CHEMISTRY
Brief Notes, Textbook Solutions, Solved Papers
CBSE
Downloaded from www.studynama.com

Chemistry - XI
Index
S. No. Chapter Name Page No.
1. Some Basic Concepts 1

2. Atomic Structure 13
3. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 31
4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 39
5. States of Matter 51
6. Thermodynomic 59
7. Equilibrium 69
8. Redox Reactions 83
9. Hydrogen 90
10. The s-Block Elements 98
11. The p-Block Elements 105
12. Organic Chemistry : Some basic Principles and Techniques 113
13. Hydrocarbons 133
14. Environmental Chemistry 146

 Matter : Anything that has mass and occupy space.
 Precision : If refers to the closeness of various measurements for the same
quantity.
 Accuracy : It refers to the agreement of a particular value to the true value
of the result.
 Mass and weight : Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in
body, while weight is the force exerted by gravity on an object. The mass
of a substance is constant whereas its weight may vary from one place to
another due to change in gravity.
 Volume : 1 L = 1 dm3 = 103cm3 = 10–3 m3
 Temperature : K = °C + 273.15; =
 Standard Temperature Pressure (STP) : 0°C (273.15 K) temperature

and 1 atm pressure.
 Normal Temperature Pressure (NTP) : 20°C (293.15 K) temperature
and 1 atm pressure.
 Standard Ambient Temperature Pressure (SATP) : 25°C (298.15 K)
temperature and 1 atm pressure
 Scientific Notation : Expressing a number in the form N × 10n, and N
can vary b/w 1 to 10.
 Significant figures : These are meaningful digits which are known with
certainty.
 Laws of Chemical Combination :
Ø Law of Conservation of Mass (Antonie Lavoisier) : Mass can
neither be created nor be destroyed.
Ø Law of Definite Proportions (Joseph Proust) : A given compound
Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 1

always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass.
Ø Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton) : When two elements
combine to form two or more compounds, then the different masses
of one element, which combine with a fixed mass of the other, bear
a simple ratio to one another.
Ø Gay Lussac’s Law : When gases combine or are produced in a
chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio provided all gases
are in the same temperature and pressure.
e.g., 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2O (g)
2 Vol 1 Vol 2 Vol
(at same T, P)
 Atomic Mass : It is defined as the average relative mass of an atom of an
element as compared to the mass of an atom of carbon – 12 taken as 12.
Atomic mass is represented by ‘u’ (unified mass).
1u = 1.66056 × 10–24 g
 Molecular mass : It is algebraic the sum of the atomic mass of the elements
present in the molecule.
For example : Molecular mass of CH4 = (1 × 12) + (4 × 1) = 16 u
 Avogadro Number : It is the amount of atoms or molecules present in
one mole of a substance.
Avogadro number (NA) = 6.022 × 1023
 Molar Mass : The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its
molar mass.
For example : Molar mass of CH4 = (1 × 12) + (4 × 1) = 16g mol–1
 Mole (n) : It is amount of a substance that contains as many particles or
entities as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure C-12.
1 mole of a substance = Molar mass of substance = Avogadro’s Number
of chemical units = 22.4L volume at STP of gaseous substance
e.g., 1 mole of CH 4 = 16g of CH 4 = 6.022 × 10 23 molecules of
CH4 = 22.4L at STP
n = = = =
 Molar Volume (Vm) : It is volume occupied by one mole of any substance.

Molar volume of a gas = 22.4L at STP (273 K, 1atm) or 22.7L at STP (273
2 Chemistry Class XI

K, 1 bar)
Calculating Molar Volume: PV = nRT
∴ V =
Or
V =
1 bar
 Percentage Composition : Mass % of the element
 Empirical Formula : It represents the simplest whole number ratio of

various atoms present in a compound. e.g., CH is the empirical formula
of benzene.
 Molecular Formula : It shows the exact number of different of atoms
present in a molecule of a compound. e.g., C6H6 is the molecular formula
of benzene.
 Relationship between empirical and molecular formulae :
Molecular formula = n × Empirical formula
Where; n=
 Information Conveyed by a chemical equation :
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
(i) 1 molecule of N2 + 3 molecules of H2 → 2 molecules of NH3

(ii) 1 mole of N2 + 3 mole of H2 → 2 mole of NH3
(iii) 1 × 28g of N2 + 3 × 2 g of H2 → 2 × 17 g of NH3
(iv) 1 × 22.4L of N2 + 3 × 22.4L of H2 → 2 × 22.4L of NH3
at STP at STP at STP
 Limiting Reagent : It is the reactant which gets consumed first or limits
the amount of product formed.
 Mass Percent : It is the mass of the solute in grams per 100 grams of the
solution.

Mass percent=
 Parts per million (ppm) : It is part of solute per million part of solution
by mass.
ppm =
 Molarity (M) : It is number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (dm3)

of the solution.
Molarity =
Molarity equation : M1V1 = M2V2

(Before dilution) (After Dilution)
Molarity of a solution decreases on increasing temperature.
Molarity of pure water is 55.56 mol L–1
 Molality (m)—It is number of moles of solute dissolved per 1000g (1kg)
of solvent.
Molality =
Molality is independent of temperature.

 Mole Fraction(x) is the ratio of number of moles of one component to
the total number of moles (solute and solvents) present in the solution.
x1 = and x2 =
The sum of all the mole fractions in a solution is equal to one. i.e., x1 + x2 = 1
1 - Mark Questions
1. Name two chemical compounds used in treatment of cancer.

2. What is AZT ? Mention its use in medical science.
3. Give an example each of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture.
4. Differentiate solids, liquids & gases in terms of volume & shapes.
5. Classify following as pure substances and mixtures : air, glucose, gold,
sodium and milk.

6. What is the difference between molecules and compounds? Give examples
of each.
7. What is the SI unit of density ?
8. What is the SI unit of molarity ?
9. Define accuracy.
10. What are the two different system of measurement ?
11. What is the difference between mass & weight ?
12. Define significant figures.
13. Define precision.
14. Which measurement is more precise 4.0g or 4.00g ? [Ans. 4.00 g]
15. How many significant figures are there in (i) 3.070 and (ii) 0.0025 ?
[Ans. (i) 4 (ii) 2]
16. Express the following in the scientific notation : (i) 0.0048 (ii) 234,000
17. State Avogadro’s law.
18. State law of definite proportions.
19. State Gay Lussac’s Law of combining volumes of gases.
20. If ten volumes of dihydrogen gas react with five volumes of dioxygen
gas, how much volume of water vapour would be produced ?
[Ans. 10 volumes]
21. Define unified mass (u).
22. Calculate the number of atoms in 32.0 u of He. [Ans. 8]
23. Define molar volume of a gas.
24. What is the volume of 17 g of NH3 gas at STP (298 K, 1 atm) ?
[Ans. 22.4 L]
25. What is the value of one mole ?
26. Calculate the number of molecules present in 22.0 g of CO2.
[Ans. 3.011 × 1023]

27. How many molecules of SO2 are present in 11.2 L at STP ?
[Ans. 3.011 × 1023]
28. Which has more number of atoms ? 1.0 g Na or 1.0 g Mg. [Ans. 1.0 g Na]
29. How many oxygen atoms are present in 16 g of ozone (O3) ?
[Ans. 2.007 × 1023]
30. At STP, what will be the volume of 6.022 × l023 molecules of H2 ?
[Ans. 22.4L]
31. 1L of a gas at STP weighs 1.97g. What is molecular mass ?
[Ans. 44.128 g mol–1]
32. Write the relationship between empirical formula and molecular formula.
33. Which is more informative ? Empirical formula or Molecular formula.
34. A subtance has molecular formula C6H12O6. What is its empirical formula.
35. Empirical formula of a compound X(Molar mass = 78 mol–1) is CH. Write
its molecular formula.
36. How are 0.5 mol Na2CO3 and 0.5 M Na2CO3 different from each other ?
37. Why molality is preferred over molarity of a solution ?
38. Define molarity of a solution.
39. What is the effect of temperature on molarity of solution ?
40. What is limiting reactant in a reaction ?
2 - Mark Questions
1. How can we say that sugar is solid and water is liquid?
2. How is matter classified at macroscopic level?
3. Classify following substances as element, compounds and mixtures : water,
tea, silver, steel, carbon dioxide and platinum.
4. The body temperature of a normal healthy person is 37°C. Calculate its
value in°F.

5. At what temperature will both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales read the
same value?
6. Convert 5L into m3.
7. What does the following prefixes stand for :
(a) pico (b) nano (c) micro (d) deci
8. How many significant figures are present in the answer of the following
calculations :
(i) 0.0125 + 0.8250 + 0.025 (ii)
9. Convert ‘450 pm’ into SI unit and write the answer in scientific notation
upto 2 significant figures.
[Ans. 4.5 × 10–10 m]
10. The density of vanadium is 5.96 g cm–3. Express this in SI unit.
[Ans.5960 kg m–3]
11. 45.4 L of dinitrogen reacted with 22.7 L of dioxygen and 45.4 L of nitrous
oxide was formed. The reaction is given below : 2 N2 (g)+ O2 (g) → 2 N2O
(g) Which law is being obeyed in this experiment? Write the statement of
the law.
12. Write main points of Dalton’s atomic theory.
13. Give one example each of a molecule in which empirical formula and
molecular formula is (i) Same (ii) Different.
14. Calculate the number of moles in the following masses :
(i) 7.85g of Fe; (ii) 7.9mg of Ca
15. Calculate average atomic mass of chlorine using following data:
Isotope % Natural abundance Molar mass
35Cl 75.77 34.9689
37Cl 24.33 36.9659 [Ans. 35.5 u]
16. Give one example of molecule in which empirical formula and molecular
formula are (i) same (ii) different.

17. Calculate the percent of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in ethanol (C2H5OH)
[Ans. 52.14%, 13.13%, 34.73%]
18. How much copper can be obtained from 100 g of CuSO4 ?[Ans. 39.8g]
19. Calculate the amount of water (g) produced by the combustion of 16 g of
methane. [Ans. 36g]
20. How many moles of methane are required to produce 22 g CO2 (g) after
combustion? [Ans. 0.5 mol]
21. A solution is prepared by adding 2 g of a substance A to 18 g of water.
Calculate the mass per cent of the solute. [Ans. 10%]
22. Calculate molarity of water if its density is 1.00 g mL-1. [Ans. 55.56 M]
23. Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution prepared by dissolving its
4 g in enough water to form 250 mL of the solution. [Ans. 0.4 M]
24. The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL-1. Calculate molality of
the solution. [Ans. 2.8m]
25. Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water in which the mole
fraction of ethanol is 0.040 (assume the density of water to be one).
[Ans. 2.31 M]
26. NH3 gas can be prepared by Haber’s process as, N2(g) + 3H2 (g) →
2NH3(g). At a particular moment concentration of all the species is 2
moles; calculate the concentration of N2 and H2 taken initially.
[Ans. 3 mole, 5 moles]
27. A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with
chloroform, CHCl3, supposed to be carcinogenic in nature. The level of
contamination was 15 ppm (by mass).
(i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
[Ans. (i) ~ 15 × 10–14 g (ii) 1.25 × 10–4 m]

28. Potassium superoxide, KO2 is used in rebreathing gas masks to generate
oxygen.
4KO2(s) + 2H2O(l) → 4KOH(s) + 3O2(g)
If a reaction vessel contains 0.15 mol KO2 and 0.10 mol H2O, what is the
limiting reactant? How many moles of oxygen can be produced?
[Ans. KO2, 1.125 mol]
29. How many grams of HCl react with 5.0 g of MnO2 according to the
equation.
4HCl(aq) + MnO2(s) → 2H2O(l) + MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) [Ans. 8.40 g]
30. 0.5 mol of H2S and SO2 are mixed together in a reaction flask in which the
following reaction takes place : 2H2S (g) + SO2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
Calculate the number of moles of sulphur formed. [Ans. 0.75 mol]
31. Pure oxygen is prepared by thermal decomposition of KC1O3 according
to the equation :
Calculate the volume of oxygen gas liberated at STP by heating 12.25 g

KClO3(s). [Ans. 3.36 L]
3 - Marks Questions
1. Give three main points of difference between a compound and a mixture.

2. Define homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture with example.
3. Write seven fundamental quantities & their units
4. Pressure is defined as force per unit area of the surface. The SI unit of
pressure, Pascal is :
1Pa = 1 Nm–2
If mass of air at sea level is 1034 g cm-2, calculate the pressure in Pascal.
[Ans. 1.01332 × 105 Pa]

5. The following data are obtained when dinitrogen and dioxygen react
together to form different compounds :
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Mass of dinitrogen 14 14 28 28
Mass of dioxygen 16 32 32 80
Which law of chemical combination is obeyed by the above experimental
data ? Give its statement.
6. Calculate :
(i) Mass in gram of 5.8 mol N2O
(ii) Number of moles in 8.0 g of O2
(iii) Molar mass if 11.2 L at STP weigh 8.5 g.
[Ans. (i) 255.2 g (ii) 0.25 mol (iii) 17 g mol–1]
7. In three moles of ethane (C2H6), calculate the following :
(i) Number of moles of carbon atom,
(ii) Number of moles of hydrogen atoms,
(iii) Number of molecules of ethane.
[Ans. (i) 6 moles, (ii) 18 moles, (iii) 1.81 × 1024]
8. 16 g of an ideal gas SOx occupies 5.6 L at STP. What is its molecular
mass ? What is the value of X ? [Ans. 64u, x = 2]
9. Calculate the number of moles :
(i) 5.0 L of 0.75 M Na2CO3
(ii) 7.85 g of Fe
(iii) 34.2 of sucrose (C12H22O11) [Ans. (i) 3.75, (ii) 0.14, (iii) 0.1]
10. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following :
(i) 52 moles of Ar. (ii) 52u of He (iii) 52g of He.
[Ans. (i) 3.13 × 1025 (ii) 13 (iii) 7.83 × 1024]
11. Vitamin C is essential for the prevention of scurvy. Combustion of
0.2000g of vitamin C gives 0.2998g of CO2 and 0.819g of H2O. What is
the empirical formula of vitamin C ?

12. A compound contains 4.07% hydrogen, 24.27% carbon and 71.65%
chlorine. Its molar mass is 98.96 g. What are its empirical and molecular
formulas? [Ans. CH2C1, C2H4Cl2]
13. A compound made up of two elements A and B has A = 70%, B = 30%.
Their relative number of moles in the compound is 1.25 and 1.88, calculate :
(i) Atomic masses of the elements A and B
(ii) Molecular formula of the compound , if its molecular mass is found
to be 160. [Ans. (i) 56 and 16, (ii) A2B3]
14. Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH3COONa) required for making
500 mL of 0.375 molar aqueous solution. (Molar mass of sodium acetate
is 82.0245 g mol–1). [Ans. 15.375 g]
15. Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample
which has a density, 1.41 g mL–1 and the mass per cent of nitric acid in it
being 69%. [Ans. 15.44 M]
16. What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) in mol L–1 if its 20 g are
dissolved in enough water to make a final volume up to 2L ? [Ans. 0.029 M]
17. Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HC1 according to the reaction :
CaCO3 (s) + 2 HC1 (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
What mass of CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 mL of 0.75
M HC1 ? [Ans.0.94 g]
18. The reaction 2C + O2 → 2CO is carried out by taking 24.0 g of carbon
and 96.0 g of O2. Find out.
(i) Which reactant is left in excess ?
(ii) How much of it is left ?
(iii) How many grams of the other reactant should be taken so that nothing
is left at the end of the reaction ? [Ans. (i) O2, (ii) 64 g, (iii) 72]
19. A 10 g sample of a mixture of calcium chloride and sodium chloride is
treated with Na2CO3 to precipitate calcium as calcium carbonate. This
CaCO3 is heated to convert all the calcium to CaO and the final mass of
CaO is 1.62 g. Calculate % by mass of NaCl in original solution.
[Ans. 67.9%]

5 - Mark Questions
1. (i) A black dot used as a full stop at the end of a sentence has a mass of
about one attogram. Assuming that the dot is made up of carbon, calculate
the approximate number of carbon atoms present in the dot.
[Hint : 1 attogram = 10–18 g] [Ans. 5.02 × 104]
(ii) Which one of the following will have largest number of atoms ?
(a) 1g Au (s) (b) 1g Na (s) (c) 1g Li (s) (d) 1g of Cl2(g)
[Ans. (i) 39.81 g (ii) 1 g of Li]
2. (i) What is the difference between empirical formula and molecular
formula ?
(ii) A welding fuel gas contains carbon and hydrogen only. Burning a
small sample of it in oxygen gas 3.38 g carbon dioxide, 0.690 g of water
and no other products. A volume of 10.0 L (measured at STP) of this
welding gas is found to weigh 11.6 g. Calcuate (i) empirical formula, (ii)
molar mass of the gas, and (iii) molecular formula.
[Ans. (i) CH, (ii) 26 g mol–1, (iii) C2H2]
3. (i) What is the difference between Molarity and Molality.
(ii) The Molarity of a solution of sulphuric acid is 1.35 M. Calculate its
molality. (The density of acid solution is 1.02 g cm–3).[Ans. 1.52 m]
4. (i) Define : (a) Mole fraction (b) Mass percentage.
(ii) If the density of methanol is 0.793 kg L–1, what is its volume needed
for making 2.5 L of its 0.25 M solution ? [Ans. 0.0025 L]

(1) Atom (Given by Dalton) : Matter is made up of extremely small particles
which are indivisible in nature. It consists of subatomic particles electron,
protons and neutrons knows as FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES.
(2) Electron (Named by Stoney) : Discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897
Cathode Ray experiment [In Crooke's TUBES]. A long glass tube with
two metal electrodes. At every low pressure when high voltage is applied
a glow is produced due to flow of – ve charge particle [KNOWN AS
ELECTRON], cathode rays. Cathode rays have – ve charge, travel in
straight lines, have electric and magnetic field, have heating effect, more
penetrating effect.
Charge on e– was found by OIL DROP experiment [MILLIKAN].
(3) Proton (Discovered by GOLDSTEIN) in ANODE RAY EXPT : In a
perforated cathode tube with gas at low pressures high voltage was passed
b/w electrode rays from cathode produced green FLOURESCENCE on
ZnS wall. These were called as ANODE RAYS. They travel in straight
line, with + ve charge, get deflected in electric and magnetic field.
(4) Neutron : Fundamental particle which carries no charge but has mass
equal to H-atom or PROTON. Discovered by JAMES CHADWICK.
Name of UNIT Electron Proton Neutron
Constant
Mass amu 0.000546 1.00728 1.008665
g 9.109 × 10–31 1.673 × 10–27 1.675 × 10–27
Charge Coloumbs 1.602 × 10–19 + 1.602 × 10–19 Zero
esu – 4.8 × 10–10 + 4.8 × 10–10 Zero
Relative –1 +1 Zero
Atomic Structure 13

(5) J.J. Thomson : The sphere of + ve change nucleus model of atom is
balanced by coulombic force of attraction of e–. Like a Raisin Pudding
Model.
2+
(6) Rutherford's (Discovery of nucleus) : particles (+ ve charge)
bombared on gold foil.
(a) 99.9% passed without deflection : Most space inside the atom is empty.
(b) Only few α-particles deflected therefore mass of atom centrally
placed called nucleus.
(c) very few α-particles deflected back therefore mass of atom contains
+ ve charge particles [Protons].
(d) Atom is electrically neutral hence – ve charge particles placed outside
the nucleus and have very less mass.
Limitations : No distribution and energies of e– considered, could not
explain e– does not fall into the nucleus or not; no details of line spectra
of H atom.
(7) (a) Atomic number (Z) : The no. of protons or electron in a neutral atom
or
No. of protons in an atom (or ion).
(b) Mass no. (A) : Total no. of protons and neutron in an atom
A = No. of (P + n) A – Z = No. of neutrons
(8) (a) Isotopes : Atoms of same element with different mass no.
(b) Isobars : Atoms of different element with same mass no.

(c) Isotones : Atoms of different element with same no. of neutron
(d) Isoelectronic Species : Atoms, molecules or ions with same no. of

e– [Ne; O2–].
(9) Electromagnetic radiations : Energy emitted from any source (in forms
of waves) in which electric and magnetic fields oscillated perpendicular to
each other and travelling with a velocity of light is known as EM radiation.
(10) Characteristics of waves :
(a) Wavelength : The distance of one crest and
one trough in a wave. Denoted by ‘λ’.
(b) F r e q u e n c y : n o . o f w a v e s p a s s i n g
through a given point in one second.

Denoted by υ.
(c) Amplitude : The height of crest or depth of a trough denoted by ‘a’.

(d) Wave no. : No. of waves per unit length denoted by
= (or m–1)
(e) Velocity : Linear distance travelled by a wave in one second.
velocity of light c = =
∴ υ =
(11) Energywise order for EM radiation.
cosmic < γ rays < X rays < UV < VIBGYOR < IR < Microwaves < Radiowaves
λ Inc. υ Dec. Dec. Energy Dec.

(12) Photon : A packet or particle of light energy is knows as Photon.
(13) Planck’s quantum theory : The energy emitted from a source or absorbed
by a source is not continuous but discontinuous in form of small packet
of energy [for light each packet is known as photon]
Energy [emitted or absorbed] by a photon α υ (frequency)
E ∝ υ or E = hυ [h = Planck’s constant]
= 6.626 × 10–34 J sec
If ‘n’ photons are emitted E = nhυ
(14) Photo electric effect : The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a
metal surface when a light radiation of suitable frequency falls on metal
surface.
hυ – hυ0 = mv2
hυ ⇒ Light radiation falling upon metal surface.
hυ0 ⇒ Energy used for work function or [Energy for removing e– from
metal]
mv2 = K. energy by which e– is emitted from metal surface.
Atomic Structure 15

(a) Large atoms have less work function.
∴ e– emitted with more velocity.
(b) Small atoms have more work function.
∴ e– emitted with less velocity.
de Broglie equation : All material particles in motion should also exhibit
wave like properties.
λ=
For microscopic particles mass is very less therefore ‘λ’ more and more
wave character.
For macroscopic particles mass is large, λ is less therefore more particle
character.
Dual behaviour
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

It is impossible to determine the exact position and exact velocity of a
moving subatomic particle simultaneously.
∆x × m∆v ≥
∆x = uncertainty in position
∆v = uncertainty in velocity
For microscopic (mass very less) certainty in position is less therefore ∆x
is more, ∆v is less.
For macroscopic (large mass) certainty in position is more, ∆x is less and
∆v is more.
Bohr’s theory for H [H like one e– systems He+; Li2+]
(1) e– revolving round the nucleus in circular path [stationary state; SHELL]
with a definite angular momentum [n no. of shell of e–] and with
definite energy
En = ⇒ – 2.18 × 10–18
(2) As n increases, Energy of e– becomes less – ve [Due to less force of Proton

attraction]

As n Decreases Energy of e– becomes More – ve [Due to more force of
attraction by protons]
(3) In infinity shell e– has zero force of attraction therefore zero energy.
(4) Electron energy only changes by definite values ∆E = Ef – Ei.
= 2.18 × 10–18
Rydberg constant = 109678 cm–1

Hydrogen spectrum : When e– in hydrogen atom is provided energy it gets
excited to higher shell from ground state, it comes back to ground state by
emitting energy in definite values.
“Quanta” : The emission of light energy is known as emission spectra. It
corresponds to each atom depending upon which energy shell e– is excited.
It is discontinuous spectra as ‘λ’ of light radiations do not merge with each
other like in VIBGYOR (Continous Spectra).
When e– falls from any excited state to
= 1,09,678
ni = 1, nf = 2, 3, 4, .... [Lyman series] (UV)

ni = 2, nf = 3, 4, 5, .... [Balmer series] (VIBGYOR)
ni = 3, nf = 4, 5, 6 [Paschem series] IR.
ni = 4, nf = 5, 6, 7 [Bracket series] IR.
ni = 5, nf = 6, 7, 8 [Pfund series] IR.
Quantum numbers : The no. which completely define the state of e–.
Atomic Structure 17

(a) Position and energy of e– (b) Path of e– (c) Orienation in space (d) Rotational
motion of e–. These are described by four quantum numbers.
(1) Principal Quantum No. : It describes the distance of e– from nucleus ‘n’
i.e., defines the shell no. It is denoted by ‘n’.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .....
K, L, M, N, O .....
(2) Azimuthal (l) Quantum No. : It defines the path of e– decided by angular
momentum of e–. Each angular momentum value corresponds to one
subshell. The no. of subshells in a shell is 0 to n – 1.
n l (0 to n-1)
1 0 l=0 ‘s’ subshell
2 0, 1 l=1 ‘p’ subshell
3 0, 1, 2 l=2 ‘d’ subshell
4, 0, 1, 2, 3 l=3 ‘f ’ subshell
All subshells are wave functions for locating e–.
In the same shell energy increase s < b < d < f.
(3) Magnetic Quantum No. : It gives the no. of magnetic orientations an e– can
have in a subshell. The no. of magnetic orientation an e– can have in a subshell
⇒ – l to 0 to + l.
(4) Spin Quantum No. : An e– is continuously spinning on its own axis.
This Q. No.
describes e– can have clockwise spin motion or e– can have
anticlockwise spin motion . An orbital can have maximum two e–
one with clockwise and other with anticlockwise spin.

Aufbau principle
(a) e– are filled in increasing order of energy of subshell.
(b) As ‘n + l’value inc. energy of e– increases in that subshell.
(c) For two subshells with same ‘n + l’ value, as ‘n’ value increases
energy of e– increases.
Pauli’s principle
No two e– can have same set of 4 quantum nos. If two e– are present in

same orbital they will have different spin value.
Hund’s rule
The pairing of e– in degenerate orbitals (different orbitals with same energy)
will get paired only once they have been singly occupied.
Important Points
The filling of e– in subshells follows this order. (As per Aufbau principle)
(A) 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p
< 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
(B) Half filled and completely filled subshells have more stability than
incompletely filled subshells.
(24) Cr = [Ar] 4s2 3d4 changes to Cr = [Ar] 4s1 3d5
(29) Cu = [Ar] 4s2 3d9 changes to Cu = [Ar] 4s1 3d10
(C) As the shell no. inc. size of subshell increases e.g., size of (2s > 1s) : (3p
> 2p); (4d > 3d)
(D) The region in an orbital where probability of finding the e– is zero is known
as Nodal plane (or Node).
The no. of [radial nodes] = n – l – 1 & Angular Nodes = l Total nodes = n–1.
(E) ψ(psi) ψ2(psi square)

A wave function for The square of wave function where
locating an electron the probability of finding the e– is
maximum.
[Each value of ψ2 is a region and defines
one orbital]
(F) Orbit Orbital

(1) A definite distance from the (1) A probability region for locating
nucleus for finding the e– the e– around the nuclues.
[e– as a particle] It is a wave function [e– as a wave]
(2) It has definite size and e– in (2) It does not define definite size.
this orbit has definite energy. But only a boundary region diagram
of a wave for locating the e–.
Atomic Structure 19

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
A. Fundamental particles of an atom, Electromagnetic Spectrum &
Bohr’s Theory
1 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. Give the difference in the origin of cathode and anode rays.
Q. 2. Which of the following will not show deflection from the path on
passing through an electric field ? Proton, electron and neutron.
Q. 3. Neutron or proton of same wavelength, which will have more
velocity ?
Q. 4. Chlorophyll absorbs radiations of wavelength 700 nm. What is the
frequency of this radiation ? [Ans.4.2 × 10s Hz]
Q. 5. If the length of the crest of a wave is 4 pm. Write the wavelength of
this wave. [Ans.8 pm]
Q. 6. Arrange the following in the increasing order of their e/m values.
electron, proton and neutron.
Q. 7. A radiation emitted from a hot iron is photon or quantum ?
Q. 8. Give two examples from everyday life where cathode rays tube used.
Q. 9. The line spectrum of an element is known as fingerprints of its atom.
Comment
Q. 10. An element has atomic number 30 and mass number 66, what will
be the number of protons and neutrons in this atom?
[Ans.protons = 30 & neutrons = 36]
Q. 11. Calculate the mass and charge of one mole of electrons. [Ans.5.48 × 10–4 g]
Q. 12. Calculate the charge of one mole of electrons. [Ans.9.6488 × 104 C]
Q. 13. What is the value of the Bohr’s radius for the first orbit of hydrogen
atom ?
Q. 14. Distinguish between a photon and a quantum,
Q. 15. What type of metals are used in photoelectric cell ? Give one example.
[Ans.With large size less work function.]
Q. 16. Write the number of electrons present in 1 mol. of N3– ion.
Q. 17. Write the difference between atomic mass and atomic mass number ?

Q. 18. Which series of lines of the hydrogen spectrum lie in the visible region ?
Q. 19. Cs show maximum photoelectric effect, why ?
Q. 20. Cl and Cl– have same atomic number or mass number or both? Explain.
2 - Mark questions
Q. 1. How could Rutherford in his experiment explain Nucleus ?
Q. 2. Define black body and black body radiations.
Q. 3. Give the essential postulates of Bohr’s model of an atom. Howdid it
explain ?
(i) the stability of the atom ?
(ii) origin of the spectral lines in H-atom ?
Q. 3. What is quantisation ? How quantisation of energy was introduced
in Bohr’s model ?
Q. 4. An element with mass number 81 contain 31.7% more neutron as
compared to protons.
Assign the atomic symbol. [Ans.81Br]
Q. 5. What transition in the hydrogen spectrum would have the same
wavelength as the Balmer transition n = 4 to n = 2 of He+spectrum?
[Ans. n1 = 1 and n2 = 2]
Q. 6. What transition of Li2+ spectrum will have the same wavelength as
that of the second line of Balmer series in He+spectrum ?
[Ans. n2 = 6 to n1 = 3]
Q. 7. Calculate the energy required for the process
He+(g) ——→ He2+ (g) + e–
The ionization energy for the H atom in the ground state is 2.18 ×
10–18 J atom–1] [Ans. 8.72 × 10–18 J]
Q. 8. Calculate the wave number for the longest wavelength transition in
the Balmer series of atomic hydrogen. [Ans. 1.523 × 106 m–1]
Q. 9. To which orbit the electron in H atom will jump on absorbing 12.1
eV energy ? [Ans. 3rd orbit]
Q. 10. Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He+. What is
the radius of this orbit. [Ans. – 54.38 eV, 0.2645 Å]
Atomic Structure 21

Q. 11. What is the distance of separation between 3rd and 4th orbit of
H-atom ? [Ans. 3.703 Å]
Q. 12. The energy of electron in the first Bohr’s obit is – 13.6 eV. Calculate
the energy of electron in the first excited state. [Ans. – 3.4 eV]
Q. 13. Calculate the number of protons emitted in 10 hours by a 60 W sodium
lamp emitting radiations of wavelength 6000 Å.
Q. 14. Which one has a higher energy, a photon of violet light with wavelength
4000 Å or a proton of red light with wavelength 7000 Å ?
[Given. h = 6.62 × 10–34 J sec.]
Q. 15. A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm.
Calculate the number of protons emitted per second by the bulb.
[Ans. 2.012 × 1020 s–1]
Q. 16. What is the maximum number of emission lines when the excited
electron of a H atom in n = 4 drops to the ground state ? [Ans. 6]
Q. 17. Which has more energy, light radiation of wavelength 400 Pm or light
radiation of frequency 1015 Hz ?
Q. 18. Find the energy of electron in 4th shell of Li2+ ion.
Q. 19. What is the wave number of an electron with shortest wavelength
radiation in Lyman spectrum of He+ ion.
Q. 20. Write short note on :
(a) Continuous and discontinuous spectrum.
(b) Absorbtion and emission spectrum.
3 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. How were cathode rays discovered ? With the help of suitable
experiments show that :
(i) Cathode rays tavel in straight lines,
(ii) Cathode rays consists of material particles,
(iii) Cathode rays consists of negatively charged particles.
Q. 2. Write the complete symbol for :
(i) the nucleus with atomic number 56 and mass number 138.
(ii) the nucleus with atomic number 26 and mass number 55.

(iii) the nucleus with atomic number 4 and mass number 9.
Q. 3.(i) The energy associated with the first orbit in the hydrogen atom is
– 2.18 × 10–18 J atom-1. What is the energy associated with the fourth
orbit ?
(ii) Calculate the radius of Bohr’s third orbit for hydrogen atom.
[Ans.– 1.36 × 10–19 J atom–l .4.761 nm]
Q. 4. A bulb emits light of wave length 4500Å. The bulb is rated as 150
watt and 8% of the energy is emitted as light. How many photons are
emitted by the bulb per second ? [H.O.T.S1 [Ans. n = 27.2 × 1018]
Q. 5. When light with a wavelength of 400 nm falls on the surface of sodium,
electrons with a kinetic energy of 1.05 × 105 J mol-1 are emitted.
(a) What is the minimum energy needed to remove on electron from
sodium ?
(b) What is the maximum wavelength of light that will cause a
photoelectron to be emitted ?
[Ans. a = 3.2255 × 1019 J, b = 616 nm]
Q. 6. Compare the frequency of light radiations emitted when electron falls
from 5th shell to the 2nd shell in Li2+ ion and electron falls from 4th
shell to the 1st shell in He+ ion.
5 - Mark Questions
Q. 1.(a) Define Photoelectric effect ? Mention its one practical application in
daily life,
(b) Electrons are emitted with zero velocity from a metal surface when
it is exposed to radiation of wavelength 6800 Å. Calculate threshold
frequency (νo) and work function (Wo ) of the metal.
[Ans. νo = 4.41 × 1014 s–1 Wo = 2.92 × 10–19 J]
Q. 2.(a) The electronic energy in Bohr’s orbit is negative .How will you account
for it
(b) The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV. What will be the
energy of the first orbit of He+ and Li2+ ions ?
[Ans. E1 of He+ = – 54.4 eV, E1 of Li2+ = – 122.4 eV ]
Q. 3.(a) Define the following terms :
(i) Threshold frequency (ii) Work function.
Atomic Structure 23

(b) The work function for Cs atom is 1 .9 eV. Find threshold wavelength
(λ0)and threshold frequency (ν0) of this light radiation. If Cs metal is
irradiated with a radiation of wavelength 500 nm find kinetic energy
and velocity of emitted electron.
Dual Nature of Matter, de Broglie Equation,
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and wave
mechanical model
1 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. Mention the physical significance of ψ and ψ2.
Q. 2. Why did Heisenberg replaces the concept of definite orbit by the
concept of probability ? (e– with very less mass more as wave)
Q. 3. What is uncertain in uncertainty principle ?
Q. 4. Can a moving cricket ball have a wave character ? Justify your answer.
Q. 5. Heisenberg uncertainty principle has no significance in our everyday
life. Explain.
Q. 6. Out of the d orbitals which does not have four lobes ?
Q. 7. Write the Schrodinger wave equation.
Q. 8. Why uncertainty in position is more when uncertainty in velocity is
less for an electron ?
2 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. Calculate the mass of the photon with wavelength of 3 .6 Å.
[Ans. 6.135 × 10–29 kg]
Q. 2. Calculate the mass of the photon with wavelength of 5 Pm.
Q. 3. On the basis of uncertainty principle show that an electron cannot
exist with in atomic nucleus. (Given : Nuclear radius = 10–I5 m)
[Hint : Taking 10–15 m as ∆x, the ∆v comes much higher than the
velocity of light and hence is not possible]
Q. 4. Explain why the uncertainty principle is significant only from the
motion of subatomic paricles and is negligible for macroscopic
particles.
Q. 5. List two differences between orbit and orbital .
Q. 6. Show that the circumference of the Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom

is an integral multiple of the de Broglie wavelength associated with
the electron revolving around the orbit
Q.7. Comment on “Bohr’s model is against the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle”.
Q. 8. What are the similarities and difference in 2s and 2Px orbitals and 1s
and 2s orbitals ?
Q. 9. Give three differences between 3p and 4p subshell.
3 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. Calculate the number of waves made by Bohr electron in one complete
revolution in its third orbit. [H.O.T.S] [Ans. 3]
Q. 2. What should be the ratio of velocities of CH4 and O2 molecules
so that they are associated with de Broglie waves of equal
wavelength ? [Ans. 2]
Q. 3. Calculate the wavelength of an electron that has been accelerated in
a particle accelerator through a potential difference of 1 kv.
[Given 1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J] [H.O.T.S] [Ans. 3.87 × l0–7 m]
Q. 4.(i) Discuss the similarities and differences between a 1s and 2s orbital.
(ii) Draw the shape of dz2.
Q. 5. Calculate the wavelength of a tennis ball of mass 60 gm moving with
a velocity of 10 m per second. [Ans. 10–3 metre]
Q. 6. Calculate the wavelength of 1000 kg rocket moving with a velocity
of 3000 km/hr. [Ans. 7.9512 × 10–40 m]
Q. 7. Calculate the uncertainity in the velocity of a cricket ball of mass 150
g, if uncertainity in its position is of the order of 1 Å.
[Ans. 3.5 × 10–24 m s1]
Q. 8.(a) What is de-Broglie wavelength for an electron with light velocity?
(b) What is the angular momentum of electron in 5th shell.
Q. 9. Two particles A and B have wavelength λA = 5 × 10–10 m and λB =
10 × 1010 m. Find their frequency, wave number and energies. Which
has more penetrating power and why ?
Q. 10.(a)Which has max. uncertainty regarding position and why ?
Electron, proton and neutron.
Atomic Structure 25

(b) Find the number of waves associated with a light radiation of time
period 5 ns.
Q. 11. If an electron in He+ has angular momentum of 5h/2π. Find its energy
and wavelength associated with it. Find the kinetic energy of this
electron.
5 - Mark Questions
Q. 1.(a) State de Broglie equation. Write its significance.
(b) A beam of helium atoms moves with a velocity of 2.0 × 103 m s–1.
Find the wavelength of the particle constituting the beam
(h = 6.626 × 10–34 J s) [Ans. 49.9 pm ]
Q. 2.(a) State Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical
expression. Also give its significance.
(b) Calculate the uncertainity in the position of a dust particle with mass
equal to 1 mg if the uncertainity in its velocity is 5.5 × l0–20ms–1.
[Ans. 9.55 × 1010 m]
Q. 3.(a) Cricket ball, a tennis ball and a proton which has more uncertainity
in velocity and which follows Heisenberg uncertainity principle
maximum.
(b) What is same in de-Broglie and Heisenberg principle, which is
different from Bohr theory for structure of atom.
(c) Why Schrödinger wave only defines electron path uncertain but
definite energy.
Quantum Numbers, Electronic
Configuration and Nodes
1 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. What is the lowest value of n that allows g orbitals to exist ?
Q. 2. What are the four quantum numbers of 19th electron of copper ?
(Ans. Atomic number = 29)
Q. 3. Which quantum number is not obtained from solution of Schrödinger
wave equation ?
Q. 4. How many electrons will be present in the sub-shells having ms, value
of – 1/2 for n = 4 ?

Q. 5. Write the electronic configuration of Ni2+. (At. no. of Ni = 28)
Q. 6. How many radial and angular nodes are present in 2p orbital.
[Ans. Radial nodes = 0, Angular nodes = 1]
Q. 7. Which of the following orbitals are possible ?
1p, 2s, 2p and 3f.
Q. 8. Write the name of non-directional orbital.
Q. 9. Write the name of quantum numbers which determines the orientation
of orbital and shape of orbitals.
Q. 10. Write the name of quantum number which determines the shape of
orbital.
Q. 11. Using s, p, d notations, describe the orbital with the following quantum
numbers :
(a) n = 4, 1 = 2 (b) n = 1, l = 0. [Ans. (a) 4d (b) 1s]
Q. 12. How many orbitals are present in 'g' subshell ?
Q. 13. How many total electrons can be filled in all orbitals with
(n + l) = 5 ? [Ans. 18 electrons (4p6 3d10 5s2]
Q. 14. Name the dipositive ion represented by the electronic configuration
: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6. [Ans. Ca2+]
Q. 15. Is it correct to say that every atom with even atomic number has all
electron paired ?
Q. 16. Cr in ground state has how many unpaired electrons.
(Cr, Atomic number = 24).
Q. 17. Which has more energy of electron 4p or 5s ?
Q. 18. Nitrogen has correct configuration of 1s2, 2s2, 2px1,2py1, 2pz1 is
described by which principle ?
Q. 19. What are degenerate orbitals ?
2 - Mark Questions
Q. 1. On the basis of Pauli’s exclusion principle show that the maximum
number of electrons in the M -shell (n = 3 ) of any individual atom
is 18.
Q. 2. Designate each subshell with n = 4.
Atomic Structure 27

Q. 3. List the possible values for all the quantum numbers for the following
subshell.
(a) 2p (b) 4f
Q. 4. Write down the electronic configuration of Fe3+ and Ni2+. How many
unpaired electrons are present? (Given Atomic number, Fe = 26,
Ni = 28).
Q. 5. Out of principal, angular, magnetic and spin quantum number, which
quantum number determines the ?
(a) Shape of the orbital
(b) Number of orbitals in an orbit
(c) Size of the orbital
(d) Spin orientation of the electron.
Q. 6. What is the Hund ‘s rule of maximum multiplicity ? Explain with
suitable example.
Q. 7. Explain why :
(a) The three electron present in 2p subshell of nitrogen remain
unpaired
(b) Cr has configuration 3d5 4s1 and not 3d4 4s2.
Q. 8. (a) What is difference between 'l' and 'L'?
(b) Nitrogen has 7 proton, 7 electron and 7 neutrons. Calculate the
number of electron protons and neutrons in N3– ion.
Q. 9. Which has more energy of electron :
(a) Last electron of Cl– or last electron of O2–.
(b) n = 4, l = 3 or n = 5, l = 2.
3-Mark Questions
Q. 1.(i) An atomic orbital has n = 2. What are the possible values of l and m1 ?
(ii) List the quantum numbers (m1 and l) of electrons for 3d orbital.
(iii) Which of the following orbitals are possible ?
2d, 1s, 2p and 3f.
Q. 2.(a) Write the maximum nunber of electron in a subshell with l = 3 and
n = 4.

(b) Write the maximum number of electron that can be associated with
the following set of quantum numbers ?
n = 3, l = 1 and ml = – 1
(c) Write the maximum number of electron that can be accomodated in
an atom in which the highest principal quantum number value is 4.
Q. 3.(i) Write the electronic configurations of the following ions :
(a) H– (b)Na+ (c)O2– (d) F–
(ii) What are the atomic numbers of elements whose outermost electrons
are represented by (a) 3s1(b) 2p3 and (c) 3p5 ?
(iii) Which atoms are indicated by the following configurations ?
(a) [He] 2s1 (b) [Ne] 3s2 3p3 (c) [Ar] 4s2 3d1.
Q. 4. Calculate:
(a) Total number of spherical nodes in 3p orbital.
(b) Total number of nodal planes in 3p orbital.
(c) What is nodal planes in 3d orbital,
5 - Mark Questions
Q. 1.(a) Write short notes on:
(i) Aufbau principle (ii) Pauli’s principle (iii) Hund’s rule.
(b) Write the electronic configuration of the following ions :
(i) Fe3+ (ii) Cu+ [Given Atomic number of Fe and
Cu are 26 & 29]
Q. 2.(a) Draw the shapes of the following orbitals.
(i) 3dxy (ii) dz2
(b) What is the total number of orbitals associated with the principal
quantum number n = 3 ?
(c) Using s, p, d, f notations, describe the orbital with the following
quantum numbers.
(a) n = 3, l = 0, (b) n = 4, l = 2, (c) n = 5, l = 3, (d) n = 1, l = 0
Q .3. Explain the following :
(i) Energy of electron is not decided by : n, l ,m and s.
Atomic Structure 29

(ii) Maximum number of electron with – 1/2 spin for n = 3 is 6,9,12
or none.
(iii) Maximum number of electron can be present for n + l = 4.
(iv) 3f subshell is not possible.
(v) Maximum number of electrons in a subshell is :
(2l + l) or (4l + l) or n2
Q. 4.(a) A neutral atom has 2K, 8L and 15 M electrons. Find the total numbers
of electrons in s, p, d and f subshell.
(b) How many unpaired electrons are present in the following ions :
Al+, Cr2+, Co3+ and Mn2+
(Given Atomic number : Al=13, Cr = 24, Co = 27 & Mn = 25)
(c) One electron is present in 4f subshell. What is the sum of n + l +
m1 + ms values assuming ‘f ’ subshell follows – 3 to + 3 order of
filling electron.
Q. 5. Answer the following :
(a) n + l value for 14th electron in an atom.
(b) Increasing order of filling electron in 4f, 5p and 6d subshells.
(c) ‘m’ and ‘l’ value for last electron of Mg atom.
(Given atomic number of Mg is 12)
(d) Subshell in which last electron is present in Ga.
(Given Atomic number of Ga is 31)
(e) Sum of spin of all the electron in element having atomic number 14.

The first classification of elements was provided by Russian chemist D.I.
Mendeleev.
1. “The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions
of their atomic weight.”
2. It was modified to Modern Periodic law : “The physical and chemical
properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.”
It is the long form of periodic table :
Horizontal rows → Periods
Vertical columns → Group
3. 1st period—2 elements
2nd and 3rd period—8 elements
4th and 5th period—18 elements
6th period—32 elements
7th period—Incomplete
4. Groups
1 and 2 — ‘s’ block elements last electron entered in ‘s’ subshell [s1, s2]
3 to 12 — ‘d’ block elements last electrons entered in ‘d’ subshell [d1 to d10].
13 to 18 — ‘p’ block elements last electrons enter in ‘p ’ subshell [p1 to p6].
Group 18 — Noble gases.
5. (A) In ‘s’ and ‘p’ block elements the electrons enters outer most shell.
In ‘d’ block elements the electron enter the penultimate shell (n – 1).
‘f ’ block elements last electron enter the subpenultimate shell (n – 2).
(B) ‘f ’ block elements are placed in between ‘d’ block elements.
‘f ’ block elements in 2 rows [4f lanthanoids, 5f actinoids]
Classification Of Elements And Periodicity In Properties 31

6. General electronic configuration ‘s’ block ns1, ns2 [Group I]
‘p’ block ns1np1 to ns1 np6 Group 13 to 18
‘d’ block ns1, 2 (n – 1) d1 to 10 Group 3 to 12
‘f ’ block ns2(n – 1)d0, 1 (n – 2)f 1 to 14
7. General Trends :
Atomic Radius
(A) Left to right decreases due to effect of successive increasing nuclear
change without addition of a new shell.
(B) From top to bottom atomic radius increases due to successive addition of
shell.
(C) Noble gases have large radius than group 17 due to complete filling of
electron in outer shell electron-electron repulsion mildy increases.
8. (A) Ionization energy : The energy required to remove electron from outer
most shell of an atom in its isolated gaseous state. M(g) —→ M(g)+ + e–
(B) From Left to right it increases due to decrease in atomic radius due to
more force of attraction by protons. For 2nd period elements.
1st ionization enthalpy
Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ar
IInd ionization enthalpy
Be < C < B < N < F < O < Ne
(C) From top to bottom : Due to increase in size, (due to addition of shells)
the ionization enthalpy decreases from top to bottom.
(D) Metallic behaviour : Decrease from left to right due to increase in
ionization enthalpy.
Non metallic behaviour : Increase from left to right due to more number of
electron in outershell and added electron goes towards nucleus.
(A) Ionic radius : (A) Cation radius < Atomic radius—due to more no. of
protons than number of electron coloumbic force increases, size decreases.
[Mg2+ < Mg+ < Mg]
(B) Anion radius > Atomic radius—Due to more number of electron than
number of protons. [N3– > O2– > F–]

Electron-Electron repulsion increases, coloumbic force of attraction
decreases.
(C) For Isoelectronic species—More is the charge of cation lesser the size.
More is the charge of anion, more is the size.
(D) Size — O2– > F– > Na > Na+ > Mg2+
(10) Electro negativity : (A) The tendency of an atom to attract the shared
pair of electron towards itself in a bonded state.
(B) Left to right size decreases shared electron nearer to nucleus-electron
negativity increases.
(C) Top to bottom size increases, shared electron away from nucleus—electron
negativity decreases.
(D) Three highest electronegative atoms F > O > N.
Maximum electronegative Assign to F.
(11) Electron gain enthalpy : The enthalpy change released when an extra
electron is added to neutral gaseous atom to form anion.
M(g) + e– —→ M–(g)
Negative electron gain enthalpy
(A) Trends—From left to right—Increase due to decrease in size more
attraction of added electron by nucleus.
(B) From top to bottom—Decreases as the added electron is away from
nucleus due to increase in size.
(C) Cl has more electron gain enthalpy than fluorine—Due to small size
of fluorine extra added electron has more inter electronic repulsion than
chlorine which has large size. Similarly Phosphorus and Sulphur have
negative electron gain enthalpy than nitrogen and oxygen respectively.
(D) Maximum electron gain enthalpy—Chlorine (in periodic table)
(E) Electron gain enthalpy—
Halogen > Oxygen > Nitrogen > Metal of group 1 and 13 and non metal
of group 14 > metal of group 2.
(F) II electron gain enthalpy is always positive.

(12) Screening effect—(A) The decrease in force of attraction exerted by
nucleus on valency electrons due to presence of electrons in inner shells
is known as screening or shielding effect.
(B) Effective nuclear charge (Z*) = Nuclear charge—Shielding effect
(C) Trend—Left to Right—Z* Increases.
Top to Bottom—Z* Decreses.
(13) Second period element—Show different behaviour that I group
element—Due to (a) small size (b) High electron negativity (C) High
polarising power (d) absence of ‘d’ orbital in I member.
Na3[Al(OH)6] exists but Na[B(OH)4] not exists.
(14) The similarities in properties of first member of a group to second member
of just next higher group due to comparable atomic radius, nearly same
polarising power of ions is known as diagonal relationship.
Li Be B C N
Na Mg Al Si P
Elements with number of e– in valance shell
(a) 1, 2, 3 metals
(b) 4 metalloids
(c) 5, 6, 7 non-metals
(d) 8 noble gas

1 -Mark Questions
1. Metals are placed on which side of modern periodic table ?
2. Which pair of elements has similar properties ? [Ans. 13, 31]
3. Which atomic number refers to a non-metal elements ? [Ans. 17, 35]

4. Eka Aluminium & Eka silicon are known as ...... and ........ .
5. (a) Be shows diagonal relationship with which element. (Gr 16) (Al)
(b) Which group elements are known as chalcogens.
6. Which pair of elements are ‘S’ block elements ? [Ans. Both]
7. The element with ns2, np5 configuration is non-metal or metal ?

8. Define van der waal's radius. [Ans. The half of the distance b/w two nearly
place atoms in gaseous state].
9. Write the outer shell configuration of atomic number 31. [Ans. 4s2 4p1]
10. Find the group no. and period no. of element having atomic number 52.
[Ans. 5th Row, 16 gr]
11. Arrange O2–, O–1, O in decreasing radius (size). [Ans. O2– > O–1 > O]
12. Which element is iso-electronic with Na+ (Given Na atomic number 11)
[Ans. Ne]
13. Why noble gas have more size than halogens.
14. An element is placed in 5th row and 3 group what is its atomic no. ?
[Ans. 39]
15. How electron gain enthalpy of sulphur is more than Oxygen ?
16. In ‘f ’ block elements, 4f elements have what electronic configuration ?
[Ans. 6s2 5d0–1 4f 1 to 14]
17. Write the IUPAC name of element with atomic number 115, 107.
18. Write two isoelectronic species with Br (35). [Ans. Kr+ Se–1]
19. What is covalency of Al in [AlCl4]– ? [Ans. 4]
20. Write the IUPAC Symbol for the element having atomic number 120.
[Ans. Ubn]
21. Show that 4th period can have maximum 18 elements.

22. Second IE is always more than first why ?
23. Electronegativity of F > Cl > Br > I why ?
24. Arrange F, Cl in terms of increasing chemical reacitity.
25. Second IE of Na is more than second IE of Mg. Why ?
26. ∆egHΘ1 is exothermic while ∆egHΘ2 is endothermic justify.
27. IE for cation is more than for neutral atom. Why ?
28. Define diagonal relationship in reference of periodic table. [Ans. N, O]
29. Out of O– & O which has exothermic and which has endothermic electron
gain enthalpy.
2 - Mark Questions
1. Cations are smaller than neutral atom whereas anions are larger in size
than neutal atom. Explain.
2. Ionization energy of nitrogen is more than ‘O’ and ‘C’ both why ?
3. First ionization energy of boron is less than Be but size of Be is less than
Boron. Why ?
4. Electron gain enthalpy of Mg is positive. Explain.
5. Define Covalency
6. The reactivity of halogens decrease down the group but of alkali metals
(Gr 1) increases down the group.
7. Name one halogen, one metal, one group13 element which are liquid at
30°C. [Ans. Br, Hg, Ga]
8. The reducing power of elements increases down the group but reverse is
true for oxidising power along a period. Why ?
9. What is the formula of binary compound formed b/w combination of :
(a) 1st element of 1st group and iodine.
(b) 2nd element of 2nd group and 1st element of 17 groups.
10. Arrange in increasing order of :
Size (a) I, F, Cl, Br
Oxidising power (b) I, F, Br, Cl
11. Oxygen is more metallic than nitrogen but les than fluorine why ?
12. LiCl, LiBr, LiI are covalent as well as ionic why ?
13. PbCl2 is more stable than PbCl4. Why ? [Ans. Inert pair effect]

14. [Magnesium and nitrogen] and [Lithium and nitrogen] both form nitrides
why ?
15. Which has least IE [3p3, 3p6, 2p3, 2p6]
16. (a) IE of sulphur is lower than chlorine.
(b) Arrange in decreasing electronegativity F, O, N, Cl, C, H.
17. Element ‘A’ in Gr 17 2nd row
‘B’ in Gr 16 2nd row
‘C’ in Gr 15 2nd row
Arrange ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’ in decreasing EN, IE and first EGE.
18. Element ‘A’ 13 group forms ionic compounds. Write the :
(a) Formula of its oxide.
(b) Arrange of decreasing electro + ve character Ga, Li, Pb, Cs.
19. Write the atomic no. of element place diagonally to element of :
(a) Group 14, row 4 (b) Group 2, row 5
(c) Group 17, row 4
20. An element has outer shell electronic configuration 4s2 4p3.
(a) Find the atomic number of element place below it.
(b) Next noble gas no.
3 - Mark Questions
1. What is metallic radius, Covalent radius, Vanderwall radius. Give one
example for each.
2. Oxygen has first electron gain enthalpy exothermic while second
endothermic still a large number of ionic oxides are formed. Why ?
3. Boron and Al give two similarities and two behaviour shown differently
by each.
4. Element Gr 17; Gr 18; Gr 1 in the sequence placed in modern periodic
table.
(a) Which has – ve electron gain enthalpy ?
(b) Which has more metallic behaviour ?
(c) Which has zero electronic behaviour ?
5. What are (a) representative elements, (b) Transition elements, (c)
Lanthanoid and actinoids. Give their positions in modern periodic table.

6. Why LiF NaF KF RbF CsF are ionic ? But LiF is less ionic than CsF.
7. (a) Why Ca has more atomic radius than Al ?
(b) Why 2s2 e– is difficult to remove than 2p electron ?
8. (a) The non-metallic behaviour is shown by halogen (Gr 17) but their
compounds with (Gr 13) elements are more ionic and stable than with
(group 1) elements. (b) Al2O3 is more ionic than MgO than Na2O.
9. Explain the following data :
Ionization energy Cl < H < O < N < F.
10. IE2 of 3rd period elements is as follows. Why ?
Mg < Si < Al < P < S < Cl < Ar < Na.
5 - Mark Questions
1. (A) Which of the following have same chemical properties :
(a) Atomic no. 17, 53 (b) Atomic no. 8, 52
(c) Both (d) None
(B) Answer the following :
(i) B, Al, Ga arrange in decreasing order of atomic radii.
(ii) C, S, N first electron gain enthalpy (decreasing order)
(iii) Al forms amphoteric oxide. Why ?
(iv) Si is a semiconductor ‘C’ is a non-metal why ?
2. Element ∆iHΘ1 ∆iHΘ2 ∆egHΘ1
I 1681 3374 – 328
II 1008 1846 – 295
III 2372 5251 + 48
(a) The most reactive non-metal.
(b) The least reactive non-metal.
(c) The least reactive element give reason also. [Ans. (a) 1 (b) II (c) III]

1. The interaction between two atoms which holds them together within a
molecule or ions in known as chemical bond.
2. The elements with one, two, three, four, five, six or seven electrons is outer
shell, use these electrons to complete octet. The electrons which take part
in two or more atoms to complete octet is known as electrovalency.
3. Lewis symbols or electron dot symbols involve the presentation of valence
electrons (outer electrons) in an atom etc.
4. Electrovalent bond or ionic Bond : The bond (chemical interaction)
between two atoms formed by complete transference of electron from
valence shell (outer shell) of an atom to another to complete octet (noble
gas configuration) [2e– in H, Li] is known as ionic bond.
5. This ionic bond is favoured by low ionization enthalpy of metal high
electron gain enthalpy of non-metal atom and in the resulting ionic
compound more lattice energy.
6. Characteristics of ionic compound : They are solids, a definite arrangement/
pattern of ion (to give crystalline solids), high MP and BP, conductors in
fused state and in aqueous medium, soluble in H2O [Hydration].
7. Lattice enthalpy : The energy released when ionic compound is formed
from its ions in their gaseous state. Lattice energy is directly proportional to
charge of ion and inversely proportions to size of ions i.e., more is charge
density, more is lattice energy.
8. e.g., Mg —→ Mg2+ + 2e– O + 2e– —→ O2–
(2, 8, 2) (2, 6)
Mg2+ + O2– —→ MgO Ionic compound [A crystalline lattice].
Chemical Bonding And Molecular Structure 39

9. (a) Born Haber Cycle : For formation of ionic compound e.g., Na+Cl–.
LE

(b) Ionic bonds are Non directional in nature.
10. Fajan’s Rule : Polarizability and polarizing power. The power of an ion
to distort the other ion is polarising power and the tendency of an ion to
get distorted is known as polarizability. Factors affection polarizing power
and polarizability.
(a) High charge and small size of C+.
(b) High charge and large size of A–.
11. Covalent Bond : Lewis Langmuir Concept
The (chemical interaction) bond formed between two atoms say mutual
sharing of electrons between them so. as to complete their octets is known
as covalent bond and no. of electrons involved is covalency.
12. Formal charge : Electron of an atom in a molecule/ion
FC = [Total no. of valence e– in free atom] – [Total no. of non bonding
electrons] – [Total no. of shared electrons]
13. The valence bond approach : (a) The two atomic orbitals with one
electron each, overlap to give maximum electron density region common
to both atoms is known as single covalent bond
e.g.,
(b) The strength of covalent bond is proportional to extent of overlapping

between the atomic orbitals of valence shell.
14. Characteristics of covalent compounds—(a) They are in all three physical
states solid, liquid, or gas depending upon factors like molecular mass,
Vander-wall force, covalency, (S8), Hydrogen bonding, polarity etc.

(b) These are directional soluble in less polar or non-polar solvents, less
MP and BP [than ionic compounds] Due to weak Vander-Waal forces, bad
conductor of electricity (no. free electrons)
15. Hybridization : (a) Phenomenon of intermixing of atomic orbitals with
slightly different energies to form new orbitals of equal energy and identical
shape. The new orbitals are knows as hybrid orbitals.
(b) The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to no. of orbitals mixing.
(c) As the ‘s’ character in hybrid orbital increases, electronegativity and
size of hybrid orbital increases.
(d) The hybrid orbital can have paired e– as well as unpaired e–.
16. VSEPR (Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory)
(a) There are three types of repulsion in a covalent molecule lp - lp >
lp - bp > bp - bp.
(b) These repulsion depend upon difference in electronegativity between
A and B.
(c) The hybridization of central atom decides geometry and VSEPR theory
decides the shape of molecule.
17. Sigma and Pi π bond : (a) The bond formed by overlap of two atomic
orbitals along the internuclear axis of two atoms is Sigma bonds.
Degree of overlap is large therefore strong bond.
(b) π bond : The bond formed by sideways overlap of two atomic orbitals
degree of overlap is not along the nuclear axis therefore a weak bond.
(c) A single bond is σ bond; A double bond is one σ and one π bond a
triple covalent bond is one σ and 2π bonds.
18. Resonance : (a) The delocalization of 2e– in a molecule/ion which results
in observed bond length, bond order, bond energy different from normal
covalent bond. Data is known as resonance. Various resonating structures
have nearly same energy and interconvertible to each other.
(b) It gives stability to the molecule/ion. Atom do not shift their position in
any of the resonating structure. The structure which is near to all resonating
structure and nearly explain the property of that molecule/ion is known

as resonating hybrid.
19. Dipole moment (μ) : (a) For polar covalent molecules (atoms with
difference in electronegativity] the product of charge separation and
distance b/w charges is known as dipole moment. (b) Being vector, if net
resultant of all vector is zero the molecule has zero DM and known as non
polar otherwise. μ
µ =0 —H µ0
O = C = O | Polar
Linear Nonpolar
H
20. Hydrogen bonding : The dipole dipole interaction b/w molecules when
H is bounded wih highly electronegtive atoms (F, O, N only).
(a) Intramolecular Hydrogen bonding : Hydrogen
bonding with in a single molecule.
(b) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding : When
hydrogen bonding is present between two same or
different molecules.
O H O H O H
R R R
21. Molecular orbital theory : (a) The overlap of atomic orbitals of same
symmetry of two homonuclear atoms to give addition or subtraction of
wave functions and form bonding MO and antibonding MO respectively
is known as MO theory.
(b) The e– are filled in molecule increasing energy order of MO.
(c) Bond order : Bond order of molecule/ion
=

(d) More is bond order more is bond energy lesser is the bond length.
Bond order zero means no. possibility of that molecule.
(e) Increasing order of energy of MO for upto 14e–.
* *
σ 1s , σ 1s , σ 2 s , σ 2 s , π 2 px = π 2 py , σ 2 pz

* * * * * ** *
for more than 14e– → σ 1s , σ 1σs ,1σs ,2σs ,1σs , 2σs ,2σ= , π 2=
s , 2σpz2 s , σ
π= py , ππ2=
2 pz , π 22px
px π 2 py , σπ2 pz2 py , σ 2 pz
2 py , π 2 px
px
(d) This theory decides the magnetic behaviour also. [Equal energy orbitals]
22. Coordinate covalent bond : The sigma bond formed by donation of lp
into vacant unhybridised orbital of other atom (acception atom) is known
as coordinte covalent bond or donor acceptor or dative bond.
H +
+
:
+ +
NH3 + H H O: + H [H3O]
:
:
N H; H
H H
F3B : NH3 H3N BF3

23. Bond strength; Bond energy; Bond length :
For covalent molecule : A ≡ A > B = B > C — C
:A≡A<B=B<C—C
Bond angles : (a) As the no. of lp increase; bp – lp, lp – lp repulsion
increase therefore bond angles decrease.
(b) As lp decreases bond angle increases.
Important Points :
24. (a) Max. density of H2O at 4°C due to strongest. Intermolecular hydrogen
bonding.
(b) H2O to H2S bond angle decrease
(c) NH3 more μ than NF3.
(d) NCl3 more μ than NF3.
25. Van der waal forces weak intermolecular force of attraction.
(a) Dipole interactions NH3, HCl, HF.
(b) Dipole induced dipole interactions. Noble gas in H2O, HCl; F2

(c) Induced dipole induced dipole interaction (london force) Halogens
noble gases.
(d) Ion reduced dipole interaction [NO3– Br2].
1 - Mark Questions
1. What is the covalence of Al in AlCl3 ? [Ans. 3]
2. MgCl2 is covalent or ionic compounds. [Ans. Both]
3. CCl4 CHCl3 CH2Cl2 which is covalent. [Ans. All]
4. Al2O3 has ionic or covalent bond. [Ans. Ionic]
5. AlF3 or AlCl3 which is covalent ? [Ans. AlCl3]
6. The [BF4]1– has what covalence ? [Ans. Four]
7. Ionic bonds are formed by metal with non-metals ? (True/False)
[Ans. True]
8. NH3 and have what Covalencies? [Ans. 3, 4]

9. Covalency can be mutual sharing or one sided donation of electrons (True/
False) [Ans. True]
10. N2, O2, H2 have what covalencies. [Ans. 3, 2, 1]
11. I2, Cl2, Br2, F2 all have single covalent bond. (True/False) [Ans. True]
12. AlCl3 and AlCl4–1 Al2Cl6 have what covalencies. [Ans. 3, 4, 4]
13. C2H6 has ‘C’ with what covalencies between C and C. [Ans. 2]
14. N2H4 (Hydrazine) has what covalency of N—N. [Ans. 1]
15. HF HCl HBr all polar covalent or pure covalent. [Ans. Polar]
16. Lewis dot structure of —→ ......
17. Lewis dot structure of AlN is —→ ...... [Ans. Al]3

18. Pure covalent diatomic molecule is H2, C2, N2, all. [Ans. All]
19. Lewis dot structure of NH3 is —→ ......
20. C6H6 has C with covalency of 4, 3, 2.

21. More is the no. of resonating structures more is the stability of that
molecule/ion. (True/False) [Ans. True]
22. Resonance involves shifting of π electrons with lp, negative charge,
positive charge or all. [Ans. All]
23. N2 to N2+ bond length increases. (True/False) [Ans. True]
24. O2, O2+, O2– what is decreasing bond order. [Ans. (O2+ > O2 > O2–]
25. H2+ H2 which is more stable. [Ans. H2]
26. More is the bond order more is the bond length between atoms. (True/
False) [Ans. False]
27. Dipole moment of BeCl2 = O. (True/False) [Ans. True]
28. All linear molecules have zero diple moment. (True/False) [Ans. False]
29. Dipole moment of a molecule/ion decides the polarity of that molecule/
ion. (True/False) [Ans. True]
30. CO2, BeCl2, ICl4–, SF6 which has zero DM ? [Ans. All]
31. No. of antibonding electrons in O2+ is 1, 2 or 3. [Ans. 1]
32. N2, O2, F2 arrange in decreasing order of stability. [Ans. N2 > O2 > F2]
33. SO2, CO2 which has zero dipole moment. [Ans. CO2]
34. Dipole moment of hydrogen halides decreases from HF to HI. Why ?
[Ans. At radius increases EN Dec.]
35. Which does not show resonance CO32–, BO33–, SO42– ? [Ans. BO33–]
2 - Mark Questions
1. Which are isostructural species [same shape] ,CO2, BeCl2, BCl3 ?

[Ans. NO2; CO2, BeCl2 all linear]
2. BCl3, H2O, NO3– which have same type of hybridization.[Ans. BCl3 NO3–]
3. Which is angular or bent XeF2, H2O, NO2 ? [Ans. XeF2, NO2]
4. Which is not linear XeF2, , CO32–, ICl2– ? [Ans. ICl2– XeF2, ]

5. Which has more EN of carbon ?
(a) CH ≡ CH (b) CH2 ≡ CH2 (c) CH3—CH3.
[Ans. a > b > c as ‘s’ character increase EN increases]
6. N(SiH3)3 N(CH3)3 are not isostructural why ?

[Ans. Si has vacant ‘d’ orbital ‘C’ does not]
7. Which has maximum bond angle ?
CH4, BeCl2, NH3 arrange in decreasing order. [Ans. BeCl2 > CH4 > NH3]
8. Hydrogen bond is shorter than H—H bond. (True/False) [Ans. True]
9. Which has nearly same bond angle ?
[Ans. ]
10. Which has different hybridization ?
(a) AlCl3; [AlCl4]– (b) BF3[BF4–]
(c) (d) [Ans. (c)]

11. KHF2 exist but KHCl2 KHBr2 does not why ?
[Ans. (HF .... HF) Hydrogen bonding]
12. As EN increases polarity increases but still chlorine does not show
hydrogen bonding but nitrogen shows (EN of Cl 3.2; N 3.0).
[Ans. Cl has large size H—Cl is less polar]
13. Which is sp3 hybridized Be atom ?
(a) BeCl2(g) (b) BeCl2 (solid) (c) BeCl42–. [Ans. BeCl2 solid [BeCl42–]
14. [AlF6]3– [Al2O3] which have both covalent and ionic bond ? [Ans. AlF6]3–
15. The shortest carbon-carbon bond distance is found In :
(a) Diamond (b) Benzene (c) Ethane (d) Cyclopropane [Ans. (b)]
16. HF, H2O, HCl, CCl4 which is not liquid and why ?
17. Which is not see saw shaped ?
(a) SF4 (b) XeO2F2(c) XeOF2 (d) SiCl4. [Ans. XeOF2]
18. H2+ H2– have same bond order which is more stable ? [Ans. H2+]
19. B2 has ten electrons but paramagnetic why ?
20. Draw the resonating structure of

21. ClF3 is T shaped but BF3 is planar. Explain.
22. Density of ice is less than water. Why ?
23. O-Nitrophenol has less B.P. than p-nitrophenol. Why?

24. H2O + H+ → H3O+ NH3 + H+ → . Explain the type of bond.
25. Why do noble gas Ne2 does not exist but Ne2+ exists ?
26. H2O is liquid at room temperature but H2S is gas why ?
27. O2 is paramagnetic but O22– (peroxide ion) is diamagnetic why ?
28. What is the difference b/w σ (sigma) and π (pi) bond explain
diagrammatically ?
29. (a) F2 and Cl2 which has less bond dissocition energy and why ?
(b) O2+ O2– which is more stable and why ?
30. What is the difference bond enthalpy and bond dissociation enthalpy ?
3 - Mark Questions
1. Arrange in decreasing order of bond angle :

(a) H2O, H2S, H2Se [Ans. H2O > H2S > H2Se]
(b) NO2+, NO2, NO2– [Ans. ]
(c) PF3, PH3, PCl3 [Ans. PCl3 > PF3 > PH3]
2. C2 exists whereas Be2 does not. Explain why ? [Ans. BO ]
3. C2H4, C2H2, C2H6 arrange in decreasing :

(a) Bond length C—C bond.
(b) Bond energy of C—C bond.
4. (a) C2H2 ‘C’ is acidic.
(b) C2H6 ‘C’ is electron donating.
5. What is the (a) formula of compound.
(b) Nature of bond formed beween element ‘X’ atomic no. 31 and element
‘y’ atomic number 8. Draw the Lewis dot structure. [Ans. X2O3]

6. Which are add electron molecules/ions : PCl3, NO O2+ O2–, O2 ?
7. Write the bond angle in each :
SO42– CO32– [H3O]+ PCl5 SF4
8. Write the no. of e– in valence shell of ‘S’ in (a) SF6 (b) SO2 (c) SO3.
[Ans. 12, 10, 8]
9. Arrange from strongest hydrogen bond to weakest hydrogen bond.
H—F .... H—N H—F ..... H—O
H—O ... N—H H—F ..... H—F
10. [Ni(CN)4]2–, SF4, SiF4, XeF4, BF4–. Give hybridization in each case.
11. (a) PH3 is non polar PCl3 is polar why ?
(b) PCl5 is non polar BF4 is polar why ?
(c) BCl3 is non polar NCl3 is polar why ?
12. Five moles of σ bonds is present in simple hydrocarbon with sp 2
hybridization. Give formula of the compound.
13. O3 has what formal charge of each ‘O’ atom.

5 - Mark Questions
1. Arrange in increasing order as indicated :

(a) H2O, NH3, H2S, HF (Polar character)
(b) HF, HCl, HBr, HI (Dipole moment)
(c) O2, O2+, O2– (Stability)
(d) NO3–, , NO (‘S’ character of hybridization)
(e) BeCl2, BCl3, CCl4, PCl3 (Bond angle)

2. Which has (a) Zero dipole moment CO2; SO2.
(b) sp hybridization SO2, SO3, None.
(c) No octet rule OF2, BCl3, H2Se.
(d) Zero bond order Ne2, He2, Both
(e) Paramagnetic character Cl–, Br, I–
3. Which has both (a) Polar and nonpolar bond H2O2 or BCl3.
(b) sp and sp3 hybridization Propyne or Ethyne
(c) σ and π bonds and sp hybridization CH 2 = C = CH 2 or
CH2 = CH—CH3.
(d) Ionic and covalent bond, coordinate bonds as well AgNO 3

AgF Ag2SO4.
(e) Coordinate and only σ bond H3O+; ]
4. (a) In dsp2 hybridization ‘d’ orbital is dx2 – y2 or dz2

(b) sp3d Hyb. ‘d’ orbital is dx2 – y2 or dz2
(c) sp3d2 Hyb. [XeF4] Geometry is octahedral or square planar.
(d) CO has (a) sp (b) sp2 (c) sp with back bonding
(e) PCl5 has bond angles (i) Bond 90° and 120° (ii) Only 90°
(iii) Only 120°.
5. Why (a) BaSO4 is insoluble although ionic in nature.
(b) ClF3 has only 90° bond angles.
(c) SO2 is angular but SO3 is planar.
(d) NH, PH3 have same hybridization but different bond angle.
(e) CuSO4.5H2O looses 4H2O on heating but not fifth H2O.
6. Explain the scheme of Hybridization in C2H4, C2H6, C2H2.
7. CO32–, NO3–, , SO42–, PO43–. Draw their resonating structures and
resonating hybrid structure ? Why all bond angles in CO32– are equal ?

8. Draw the Lewis dot structure of (a) Al2O3 (b) Mg3N2 (c) CCl4 (d) Na2O2
(e) NCl3.
9. Draw the shapes (VSEPR) and geometries of :
SO32–, I3–, XeO3, XeOF4 and .
10. Arrange in properties as shown :
(a) HF, HCl, HBr, HI thermal stability
(b) LiF, LiCl, LiBr, LiI decreasing ionic character.
(c) PH3 PCl3 more covalent character.
(d) O2 → O2+ bond length
N2 → N2+ bond length
In which case bond length decrease and why ?
(e) Why CCl4 has 4 dipole but net DM = zero.

 On the basis of nature of intermolecular forces/molecular interactions,
matter exists in three physical states : solid, liquid and gas.
 Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction or repulsion between
interacting particles (atoms and molecules). Attractive/repulsive
intermolecular forces are known as van der Waal’s forces.
Different types of van der Waal’s forces are :
(a) Disperson forces or London forces : The interaction which is present
between two non polar molecules i.e., between induced dipole and induces
dipole is called disperson forces, for example : noble gases.
(b) Dipole-dipole forces : The interaction which is present between
molecules having permanent dipoles i.e., between polar molecules, for
example NH3, HCl etc.
(c) Dipole-induced dipole forces : The interaction which is present
between a polar and non polar molecule.
 Boyle’s law : At constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of
gas, varies inversly with volume.
P α
P1V1 = P2V2 [At constant temperature]
 Charle’s law : At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is
directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
V αT
= [At constant pressure (p) and n]
States Of Matter 51

 Gay Lussac’s law : At constant volume, pressure of a fixed amount of
gas varies directly with the temperature.
P ∝ T = [At constant volume (V) and n].
 STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure) : STP means 273.15 K

(0°C) temperature and 1 bar (i.e., exactly 105 Pascal.) Volume occupied
by 1 mole gas at STP = 22.7 L.
If pressure is taken in atm (atmosphere), then the standard molar volume
is 22.4 L.
 Ideal gas equation : PV = nRT
R is universal gas constant.
R = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1 = 0.0821 L atm mol–1 K–1 = 0.083 L bar mol–1 K–1
 Combined gas law : =
 Density and molar mass of a gaseous substance :
M =
 Dalton’s law of partial pressure : Dalton states that the total pressure
exerted by the mixture of non reacting gases is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of individual of gases.
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..... [at constant T, V]
P1 = x1 × PTotal = Here x1 is called mole fraction of the gas.
Pdry gas = PTotal – Aqueous tension.
Here aqueous tension is the pressure exerted by water vapours.
 Compressibility factor : The extent of deviation of a real gas from an
ideal behaviour is expressed in terms of compressibility factor, Z =
For ideal gas, Z = 1 at all temperatures and pressures. For real gases, greater
is the deviation in the value of Z from 1, more is the deviation from ideal
behaviour. When Z < 1, the gas is said to show negative deviation. This
implies that gas is more compressible then expected from ideal behaviour.
When Z > 1, the gas is said to show positive deviation and the gas is less
compressible than expected from ideal behaviour.

At ordinary temperatures (T ≥ 273 K), only H2 and He show positive
deviations. However at low temperatures, even these gases show negative
deviation i.e., < 1. For example, in case of these gases, if T << 273 K,
Z < 1.
 Boyle temperature : The temperature at which a real gas behaves like an
ideal gas over an appreciable pressure range is called Boyle temperature
or Boyle point.
 Causes of deviation from ideal behaviour : The following two
assumptions of the kinetic theory of gases are faulty :
(a) The volume occupied by the gas molecules is negligible as compared
to the total volume of the gas.
(b) The forces of attraction or repulsion between the gas molecules are
negligible.
The above assumptions are correct only if the temperature is high and
pressure is low.
van der Waal’s equation :
= RT for 1 mole of the gas
= nRT for n moles of the gas
Here a and b are constants called van der Waal’s constants.

 Significance and units of van der Waal’s constants : ‘a’ gives the idea of
the magnitude of attractive forces among the gas molecules. As correction
in pressure is P = therefore a = (P × V2)/n2 = atm L2 mol2.

As correction in volume V = nb, therefore ‘b’ has the unit of L mol–1.
The near constancy in the volume of b shows that the gas molecules are
incompressible.
 Vapour pressure : The pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid, when
it is in equilibrium with the liquid surface, at const. temperature.
 Boiling temperature : The temperature at which vapour pressure of a liqid
is equal to the external pressure.
 At 1 atm, boiling temperature is called normal boiling point.
 At 1 bar boiling temperature is called standard boiling point.
States Of Matter 53

 Vapour pressure of a pure liquid depends upon (i) intermolecular forces,
(ii) Temperature.
 Surface tension is defined as force acting per unit length perpendicular to
the line drawn on the surface. Its units is Nm–1.
 Effect of temperature on surface tension : Surface tension decreases with
increase in temperature with the increase in temperature, kinetic energy
of molecules increases. As a result, intermolecular forces decreases and
hence force acting per unit length decreases.
 Viscosity : It is defined as resistance offered to the flow of liquid due to
internal friction between layers of fluids as they pass over each other.
F = ηA.
η is called coefficient of viscosity.

 Effect of temperature on viscosity : Viscosity decrease with increase in
temperature because wth the increase in temperaure the average kinetic
energy increasesa and the intermolecular forces can be easily overcome.
1 - Mark Questions
1. Name the intermolecular forces, which include the term. Vander Waal’s
forces. [Ans. LONDON forces, Dipole-Dipole, Dipole-induced dipole]
2. Define Boyle’s law.
3. Write the condition in terms of temperature and pressure, under which all
gases obey Charle’s law. [Ans. High temperature, low pressure]
4. Mention the volume occupied by one mole of an ideal gas at STP.
[Ans. 22.7 L]
5. Define the term absolute zero. [Ans. 0K]
6. Define aqueous tension.
7. Mention the S.I. unit for the quantity . [Ans. Nm4 K2 mol–1]
8. Define the term critical temperature.
9. Write any two postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases.
10. Which curve in the figure represents the curve for ideal gas ? [Ans. B]

11. Define the term normal boiling point of a liquid.
12. Mention the factors on, which the vapour pressure of a pure liquid depends ?
13. Define surface tenstion.
14. What do you understand by the term laminar flow ?
15. Out of Ethyl alcohol or Dimethylether, which one have higher vapour
pressure at same temperature ? [Ans. Dimethylether]
2 - Marks Questions
1. What will be the minimum pressure required to compress 500 dm3 of air
at 1 bar to 200 dm3 at 30°C ? [Ans. 2.5 bar]
2. Name the intermolecular force present in :
(i) H2O (ii) HCl [Ans. H-bonding, Dipole-Dipole]
3. Explain Avogadro’s law.
4. Find the molar mass of a gas if 300 ml of this has mass of 0.368 g at STP.
[Ans. 27.84 g/mol]
5. Why do real gases show deviation from ideal behaviour ? Write Van der
Waal’s equation for n moles of a gas.
Part-B
6. Calculate the temperature of 4 mole of a gas occupying in 5 dm3 at 3.32
bar. (R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1) [Ans. 50K]
7. Calculate the volume occupied by 8.8 g of CO2 at 31.1°C and 1 bar
pressure.
[R = 0.83 bar LK–1 mol–1] [Ans. 5.05 L]
8. Explain the physical significance of vander Waal’s parameter.
States Of Matter 55

9. Compressibility factor ‘Z’ of a gas is given as Z = .
(i) What is the value of Z for an ideal gas ?
(ii) For real gas, what will be the effect on value of Z above Boyle
temperature ? [Ans. Z = 1, Z > 1]
10. At 25°C and 760 mm Hg pressure a gas occupies 600 ml volume. What
will be its pressure at a height where temperature is 10°C and volume of
the gas is 640 mL. [Ans. 676.6 mm Hg]
11. Define the terms :
(i) Standard boiling point.
(ii) Vapour pressure of a liquid.
12. Drops of liquid are spherical in nature. Explain. Mention the effect of
temperature on surface tension.
13. Write the S.I. units of :
(i) Surface tension.
(ii) Coefficient of viscosity.
14. Define viscosity. Mention the effect of temperature and pressure on
viscosity of a liquid.
15. Explain :
(i) Fire polishing of glass.
(ii) Liquid tend to rise in a capillary.
3 - Mark Questions
1. Define and explain Dalton’s Law of partial pressure.

2. A balloon is filled with hydrogen at room temperature. It will burst if
pressure exceeds 0.2 bar. If at 1 bar pressure the gas occupies 2.27 L
volume, upto what volume can the ballon be expanded.
[Ans. 11.35 L]
3. Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8g of dioxygen and 4g of
dihydrogen confined in a vessel of 1dm3 at 27°C.
[R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1] [Ans. 56.025 bar]

4. 300 ml of oxygen gas at – 10°C are heated to 10°C. Find the volume of
gas at 10°C if pressure remains constant. [Ans. 322.8 mL]
5. A gas at a pressure of 5 atm is heated from 0° to 546°C and is simultaneously
compressed to one third of its original volume. Find the final pressure f
the gas. [Ans. 45 atm]
6. Pressure of one gram of an ideal gas A at 27°C is found to be 2 bar. When
2g of another gas (ideal) B is introduced in the same flask at the same
temperature the pressure becomes 3 bar. Find a relationship between their
molecular masses. [Ans. MB = 4MA]
7. What will be the pressure exerted by a mixture of 3.2g of methane and
4.4 g of carbon dioxide contained in a 9 dm3 flask at 27°C.
[Ans. 0.82 atm]
8. A neon-dioxygen mixture contains 70.6 dioxygen and 167.5 neon. If the
pressure of the mixture of gases in cylinder is 25 bar. What is the partial
pressure of dioxygen and neon in the mixture.[Ans. 5.25 bar, 17.75 bar]
9. With the help of a gas laws, deduce an expression for the ideal gas equation.
What is the utility of the gas equation ?
10. A vessel of 120 mL capacity contains a certain mass of a gas at 20°C and
750 mm pressure the gas was transferred to a vessel whose volume is
180 mL. Calculate the pressure of the gas at 20°C. [Ans. 500 mm]
11. Explain :
(i) Liquid at higher altitudes boil at low temperature.
(ii) In hospital surgical instruments are sterlised in auto caves.
(iii) Out of, alcohols and ethers of comparable mass which one have higher
boiling points ?
12. (i) Define surface energy in relation to surface tension.
(ii) Name the temperature at which the density of water is maximum.
(iii) Moist soil grains are pulled together. Explain.
13. (i) Define the term coefficient of viscosity. Name the unit of viscosity
coefficient in cgs system.
(ii) Give the difference between boiling and evaporation.
14. Explain :
(i) Tea or coffee is sipped from the saucer, when it is quite hot.
(ii) Liquids posseses fluidity.
States Of Matter 57

15. Which among the following will have ?
(i) HCl or H2O (Higher boiling point)
(ii) Ether or water (Higher viscosity)
(iii) Br2(l) or water (Lower surface tension)
5 - Mark Questions
1. Mention the intermolecular forces present between :
(a) H2O and alcohol (b) Cl2 and CCl4 (c) He and He atoms (d) Na+ ion
and H2O (e) HBr and HBr.
2. (a) Find the pressure of 4g of O2 and 2g of H2 confined in a bulb of 1
litre at 0°C. [Ans. 25.215 atm]
(b) What is the molar volume of a gas at SATP conditions ?
(c) Define and explain Gay Lussac’s law.
3. (a) For Dalton’s law of pressure derive the expression Pgas = Xgas Ptotal.
(b) A 2-L flask contains 1.6 g of methane and 0.5 g of hydrogen at
27°C . Calculate the partial pressure of each gas in the mixture and hence,
calculate the total pressure.
[Ans. pCH4 = 1.23 atm, pH2 = 3.079 atm, Ptotal = 4.31 atm.]

4. (a) Using Vander waal’s equation calculate the constant ‘a’ when two
moles of a gas confined in a four litre flask exerts a pressure of 11.0 atm.
at a temperature of 300 K. The value of ‘b’ is 0.05 litre mol–1.
[Ans. 6.49 atm L2 mol–2]
5. (a) Mention the factors on which vapour pressure of a pure liquid depends.
(b) Define boiling point of a liquid.
(c) Which will have higher viscosity Glycerol or Ethylene glycol.
[Ans. Glycerol]
(d) Surface tension of a liquid .......... with increase in the magnitude of
intermolecular forces. [Ans. Increases]

 System : Specific part of universe in which observations are made.
 Surroundings : Everything which surrounds the system.
 Types of the System :
(i) Open System : Exchange both matter and energy with the
surroundings. For example : Reactants in an open test tube.
(ii) Closed System : Exchange energy but no matter with the surroundings.
For example : Reactants in a closed vessel.
(iii) Isolated System : Neither exchange energy nor matter with the
surroundings. For example : Reactants in a thermos flask.
 Please note no system is perfectly isolated.
 Thermodynamic Processes :
(i) Isothermal process : ∆T = 0
(ii) Adiabatic process : ∆q = 0
(iii) Isobaric process : ∆P = 0
(iv) Isochoric process : ∆V = 0
(v) Cyclic process : ∆U = 0
(vi) Reversible process : Process which proceeds infinitely slowly by a
series of equilibrium steps.
(vii) Irreversible process : Process which proceeds rapidly and the system
does not have chance to achieve equilibrium.
 Extensive Properties : Properties which depend upon the quantity or
size of matter present in the system. For example : mass, volume, internal
energy, enthalpy, heat capacity, work etc.
Thermodynamics 59

 Intensive Properties : Properties which do not depend upon the quantity
or size of matter present in the system. For example : temperature, density,
pressure, surface tension, viscosity, refractive index, boiling point, melting
point etc.
 State Functions : The variables of functions whose value depend only on
the state of a system or they are path independent. For example : pressure
(P), volume (V), temperature (T), enthalpy (H), free energy (G), internal
energy (U), entropy (S), amount (n) etc.
 Internal Energy : It is the sum of all kind of energies possessed by the
system.
 First Law of Thermodynamics : “The energy of an isolated system is
constant.”
Mathematical Form : ∆U = q + w
 Sign Conventions for Heat (q) and Work (w) :
(i) W = + ve, if work is done on system
(ii) W = – ve, if work is done by system
(iii) q = + ve, if heat is absorbed by the system
(iv) q = – ve, if heat is evolved by the system
 Work of Expansion/compression : w = – Pext (Vf — Vi)
 Work done in Isothermal Reversible Expansion of an Ideal Gas :
wrev = – 2.303 nRT log
Or, wrev = – 2.303 nRT log
 Significance of ∆H and ∆U : ∆H = qp and ∆U = qv

 Relation between ∆H and ∆U: ∆H = ∆U + (np – nr)RT for gaseous
reaction.
(i) ∆H = ∆U if (np – nr) is zero; e.g., H2(g) + I2(g) → 2-HI(g)
(ii) ∆H > ∆U if (np – nr) is positive; e.g., PC15(g) → PCl3(g) + C12(g)
(iii) ∆H < ∆U if (np – nr) is negative; e.g., N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
 Heat capacity (C) : Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
a substance by 1°C to 1 K.
q = C∆T

 Specific heat capacity (Cs) : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of a substance by 1°C or 1K.
q = Cs × m × ∆T
 Molar Heat Capacity (Cm) : Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 mole of a substance by 1°C or 1K.
q = Cm × n × ∆T
 Standard State of a Substance : The standard state of a substance at a
specified temperature is its, pure form at 1 bar.
 Standard Enthalpy of Formation (∆f H°) : Enthalpy change accompanying
the formation of one mole of a substance from its constituent elements
under standard condition of temperature (normally 298 K) and pressure
(1 bar).
Ø ∆f H° of an element in standard state is taken as zero.
Ø Compounds with – ve value of ∆fH°are more stable than their
constituents.
Ø ∆rH° = Σiai∆f H° (products) – Σibi∆f H° (reactants) : Where ‘a’ and
‘b’ are coefficients of products and reactants in balanced equation.
 Standard Enthalpy of Combustion (∆ c H°) : Enthalpy change
accompanying the complete combustion of one mole of a substance under
standard conditions (298 K, 1 bar)
 Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation : The total enthalpy change
of a reaction remains same whether it takes place in one step or in several
steps.
 Bond Dissociation Enthalpy : Enthalpy change when one mole of a
gaseous covalent bond is broken to form products in gas phase. For
example : Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g); ∆Cl-Cl H° = 242k/mol–1.
 For diatomic gaseous molecules; Bond enthalpy = Bond dissociation
Enthalpy = Atomization Enthalpy.
 For Polyatomic gaseous molecules; Bond Enthalpy = Average of the bond
dissociation enthalpies of the bonds of the same type.
 ∆rH° = Σ∆bondH° (Reactants) –– Σ∆bondH° (Products).
 Spontaneous Reaction : A reaction which can take place either of its own
or under some initiation.
Thermodynamics 61

 Entropy (S) : It is measure of degree of randomness or disorder of a
system.
 ∆Ssys =
 Unit of Entropy = JK–1 mol–1

 Second Law of Thermodynamics : For all the spontaneous processes
totally entropy change must be positive.
∆Stotal = ∆Ssys + ∆Ssurr > 0
 Gibbs Helmholtz Equation for determination of Spontaneity :
∆G = ∆H – T∆S
(i) If ∆G = – ve, the process is spontaneous
(ii) If ∆G = + ve, the process is nonspontaneous
(iii) If ∆G = 0, the process is in equilibrium
 Relation between Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium Constant :
∆G0 = – 2.303 RT log Kc.
 Third law of thermodynamic : The entropy of a perfectly crystalline
solid at absolute zero (0 K) is taken to be zero.
1 - Mark Questions
1. Name the thermodynamic system to which following belong:
(i) Human body (ii) Milk in Thermos flask (iii) Tea in steel kettle
2. Identity State functions out of Ihe following : Enthalpy, Entropy, Heat,
Temperature, Work, Free energy.
3. Give two examples of state functions.
4. Write the mathematical statement of first law of thermodynamics.
5. Predict the internal energy change for an isolated system ? [Ans. Zero]
6. Why ∆H is more significant than ∆U ?
7. Write one example each of extensive and intensive properties.
8. Write a chemical equation in which ∆H and ∆U are equal.
9. Write the relationship between ∆H and ∆U for the reaction :
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g).

10. Define standard enthalpy of formation.
11. Why is the standard enthalpy of formation of diamond not zero although
it is an element ?
12. The enthalpy of atomization of CH4 is 1665 kJ mol–1. What is the bond
enthalpy of C-H bond ? [Ans. 416.25 kJ]
13. Identify the species for which ∆f H° = 0, at 298 K : – Br2, Cl2, CH4 .
[Hint : Cl2(Br2 is liquid at 298K)]
14. For the reaction 2Cl(g) → C12(g); what are the sign of ∆H and ∆S ?
15. For an isolated system ∆U = 0, what will be ∆S ?
16. Why entropy of steam is more than that of water at its boiling point ?
17. Out of Diamond and Graphite which has higher entropy ?
18. Write an example of endothermic spontaneous reaction.
19. State second law of thermodynamics.
20. State third law of thermodynamics.
21. Which has more entropy ? 1 mol H2O(l) at 25°C or 1 mol H2O(l) at 35°C.
22. At what temperature the entropy of a perfectly crystalline solid is zero?
23. For a certain reaction ∆G° = 0, what is the value of Kc ?
24. How can a non spontaneous reaction be made spontaneous ?
25. For a reaction both ∆H and ∆S are negative. Under what conditions does
the reaction occur.
2 - Marks Question
1. In a process 701 J of heat is absorbed by a system and 394 J work is done

by the system. What is the change in internal energy for the process ?
[Ans. 307 J]
Thermodynamics 63

2. Neither q nor w is state functions but q + w is a state function. Explain.
3. Classify the following as extensive or intensive properties :
Heat capacity, Density, Temperature, Molar heat capacity.
4. Derive the relationship between ∆H and ∆U.
5. Derive the relationship Cp – Cv = R.
6. A 1.25g sample of octane (C8 H18) is burnt in excess of oxygen in a bomb

calorimeter. The temperature of the calorimeter rises from 294.05 to
300.78K.If heat capacity of the calorimeter is 8.93 kJ K–1. Find the heat
transferred to calorimeter. [Ans. 0.075 kJ]
7. Show that for an ideal gas, the molar heat capacity under constant volume
conditions is equal to 3/2 R.
8. Expansion of a gas in vacuum is called free expansion. Calculate the work

done and change in internal energy when 1 mol of an ideal gas expands
isothermally from I L to 5 L into vacuum.
9. State and explain Hess’s Law of Constant Heat Summation with a suitable
example.
10. Derive the relationship between ∆H and ∆U. Given, N2(g) + 3H2(g) →
2NH3(g); ∆rH° = – 92.4 kJ mol1; What is the standard enthalpy of formation
of NH3 gas ? [Ans. – 46.2 kJ mol–1]
11. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction : H2(g) + Br2(g) → 2HBr(g).
Given the bond enthalpies H2,Br2 and HBr are 435 kJ mol–1,192 kJ mol–1
and 368 kJ mol–1 respectively. [Ans. – 109 kJ mol–1]
12. Is the bond dissociation enthalpy of all the four C-H bonds in CH4 same?
Give reason in support of your.
13. Define the term entropy. Write its unit. How does entropy of a system
change on increasing temperature?

14. Dissolution of ammonium chloride in water is endothermic but still it
dissolves in water readily. Why ?
15. Calculate the entropy change in the surroundings when 1.00 mol of H2O(I)
is formed under standard conditions; ∆f H°= – 286 kJ mol–1.
[Ans. 959.7 J K–1 mol–1]
16. The enthalpy of vaporization of a liquid is 30 kJ mol–1 and entropy of

vaporization is 75 J K–1 mol–1. Calculate the boiling point of liquid at 1
atm. [Ans. 400 K]
17. The equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the value of
∆G° ? R = 8.314J K–1 mol–1, T = 300 K. [Ans. – 5.527 kJ mol–1]
18. Derive the relationship, ∆G = – T∆Stotal for a system.
19. The ∆H and ∆S for 2Ag2O(s) → 4Ag(s) + O2(g) are given + 61.17 kJ
mol–1 and + 132 K–1 mol–1 respectively. Above what temperature will the
reaction be spontaneous ? [Ans. > 463.4 K]
3 - Mark Questions
1. Differentiate between the following (with examples) :
(i) Open and Closed System.
(ii) Adiabatic and Isothermal process
(iii) State function and path function
2. Calculate the maximum work obtained when 0.75 mole of an ideal

gas expands isothermally and reversibly at 27°C from a volume of 15 L
to 25 L. [Ans. – 955.7 J]
3. Calculate the number of kJ necessary to raise the temperature of 60 g of

aluminium from 35 to 55°C . Molar heat capacity of Al is 24 J mol–1J
mol–1K–1. [Ans. 1.067kJ]
Thermodynamics 65

4. The reaction of cyanamide, NH2CN(s), with Dioxygen was carried out in
a bomb calorimeter, and ∆U was found to be – 742.7 kJ mol–1 at 298K.
Calculate Enthalpy change for the reaction at 298K, NH2CN (s) + O2
(g) → N2 (g) + CO2(g) +H2O (I) [Ans. – 741.5 kJ mol–1]
5. The enthalpy of combustion of methane, graphite and dihydrogen

at 298 K are – 890.3 kJ mol–1, – 393.5 kJ mol–1 and – 285.8 kJ mol–l
respectively. Calculate enthalpy of formation of methane gas.
[Ans. – 74.8 kJ mol–1]
6. Explain the Born Haber Cycle to determine the lattice enthalpy of NaCl.
7. Enthalpies of formation of CO(g), CO2(g), N2O(g) and N2O4(g) are

– 110, – 393, 81 and 9.7 kJ mol–1 respectively. Find the value of ∆rH for
the reaction; N2O4(g) + 3CO(g) → N2O(g) + 3CO2(g) .
[Ans. – 777.7 kJ mol–1]
8. The combustion of 1 mol of benzene takes place at 298K .After combustion

CO2 and H2O are formed and 3267 kJ mol–1 of heat is liberated. Calculate
∆f H°(C6H6).
Given : ∆f H°(CO2) = – 286 kJ mol–1, ∆f H°(H2O) = – 393 kJ mol–1

[Ans. 48.51 kJ mol–1]
9. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of CH3OH (1) from the

following data :
CH3OH (1) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O (1); ∆cH° = – 726 kJ mol–1
C(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ∆f H° = – 393 kJ mol–1
H2(g) + ½O2(g) → H2O(1); ∆f H° = – 286 kJ mol–1

[Ans. – 239 kJ mol–1]
10. For oxidation of iron, 4 Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) entropy change is

– 549.4 J K-1 mol–1 at 298 K. In spite of negative entropy change of this
reaction, why is the reaction spontaneous ? (∆rH° for this reason is – 1648
kJ mol–1) [Ans. ∆Stotal = + 4980.6 J K–1 mol–1]

11. Give reasons :
(i) Evaporation of water is an endothermic process but it is spontaneous,
(ii) A real crystal has more entropy than an ideal crystal,
(iii) Entropy of universe is increasing.
12. For the reaction at 298 K, 2A + B → C; ∆H = 400 kJ mol–1, ∆S = 0.2 kJ

K–1 mol–1. At what temperature will the reaction become spontaneous
considering ∆H and ∆S to be constant over the temperature range.
[Ans. T > 2000 K]
13. Reaction X → Y; ∆H = + ve is spontaneous at temperature “T”. Determine

(i) Sign of ∆S for this reaction,
(ii) Sign of ∆G for Y → X
(iii) Sign of ∆G at a temperature < T.
5 - Mark Questions
1. (a) What is reversible process in Thermodynamics?
(b) Name the thermodynamic processes for which : (i) q = 0 (ii) ∆U = 0

(iii) ∆V = 0 (iv) ∆P = 0.
(c) Water decomposes by absorbing 286.2 kJ of electrical energy per mole.

When H2 and O2 combine to form one mole of H2O, 286.2 kJ of heat is
produced. Which thermodynamic law is proved? Write its statement.
2. (a) Although heat is a path function but heat absorbed by the system
under certain specific conditions is independent of path. What are those
conditions ? Explain. [Hint : qv = ∆U and qp = ∆H]
(b) It has been found that 221.4 J is needed to heat 30g of ethanol from
15°C to 18°C. Calculate (a) specific heat capacity, and (b) molar heat
capacity of ethanol. [Ans. (a) 2.46 Jg–1°C–1, (b) 113.2 J mol–1C–1]
Thermodynamics 67

3. (a) Differentiate the terms Bond dissociation enthalpy and Bond Enthalpy.
(b) Calculate enthalpy change for the process CCl4(g) → C(g) + 4Cl(g)
and calculate Bond enthalpy of C-C1 bond in CCl4.Given : ∆vap H°(CCl4)
= 30.5 kJ mol–1; ∆f H°(CCl4) = – 135.5 kJ mol–1; ∆aH°(C) = 715 kJ mol–1
and ∆aH°(Cl2) = 242 kJ mol–1. [Ans. 1304 kJ mol–1, 326 kJ mol–1]
4. Predict the sign of ∆S for the following changes :
(i) Freezing of water,
(ii) C(graphite) → C(diamond)
(iii) H2(g) at 298 k and 1 bar → H2(g) at 298 k and 10 bar
(iv) H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g)
(v) 2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
5. (i) Define Gibbs energy. Give its mathematical expression. What is Gibb’s
energy criteria of spontaneity.
(ii) For the reaction : 2A(g) + B(g) → 2D(g), ∆U° = – 10.5 kJ and
∆S° = – 44.1 J K–1. Calculate ∆rGθ for the reaction, and predict whether
will occur spontaneously. [Ans. ∆rGθ = + 0.16 kJ, Non spontaneous]

 Equilibrium : It is a state in a process when two opposing processes
(forward and reverse) occur simultaneously at the same rate.
The free energy change at equilibrium state is zero i.e., ∆G = 0.
 Equilibrium constant : For a general reaction :
aA + bB cC + dD
Kc = and Kp =
 Relationship between Kp and Kc :

Kp = Kc (RT)∆ng
∆ng = np(g) – nr (g)
Magnitude of equilibrium constant depends upon the way in which a
reaction is written :
Chemical equation Equilibrium constant
aA + bB cC + dD K
cC + dD aA + bB K1 =
naA + nbB ncC + ndD K 2 = Kn
K3 = K1/n
 Predicting the direction of reaction :
If Qc = Kc ⇒ the reaction is in a state of equilibrium.
Qc > Kc ⇒ the reaction proceeds in reverse direction.
Qc < Kc ⇒ the reaction proceeds in forward direction.
Equilibrium 69

 Ostwald’s dilution law : Degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte,
α=
 Ionic Product of water (Kw) = [H3O+] [OH–] = 10–14 at 298K
 Le-Chatelier’s Principle : When a system of equilibrium is subjected to
a change in temperature, pressure or concentration, the equilibrium shifts
itself in such a way so as to undo or counterout the effect of change.
 Outcomes of Le-Chatelier’s Principle
Change at equilibrium Shift in equilibrium
Increase in temperature Endothermic direction
Decrease in temperature Exothermic direction
Increase in pressure Towards lesser gaseous moles
Decrease in pressure Towards greater gaseous moles
Increase in Conc. of reactants Forward direction
Increase in Conc. of products Reverse direction
 Conjugate Acid or Base :
Species — H+ = Conjugate base
Species + H+ = Conjugate acid
 pH of solution :
pH = –log [H3O+] or [H+] = 10–pH , pOH = –log [OH–]
pH + pOH = pKw = 14 at 298K
 Common ion effect : The depression of ionisation of weak electrolyte by
the presence of common ion from a strong electrolyte is called common
ion effect. For example degree of dissociation of NH4OH decreases in the
presence of strong electrolyte NH4CI.
 Hydrolysis of salts and pH of their solutions : Hydrolysis of salt is
defined as the reaction of cation or anion with water as a result of which
the pH of water changes.
1. Salts of strong and strong bases (e.g., NaCI) do not hydrolyse. The
solution pH will be 7.
2. Salts of weak acids and strong bases (e.g., CH3COONa) hydrolyse,
pH >7 (The anion acts as a base).
X– + H2O HX + OH–

(Weak acid) (Strong base)
pH = + (pKa + log C)
3. Salt of strong acids and weak bases (e.g., NH4Cl) hydrolyse, pH < 7.
(The cation acts as an acid).
M+ + H2O MOH + H+
pH = (pKb + logC)
4. Salt of weak acids and weak base (e.g., CH3COONH4) hydrolyse.

The cation acts as an acid and anion as a base but whether the solution
is aodic or basic depends upon the relative values of Ka and Kb for these
ions.
M+ + X– + H2O MOH + HX
pH = (pKa – pKb)
 Buffer solutions : The solutions, which resist the change in pH on dilution
or addition of small amounts of acid or base, are called buffer solutions.
 Basic buffer : Solution of weak base and its salt with strong acid, For
e.g., NH4OH + NH4CI
 Acidic buffer : Solution of weak acid and its salt with strong base, For
e.g., CH3COOH + CH3COONa.
 Henderson Hasselbalch Equation for the pH of Buffer solution—
pH = pKa + log (for acidic buffer)
pOH = pKa + log (for basic buffer)
 Solubility Product (Ksp) : The equilibrium constant that represent the

equilibrium between undissolved salt (solute) and its ions in a saturated
solution is called solubility product constant (Ksp).
For AxBy xAy+ + yBx–
Ksp = [Ay+]x [Bx–]y = xx.yy.sx+y
If ionic product < Ksp ; salt remain dissolve.
If ionic product > Ksp ; salt will be precipitated.
Equilibrium 71

 Relationship between solubility (S) and solubility product (Ksp).
Ksp = xx.yy.Sx + y
For binary salts (e.g., AgCl, AgBr, Agl) Ksp = S2
For Ternary salts (e.g., Pbl2) Ksp = 4S3
1 - Mark Questions
1. Define physical equilibrium. Give an example also.
2. Fizz is observed when soda water bottle is opened. Why ?
3. Justify the statement : ‘Both physical and chemical equilibria are dynamic
in nature’
4. State Henry’s law.
5. In a reversible reaction, the two substances are in equilibrium. If the
concentration of each one is reduced to half, then what is the effect on the
equilibrium constant ?
6. K1 and K2 are equilibrium constant for reactions (1) and (2)
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g)
NO(g) 1/2 N2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)
then, calculate the relation between K1 and K2
7. Write the equilibrium constant expression for the following reaction :
3 Fe(s) + 4 H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4 H2(g)
8. Classify the equilibrium as homogenous or heterogenous :
CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(1) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH (aq)
(PNH
PNH33 )
9. Kp = ½
PH22 )3/2
(PN2 ) (PH
Write the balanced chemical equation corresponding to the above
expression.
10. Give the direction in which the reaction would proceed if Qc > Kc.
11. Hb(s) + O2(g) HbO2(s)
Predict the direction in which equilibrium gets shifted if partial pressure
of O2(g) is lowered.
12. Discuss the position of equilibrium if the following reaction is carried out
in the presence of catalyst.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

13. In which case the yield of the product will be more.
A B K1 = 1010
X Y K2 = 106
14. Value of Kc at 500 K for A + 2B C is 10.6
Determine the value of Kc at the same temperature for C A + 2B
15. Why do we sweat more on a humid day ?
16. Why does a catalyst not affect the magnitude of equilibrium constant ?
17. Write the relation between Kp and Kc for the given reaction.
H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
18. Write the expression of Kc for the following reaction
CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(aq)
19. Write the expression of Kp for the following reaction
Cu(NO3)2 (s) 2 CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
20. For an exothermic reaction, what happens to the equilibrium constant if
temperature is increase ?
21. Ka for HA1 is 10 and Ka for HA2 is 12
Which acid is stronger.
22. For tribasic acid Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3
What will happen to the acid strength of polyprotic acid if protons are
lost ?
23. C(s) C(s)
Diamond (Density = 3.5 g/cm3) Graphite (Density = 2.3 g/cm3)
What will be the effect of increasing the pressure in this equilibrium.
24. Under what condition does the active mass becomes equal to the
molarity ?
25. In which expression of Kc or Keq, that only solutions and gases are
involved?
26. What will be the change in the direction of equilibrium if Ne gas is added
in a reaction at constant volume.
27. What will be the effect on the boiling point of liquid if pressure is
increased ?
Equilibrium 73

2 - Mark Questions
1. What is Kc for the following equilibrium when the equilibrium
concentration of each substance is :
[SO2] = 0.60M, [O2] = 0.82 M and [SO3] = 1.90 M ?
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
2. At a certain temperature and total pressure of 105 Pa, iodine vapour contains
40% by volume of I atoms
I2(g) 2I(g)
Calculate Kp for the equilibrium. [Ans. 2.67 × 104 Pa]
3. Explain why pure liquids and solids can be ignored while writing the
equilibrium constant expression ?
4. A sample of HI(g) is placed in flask at a pressure of 0.2 atm. At equilibrium
the partial pressure of HI(g) is 0.04 atm.
What is Kp for the given equilibrium ?
2 HI(g) H2 (g) + I2 (g) [Ans. 4]
5. One mole of H2O and one mole of CO are taken in 10 L vessel and heated
to 725 K. At equilibrium 40% of water (by mass) reacts with CO according
to the equation,
H2O(g) + CO(g) H2 (g) + CO2(g)
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction. [Ans. 0.444]
6. At 1127 K and 1 atm pressure, a gaseous mixture of CO and CO2 in
equilibrium with soild carbon has 90.55% CO by mass
C (s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)
Calculate Kc for this reaction at the above temperature. [Ans. 0.153]
7. Describe the effect of :
(a) addition of H2
(b) addition of CH3OH
(c) removal of CO
(d) removal of CH3OH
on the equilibrium of the reaction :
2H2(g) + CO (g) CH3OH(g)

8. A + 3 B 2X ; K = x
What will be the equilibrium constant for the decomposition of 1 mol
of x ?
9. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g) ; ––––––– K1
N2(g) + O2(g) 2 NO(g) ; ––––––– K2
H2(g) + 1/2O2(g) H2O(g) ; ––––––– K3
Determine the equilibrium constant for
2 NH3(g) + 5/2O2(g) 2NO(g) + 3H2O)(g).
10. Kc for PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl (g) is 0.04 at 25°C
How much mole of PCl5 must be added to 3 L flask to obtain a chlorine
concentration of 0.15 M ? [Ans. 2.1]
3 - Mark Questions
1. Four moles of PCl5 are heated in a closed 4 dm3 container to reach
equilibrium at 400 K. At equilibrium 50% of PCl5 is dissociated. What is
the value of Kc for the dissociation of PCl5 into PCl3 and Cl2 at 400 K
[Ans. 0.50]
2. (a) How does the value of equilibrium constant predict the extent of a
reaction ?
(b) Equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the equilibrium
constant for the reverse reaction ?
3. (a) Define the equilibrium constant.
(b) For the general reaction :
a A(g) + b B(g) c C (g) + d D(g).
Derive the relationship between Kp and Kc
4. (a) What is meant by dynamic nature of equilibrium ?
(b) Consider the following transformation.
A B K1 = 1
B C K2 = 2
C D K3 = 3
Calculate the value of K for A D
5. Kc for SO2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) SO3(g) at 600ºC is 61.7
Equilibrium 75

Calculate Kp. What is the unit Kp for the above equilibrium. [R = 0.0821
L atm K–1 mol–1]
6. 3.2 mole of HI were heated in a sealed bulb at 444ºC till the equilibrium
state was reached. Its degree of dissociation was found to be 20%. Calculate
the number of moles hydrogen iodide, hydrogen and iodine present at the
equilibrium point and also determine the equilibrium constant.
2HI(g) H2 (g) + I2 (g).
7. At 25ºC and 1 atm, the partial pressure in an equilibrium mixture of N2O4
NO2 are 0.7 and 0.3 atm, respectively. Calculate the partial pressure when
they are in equilibriums at 25ºC and at a total pressure of 10 atm.
8. 13.8 g of N2O4 was placed in a 1L reaction vessel at 400 K and allowed
to attain equilibrium
N2O4 (g) 2NO2 (g)
The total pressure at equilbrium was found to be 9.15 bar. Calculate Kc,
Kp and partial pressure at equilibrium. [Kc = 2.6]
9. The equilibrium constant for the following reaction is 1.6 × 105 at
1024 K
H2(g) + Br(g) 2HBr(g)
Find the equilibrium pressure of all gases if 10.0 bar a HBr is introduced
into a sealed container at 1024 K.
[PH2 eq. = PBr2 eq. = 2.5 × 10–2 bar; PHBr = 10.0 bar]
10. In a reaction :
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(l) Hº = – 92 kj/mol
Indicate the direction in which equilibrium will shift when
(i) Temperature is decreased.
(ii) Pressure is decreased.
(iii) Ne gas is added at constant pressure.
5 – Mark Questions
1. Dihydrogen gas is obtained from natural gas by partial oxidation with
steam as per following endothermic reaction :
CH4 (g) + H2O (g) CO (g) + 3H2 (g)
(a) Write as expression for Kp for the above reaction.
(b) How will the values of Kp and composition of equilibrium mixture
be affected by :

(i) increasing the pressure
(ii) increasing the temperature
(iii) using a catalyst ?
2. At 473 K, equilibrium constant Kc for decomposition of phosphorus
pentachloride, PCl5 is 8.3 × 10–3. If decomposition is depicted as,
PCl5(g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
Hº = 124.0 kJ mol–1
(a) Write an expression for Kc for the reaction.
(b) What is the value of Kc for the reverse reaction at the same
temperature?
(c) What would be the effect on Kc if (i) more PCl5 is added (ii) pressure
is increased (iii) the temperature is increased ? [(b) KC = 120.48 (c)
(i) No effect (ii) No effect (iii) Kc increase]
3. Ammonia is prepared by Haber’s process is which the following reaction
occurs
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g) Hº = – 93.6 kJ
Mention the effect of following on the equilibrium concentration of
ammonia.
(a) Increasing pressure
(b) Increasing temperature
(c) Use of catalyst at an optimum temperature.
(d) Addition of inert gas at constant volume.
(e) Addition of inert gas at constant pressure.
4.
Ethyl acetate is formed by the reaction between ethanol and acetic acid
and the equilibrium is represented as :
CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
(i) Write the concentration ratio (reaction quotient), Qc, for this reaction
(note : water is not in excess and is not a solvent in this reaction)
(ii) At 293 K, if one starts with 1.00 mol of acetic acid and 0.18 mol of
ethanol, there is 0.171 mol of ethyl acetate in the final equilibrium
mixture. Calculate the equilibrium constant.
(iii) Starting with 0.5 mol of ethanol and 1.0 mol of acetic acid and
maintaining it at 293 K, 0.214 mol of ethyl acetate is found after
sometime. Has equilibrium been reached ?
[(ii) 3.92 (iii) Qc = 0.204, Equilibrium has not been attained.]
Equilibrium 77

Ionic Equilibrium
1. Which of the following are Lewis acids ?
H2O, BF3, H+, NH4+
2. Write the conjugate acids for the following Bronsted bases.
C6H5OH, H2O
3. Write the conjugate bases for the following Bronsted acids.
H2O, CH3COOH.
4. Which of the following are Lewis acids ?
(a) H2O, (b) AlCl3 (c) NH4+
5. Define the Ostwald’s dilution law.
6. SO32– is Bronsted base or acid and why ?
7. Why pH of our blood remains almost constant at 7.4 though we quite often
eat spicy food ?
8. pH of black coffee is 5.0 at 25ºC. Is black coffee acidic or basic ?
9. What will be the value of (pKa + pKb) at 25ºC. [Ans. Acidic]
10. What will be the pH of 1 M KNO3 solutions at 25ºC.
11. CaCl2(s) + sq CaCl2(aq) + Heat
Discuss the solubility of CaCl2 if temperature is increased.
12. Why does the solubility of CO2 decrease with rise in temperature ?
13. The solubility of A2 X3 is y mol dm–3. Calculate its solubility product.
14. Write the Ksp expression for Al (OH)3
15. What is the condition for precipitation of a salt ?
16. Pridict the nature of solution when NH4NO3 undergo hydrolysis.
17. Explain why pure NaCl precipitates out when HCl gas is passed through
the solution of NaCl ?
18. Give the Henderson’s -Hasselbalch equation for an acidic buffer solution.
19. On which of the factors the equilibrium depend :
Temperature, nature of reactant and product, initial concentration and
pressure of the reactants.

20. What are amphoteric substances ? Give one example.
21. What could be the temperature 15ºC or 100ºC for Kw = 7.5 × 10–14.
22. What happens to ionic product of water if some acid is added to it ?
23. What is the conjugate base of [Fe(H2O)6]3+?
1. Explain ionic product of water. What is the effect of temperature on ionic
product of water ?
2. What is pOH ? What is its value for neutral water at 25ºC.
3. (a) Define buffer solution.
(b) Give one example each of acidic and basic buffer.
4. The solubility of Ca3(PO4)2 in water is x moles / litre. Calculate its
solubility product. [Ans. 108x5]
5. Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M solution of acetic acid. Ka for CH3COOH
is 1.8 × 10–5 at 25ºC. [Ans. 3.37]
6. Calculate pH when 9.8 g H2SO4 is dissolved in 2 litre of solution. [1]
7. Calculate the pH of 10–9 M HCl. [Ans. pH = 6.9957]
8. An acid having pH = 6 is diluted 100 times. What will be the pH of the
final solution ? [Ans. pH = 6.98]
9. Calculate the pH of 10–10 M NaOH solution. [Ans. pH = 7.0004]
10. Solid Ba(NO3)2 is gradually dissolved in a 1.0 × 10–4 M Na2CO3
solution. At what concentration of Ba2+ will a precipitate begin to
fotm ? (Ksp for BaCO3 = 5.1 × 10–9) [Ans. 5.1 × 10–5 M]
11. The pKa of acetic acid and pKb of ammonium hydroxide are 4.76 and
4.75 respectively. Calculate the pH of ammonium acetate solution.
[Ans. 7.005]
3–Mark Questions
1. What is meant by the conjugate acid-base pair ? Find the conjugate acid/
base for the following species :
HNO2, CN–, HClO4, F–, OH–, OH3–, and S2–.
2. Define solubility product. Calculate the solubility product of Ca(OH)2 if
its solubility is 3. [Ans. Ksp = 108]
Equilibrium 79

3. Calculate the pH of the following mixture.
200 mL of M/10 H2SO4 + 400 mL of M/10 H3PO4 + 400 mL of M/10
HCl [0.69]
4. The solubility product of AgCl in water is 1.5 × 10–10. Calculate its
solubility in 0.01 M NaCl aqueous solution. [1.5 × 10–8 M]
5. Predict whether a precipitate will be formed or not on mixing 20 ml of
0.001 M NaCl solution with 80 mL of 0.01 M AgNO3 solution, Ksp for
AgCl is 1.5 × 10–10 . [Yes, ppt. will be formed]
6. Equal volumes of three acids solution with pH 3, 4 and 5 are mixed in a
vessel.What will be the H+ ion concentration in the mixture ?
7. Calculate the pH of a solution obtained by mixing 50 mL of 0.2 M HCl
and 50 mL of 0.1 M NaOH. [Ans. 1.3010]
8. The pH of 0.1 M hydrocyanic acid solution is 5.2. What is the value of
Ka for hydrocyanic acid ? [Ans. Ka = 3.69 × 10–10]
9. A buffer solution is prepared by mixing equal concentration of weak base
and its salt with strong acid. For the base Kb is given as 10–9. Calculagte
the pH of the buffer solution. [5]
10. Calculate the pH of the resultant mixtures :
(a) 10 mL of 0.2 M Ca(OH)2 + 25 mL of 0.1 M HCl
(b) 10 mL of 0.01 M H2SO4 + 10 mL of 0.01 M Ca(OH)2
(c) 10mL of 0.1 M H2SO4 + 10mL of 0.1 M KOH.
[(a) 12.632 (b) 7 (c) 1.3]
11. Equal volumes of 0.002 M solutions of sodium iodate and cupric chlorate
are mixed together. Will it lead to precipitation of copper iodate ? (For
cupric iodate Ksp = 7.4 × 10–8). [NO ppt. will ocurr]
12. What is the maximum concentration of equimolar solutions of ferrous
sulphate and sodium sulphide so that when mixed in equal volumes, there is
no precipitation of iron sulphide ? (For iron sulphide, Ksp = 6.3 × 10–18)
[5.02 × 10–9 mol L–1]
13. The ionization constant of aniline is 3.69 × 10–10 :
(i) Calculate pH of 0.01 M solution of aniline.
(ii) Calculate the degree of dissociation of aniline in the solution.
(iii) Calculate the ionization constant of conjugate acid of the aniline.

14. The Ksp for Al(OH)3 is 2.7 × 10–11. Calculate its solubility in g/L and also
pH of this solution.
15. Calculate the volume of water required to dissolve 0.3 gm of Zn(OH)2 to
get a saturated solution. Ksp [Zn(OH)2] = 1 × 10–15
[Given Atomic mass of Zn = 65.3, O = 16, H = 1]
16. The pH of an aqueous solution of ammonia is 11.5. Find the molarity of
the solution.
Kb (NH4OH) = 1.8 × 10–5 [0.57]
17. What is the pH of the solution when 0.2 mole of HCl is added to 1 L of
the solution containing 0.1 M each of CH3COOH & acetate ion. Assume
that volume is 1 L.
Ka (CH3COOH) = 1.8 × 10–5. [1]
1. Calculate the pH value of the following solutions.
(a) 10–2 M HCl.
(b) 10–3 M H2SO4.
(c) 10–4 M NaOH
(d) 0.04 M NaOH.
(e) 0.03 M HCl. [Ans. (a) 2 (b) 2.6990 (c) 10 (d) 12.60 (e) 1.5229]
2. (i) Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 2.0 mol/L CH3COOH
in 1.0 mol/L of CH3COONa . [Given Ka for CH3COOH is 1.8 × 10–5 at
25ºC.]
(ii) Calculate the change in pH of the buffer after the addition of 0.01 mol
NaOH.
(iii) Calculate the pH of the buffer after the addition of 0.01 M HCl ?
[Ans. (i) 4.4337, (ii) 0.0065, (iii) 4,4372]
3. (a) What is solubility product ? How is it different from ionic product ?
(b) Calculate the solubility of PbCl2 if its solubility product is 1.0 × 10–6
at 298 K. [Ans. 6.3 × 10–3 M]
4. (a) Write short notes on the following :
(i) Common ion effect
(ii) Buffer solution
Equilibrium 81

(b) Calculate the pH of a buffer solution containing 0.2 mole of NH4Cl
and 0.1 mole of NH4OH per litre. Kb for NH4OH = 1.8 × 10–5
[Ans. 8.966]
5. 500 ml saturated solution of Ca(OH)2 is mixed with equal volume of 0.4
M NaOH. How muchCa(OH)2 in mg is precipitated ?
[Ka (Ca(OH)2) = 4.42 × 10–5 at 25ºC]
6. Calculate the pH of 0.1 M ammonia solution. Calculate the pH after 50
mL of this solution is treated with 25 mL of 0.1 M HCl.
Kb (NH3) = 1.77 × 10–5.

Oxidation Reduction
1. Addition of oxygen 1. Removal of oxygen
2. Removal of an Hydrogen 2. Addition of Hydrogen
3. Addition of an electronegative 3. Removal of an electronegative
element. element.
4. Removal of an electropositive 4. Addition of an electropositive
element element.
5. Loss of electron(s) 5. Gain of electron(s)
6. Increase in oxidation number. 6. Decrease in oxidation number.
 Reducing Agent : Donor of electron(s).

 Oxidising Agent : Acceptor of electron(s).
 Redox Reaction : Reactions in which oxidation and reduction takes place
simultaneously.
 Oxidation Number : It is charge that an atom appears to have in a given
species when the bonding electron are counted towards more electro-
negative atom.
 Calculation of Oxidation Number :
(a) O.S. of all the elements in their elemental form (in standard state)
is taken as zero. O.S. of element of Cl2, F2, O2, P4, O3, Fe(s), H2, N2,
C (graphite) is zero.
(b) Common O.S. of elements of first group is +1. Common O. S. of
elements of second group + 2.
(c) For ions composed of only one atom, the oxidation number is equal
to the charge on the ion.
Redox Reactions 83

(d) The oxidation number of oxygen in most compounds is – 2. While in
peroxides (e.g., H2O2, Na2O2), each oxygen atom is assigned an
oxidation number of – 1, in super oxides (e.g., KO2, RbO2) each
oxygen atom is assigned an oxidation number of – (½).
(e) In oxygen di fluoride (OF2) and dioxygen difluoride (O2F2), the oxygen
is assigned an oxidation number of + 2 and + 1, respectively.
(f) The oxidation number of hydrogen is + 1 but in metal hydride its
oxidation no. is – 1.
(g) In all its compounds, fluorine has an oxidation number of – 1.
(h) The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms in a
compound must be zero.
(i) In polyatomic ion, the algebraic sum of all the oxidation numbers of
atoms of the ion must equal the charge on the ion.
 Types of Redox Reactions:
(i) Combination Reaction : 0 0 +2 –3
3 Mg (s) + N2 (g) → Mg3N2 (s)
(ii) Decomposition : +1 +5 – 2 + 1 – 1 0
2KClO3(s) → 2 KC1(s) + 3O2 (g)
(iii) Metal Displacement : + 2 + 6 – 2 0 +2+6–2 0
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
(iv) Non-metal displacement : 0 +1–2 +2–2+1 0
Ca (s) + 2 H2O (1) → Ca (OH)2 + H2 (g)
(v) Disproportionation : It is a reaction in which same element is
reduced and oxidized simultaneously.
0 –1 +1
C12 (g) + 2 OH– (aq) → Cl– (aq) + ClO– (aq) + H2O (1)
 Stock Notation : Representing oxidation number of metal in Roman
numerals within parenthesis after the symbol or name of metal in the
molecular formula or name of a compound. e.g., Stock Notation of Ferric
oxide is Fe2(III)O3 or Iron (III) oxide.
 Fractional Oxidation Number : When two or more atoms of an element
are present in different oxidation states, then calculated oxidation number
may comes out as fractional due to average of all the different oxidation
states.

In reality no element can have a fractional oxidation state.
 Electrode or Redox Couple : A redox couple is defined as having together
oxidized and reduced forms of a substance taking part in an oxidation or
reduction half reaction.
 Electrode Potential (E) : Potential difference between electrode and
electrolytic solution due to charge separation.
 Standard Electrode Potential (Eθ) : Electrode Potential measured at 298
K and 1M concentration of metal ions (or 1 bar pressure of gas).
 Electrochemical Cell : A device in which chemical energy of a spontaneous
redox reaction is converted into electrical energy.
– +
Zn Anode Cu Cathode
Cell diagram,
LHS oxidation, Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
RHS reduction Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
Overall reaction Zn(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
 Representation of an Electrochemical cell :
———— Flow of electrons ———→
←———— Flow of current ———
Zn(s) | Zn2+ (aq) || Cu2+(aq) | Cu(s)
Left Electrode Salt Bridge Right Electrode
Oxidation Reduction
Anode Cathode
Negative Positive
 Functions of Salt Bridge : (i) To complete inner circuit. (ii) To maintain
electrical neutrality.
Redox Reactions 85

Flow learning
1 - Mark Questions
1. Define oxidation and reduction according to electronic concept.
2. Define oxidation and reduction according to oxidation number.
3. A freshly cut apple is almost white but it turns reddish brown after some.
Give reason.
4. Define oxidation number.
5. Write oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4.
6. Write oxidation number of Cr in Cr2O72–.
7. Write Stock notation of MnO2 and AuCl3.
8. Define redox reaction with example.
9. Define disproportionation reaction. Give one example.
10. Define the term Redox tirration.
11. Name the indicator used in redox titrations involving K2Cr2O7 as an
oxidizing agent.
12. At what concentration of Cu2+ (aq) will electrode potential become equal
to its standard electrode potential ? [Ans. 1 M]
13. The standard reduction potentials of three metals cations X, Y and Z are
+ 0.52, – 3.03 and – 1.18 V respectively. Arrange X, Y and Z in order of
increasing reducing power. [Ans. X < Z < Y]

14. An electrochemcial cell consists of two electrodes i.e., Anode and Cthode.
What is the direction of flow of electrons in this cell ?
15. Why anode is negatively charged in an electrochemical cell.
16. Out of Zn and Cu vessel one will be more suitable to store 1 M HCl ?
[Ans. Cu]
Given = – 0.76 V, = + 0.34 V.
15. Is it safe to stir 1 M AgNO3 solution with copper spoon ? [Ans. No]
Given = + 0.80 V, = + 0.34 V.
2 - Mark Questions
1. Identify oxidant and reluctant in the reaction :
I2 (aq) + 2S2O32– (aq) → 2 I– (aq) + S4O62–(aq).
2. Calculate oxidation number of Fe in Fe3O4 and write a suitable justification
of your answer.
3. Oxidation-reduction reactions are complementary. Explain.
4. Write formula for the following compounds :
(i) Mercury (II) chloride
(ii) Nickel (II) sulphate
(iii) Iron (III) sulphate
(iv) Chromium (III) oxide
5. Justify that the reaction : H2O(s) + F2 → HF + HOF is a redox reaction.
6. A decomposition reaction may or may not be a redox reaction. Write two
decomposition reactions in support of the statement.
7. Split the reaction 2 K (s) + C12 (g) → 2 KC1 (s) into oxidation and reduction
half reactions.
8. Calculate the oxidation number of underlined elements in following
compounds :
(i) CaO2 (ii) H2S2O7 (iii) K2MnO4 (iv) KI3
9. Write the functions of salt bridge in an electrochemical cell.
10. Define the term redox couple. Write the practical application of redox
couple.
Redox Reactions 87

11. The standard reduction potentials of two metals A and B are – 0.76 V and
+ 0.34 V respectively. An electrochemical cell is formed using electrodes
of these metals.
(i) Identify the cathode and anode.
(ii) Write the direction of flow of electron.
3 - Mark Questions
1. Calculate oxidation number of :
(i) Cr in Cr2O42–
(ii) O in KO2
(iii) Na in Na2O2.
2. Account for the following :
(i) HNO3 acts as oxidizing agent while HNO2 can act both as reducing
and oxidizing agent.
(ii) AgF2 is unstable compound and a strong oxidizing agent.
(iii) Ozone acts as an oxidizing agent.
3. Permanganate ion (MnO4–) reacts with sulphur di oxide gas in acidic
medium to produce Mn2+ ion and hydrogen sulphate ion. Write ionic
equation and balance by ion electron method.
4. Balance the following equation by oxidation number method :
P4(s) + OH– (aq) → PH3 + H2PO2– (aq)
5. Balance the following equation in basic medium :
C12O7 (g) + H2O2 (1) → ClO2– (aq) + O2 (g)
6. Depict the galvanic cell in which the reaction Zn (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) → Zn2+
(aq) + 2 Ag (s) takes place. Further show :
(i) Which electrode is negatively charged ?
(ii) The carriers of the current in the cell
(iii) Individual reaction at each electrode.
7. Explain why ?
(i) Reaction FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s) → CuSO4 (aq) + Fe does not occur.
(ii) Zinc can displace copper from aqueous CuSO4 solution but Ag cannot.
(iii) Solution of AgNO3 turns blue when copper rod is immersed in it.

5 - Mark Questions
2–
1. (i) MnO4 undergoes disproportionation reaction in acidic medium but
MnO4– does not. Give reason.
(ii) Give one example each of the following redox reactions:
(a) Combination reaction
(b) Decomposition reaction
(c) Metal displacement reaction
2. Consider the cell reaction of an electrochemical cell : Ni(s) + 2 Ag+(aq)
→ Ni2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s) and answer the following questions :
(i) Write anode and cathode half reactions.
(ii) Mention the direction of flow of electrons.
(iii) How is the electrical neutrality maintained in the solutions of the two
half cells.
(iv) Write the formula for calculating standard emf of this cell.
(v) How does the emf change when the concentration of silver ions is
decreased ?
Redox Reactions 89

 Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table and also the lightest
element known. Electronic configuration of Hydrogen is 1s1.
 Isotopes of hydrogen :
(i) Protium (11H)
(ii) Deuterium (12H or 12D)
(iii) Tritium (13H or 13T)
 Preparation of Dihydrogen :
(i) Laboratory preparation : Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2.
(ii) Commercial preparation : By electrolysis of acidified water.
(iii) High purity dihydrogen is obtained by electrolysing warm aqueous
barium hydroxide.
 Water gas : The mixture of CO + H2 is known as water gas. It is also
known as ‘Syn’ Gas.
 Water gas shift reaction :
CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)
 Properties of Dihydrogen :
The H-H bond dissociation enthalpy is highest for a single bond dissociation
enthalpy between two atoms of any element.
It is relatively inert at room temperature due to the high H-H bond enthalpy.
 Uses of Dihydrogen :
(i) For synthesis of Ammonia (NH3)

(ii) For production of Methanol (CH3OH)
(iii) In oxyhydrogen torches
(iv) In a fuel cell.
 Hydrides
(i) Ionic or salt like or saline hydrides are formed with most of the
s-block elements. Significant covalent character is found in LiH, BeH2
and MgH2.
(ii) Covalent or Molecular hydrides are formed with most of the p-block
elements. There are further classified as :
(a) Electron deficient hydrides are formed by group 13 elements e.g.,
B2H6. They acts as Lewis acid.
(b) Electron Precise hydrides are formed by group 14 elements e.g.,
CH4.
(c) Electron rich hydrides have lone pair of electrons on central atoms
of the molecules. Elements of group 15-17 form these types of hydrides.
NH3, HF has high m.p./b.p. due to presence of intermolecular hydrogen
bonding.
(iii) Metallic or Non-stoichiometric or Interstitial hydrides are formed
by d and f -block elements. For example La H2.87 or NiH0.6–0.7.
 Water : (H2O)
Hard water : Hard water contains calcium and magnesium salts in the
form of hydrogencarbonate, chloride and sulphate. Hard water does not
give lathers with soap.
Soft water : Water free from soluble salts of calcium and magnesium is
soft water.
Types of Hardness :
Temporary hardness is due to presence of calcium or magnesium
hydrogen carbonate in water.
Temporary hardness can be removed by :
(i) Boiling
(ii) Clark’s Method
Permanent hardness :
Such hardness is due to presence of calcium or magnesium chlorides and
sulphates.
Hydrogen 91

Permanent hardness can be removed by :
(i) Treatment with washing soda
(ii) Calgon’s method
(iii) Ion exchange method.
Demineralised or Deionised water : Water free from all soluble mineral
salts is known as demineralised water.
 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
Preperation :
(i) By electrolytic oxidation of acidified sulphate solutions at high current
density.
(ii) 2-Ethylanthraquinol H2O2 + (oxidised product)

 Physical Properties
(i) Miscible with water in all proportions.
(ii) A 30% of H2O2 solution is marketed as ‘100 volume’ hydrogen
peroxide.
 Chemical Properties :
(i) It acts as an oxidising as well as reducing agent.
(ii) Oxidising action in acidic medium :
2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+ (aq) + H2O2 (aq) → 2Fe3+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)
(iii) Reducing action in acidic medium :
2MnO4– + 6H+ + 5H2O2 → 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + SO2
 Storage of H2O2 :
(i) Stored in wax-linked glass or plastic vessels in dark. Urea can be added
as a stabiliser.
(ii) It is kept away from dust because dust can induce explosive
decomposition of the compound.
 Uses of H2O2 :
(i) As an antiseptic it is sold in the market name perhydrol.
(ii) In synthesis of hydroquinone.
(iii) As a bleaching agent.

1 - Mark Questions
1. Name the isotope of hydrogen which is radioactive in nature. [Ans. Tritium]
2. H+ ions does not exist freely and is always associated with other atoms or
molecule. Explain.
3. Give the composition of water gas. [Ans. CO, H2]
4. Name the compound whose electrolysis in aqueous state, give high purity
(99.95%) dihydrogen. [Ans. aq Ba(OH)2 solution]
5. Give the main purpose of water gas shift reaction.
6. Write the chemical reaction occuring during coal gasification.
7. Name the element used in fuel cell for generating electricity. [Ans. H2]
8. Give an example of electron deficient covalent hydride. [Ans. B2H6]
9. Name the hydrides which have high potential for hydrogen storage.
[Ans. Metallic hydrides]
10. Name the groups in d-block elements which do not form metallic hydrides.
[Ans. 7, 8, 9]
11. H2 is relatively inert at room temperature. Explain.
12. Complete the reaction :
C(s) + H2O(g) (A) ___ (g) + (B) ___ (g) . [Ans. CO, H2]
13. Name the phenomenon as a reason of which water has unusual boiling
point. [Ans. Extensive hydrogen bonding]
14. Draw structure of water.
15. At atmospheric pressure ice crystallised in the ......... form but at very low
temperature it condenses to ......... form. [Ans. Hexagonal, cubic]
16. Mention the temperature at which density of ice is maximum.[Ans. 4°C]
17. Density of ice is .......... than density of liquid water. [Ans. Less]
2H2O(l) + 2Na(s) —→
19. How many hydrogen-bonded water molecules (s) are associted in
CuSO4.5H2O. [Ans. One]
20. Name the compound used in Clark’s method to remove temporary hardness
of water. [Ans. Lime]
Hydrogen 93

21. Write the chemical formula of “Calgon”. [Ans. Na4P6O18]
22. A 30% solution of H2O2 is marketed as ........ volume.[Ans. 100 volume]
23. Draw gas phase structure of H2O2.
24. Name the organic compound whose auto-oxidation is used to produce
H2O2 commercially or industrially. [Ans. 2-Ethylanthraquinol]
25. How is heavy water obtained from ordinary water?
2 - Mark Questions
1. Complete the following reactions :
(i) CO(g) + H2(g)
(ii) Zn(s) + NaOH(aq)
2. Among NH3, H2O and HF which would you except to have highest
magnitude of hydrogen bonding and why ?
3. How do you except the metallic hydrides to be useful for hydrogen storage ?
Explain.
4. How can the production of dihydrogen obtained from “Coal gasification”
be increased ?
5. Write the name of isotopes of hydrogen. What is the mas ratio of these
isotopes ?
6. Complete the reactions :
(i) CO(g) + 2H2(g)
(ii) CH4(g) + H2O(g)

7. Comment on the reactions of dihydrogen with :
(i) Chlorine, (ii) Sodium.
8. Arrange the following :
(i) LiH, NaH, CsH (In increasing order of ionic character)
(ii) H—H, D—D, F—F (In decreasing order of bond dissociation
enthalpy)
9. List two uses of dihydrogen.

(i) H2 + CO + RCH = CH2 —→
(ii) H2 + RCH2CH2CHO —→
11. Give two reactions to show amphoteric nature of water.
(i) 2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) —→
(ii) 6CO2(g) + 12H2O(l) —→
13. What is the difference between the term hydrolysis and hydration.
14. What do you understand by term ‘autoprotolysis’ of water ? What is its
significance ?
15. What causes the temporary and permanent harness of water ?
16. Is demineralised or distill water useful for drinking purposes ? If not, how
can it be made useful ?
17. Explain the terms : (i) Hydrogen economy. (ii) Fuel cell.
18. Write chemical reactions to justify that hydrogen peroxide can function
as an oxidising as well as reducing agent.
19. Compare the structure of H2O and H2O2.
20. How does H2O2 behaves as a bleaching agent ?
21. H2O2 acts as an oxidizing as well as reducing agent. Why?
3 - Mark Questions
1. Complete the chemical reactions :
(i) 8LiH + Al2Cl6 —→
(ii) 2LiH + B2H6 —→
2. What do you understand by : (i) electron deficient, (ii) Electron precise,
(iii) Electron rich compounds of hydrogen ? Provide justifications with
suitable examples.
3. What do you understand by the term “non-stoichiometric hydrides” ? Do
you expect this type of the hydrides to be formed by alkali metals. Explain
and Justify your answer.
4. Arrange the following :
(i) CaH2, BeH2, TiH2 (in order of increasing electrical conductance)
(ii) NaH, MgH2, H2O (in order of increasing bond dissociation enthalpy)
(iii) Li, F, H (in order of increasing ionisation enthalpy)
Hydrogen 95

5. What do you understand by the terms :
(i) Syn gas
(ii) Water gas shift reaction
(iii) Producer gas.
6. Would gas except the hydrides of N, O and F to have lower boiling point
than the hydrides of their subsequent group members ? Give reasons.
7. Can phosphorous with outer electronic configuration 3s23p3 form PH5 ?
Explain.
8. Why and how the hydrogen is regarded as a fuel of future ? Explain.
9. Write the reactions when dihydrogen reacts with (i) O2 (ii) N2 (iii) Cl2
under specific conditions.
10. Name the hydrides :
(i) Which is non stoichiometric in nature ?
(ii) Which are stoichiometric compounds ?
(iii) Which has electron rich type hydrides ?
(i) CaO(s) + H2O(g) —→
(ii) AlCl3(g) + H2O(l) —→
(iii) Ca3N2(s) + H2O(l) —→
12. Discuss the principle and method of softening of hard water by synthetic
exchange of resin method.
13. What is meant by ‘demineralised’ water and how can it be obtained ?
14. What properties of water make it useful as a solvent ? What types of
compound can it (i) dissolved (ii) hydrolyse ?
15. Calculate the strength of 10 volume solution of H2O2.
(i) 2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H+(aq) + H2O2(aq) —→
(ii) HOCl + H2O2 —→
(iii) Mn2+ + H2O2 —→

17. Give three uses of H2O2.
(i) CaC2 + 2D2O →
(ii) SO3 + D2O →
(iii) Al4C3 + 12D2O →
19. Give the limitations of using H2 as a fuel.
20. H2O2 is stored in a wax lined glass or plastic vessels. Explain an equation
showing decomposition of H2O2 on exposure to light.
5 - Mark Questions
1. Answer the following :
(a) Name the most abudant form of hydrogen isotope. [Ans. 11H]
(b) Name the particles emitted by tritium. [Ans. β–]
(c) Mixture of CO and H2 is used for preparation ......... .[Ans. Methanol]
(d) Name the catalyst used in Haber’s Process for manufacture of NH3(g).
[Ans. Fe]
(e) Name two electron rich hydrides. [Ans. NH3, H2O]
2. Answer the following :
(a) During Clark’s method. Name the compound in which Mg is
precipitated out. [Ans. Magnesium Hydroxide]
(b) Give the formula of Zeolite used in ion exchange method to remove
permanent hardness of water. [Ans. NaAlSiO4]
(c) Complete the reaction :
BaO2.8H2O(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
(d) H2O2 is miscible with water. Assign reason.
(e) Name the compound when can be used as a hair beach, mild antiseptic
in the form of perhydrol. [Ans. H2O2]
Hydrogen 97

 s-Block elements consists of group-I (Alkali metals) and group-2 (Alkaline
earth metals).
 Group 1st elements—Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr.
 Group 2nd elements—Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra.
 Atomic radius—Atomic radius of alkali metals are greater than alkaline
earth metals.
 Hydration enthalpy : Decreases with increases in ionic sizes.
 Ionic mobility : Smaller the size of ion, more highly it is hydrated and
hence lower is its ionic mobility.
Li+ < Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+
 Ionisation enthalpies : 1st I.E. of group 1st is smaller than group 2nd
elements but 2nd I.E. of group 2nd is smaller than group 1st elements.
 Flame colouration : Due to low I.E., s-block elements and their salts
imparts characteristics colour of oxidising flame (except Be and Mg). Be
and Mg do not show flame colouration because they have small size and
very high ionisation enthalpy.
 Reducing character : Due to large negative electrode potentials alkali
metals are stronger reducing agent than alkaline earth metal.
 Reactivity towards air :
4Li + O2 —→ 2Li2O (Lithium oxide)
2Na + O2 —→ Na2O2 (Sodium peroxide)
M + O2 —→ MO2 (M = K, Rb, Cs metal superoxide)
Alkaline earth metals being smaller in size do not from superoxides.
 Reactivity towards H2O :
2M + 2H2O —→ 2MOH + H2

(Alkali metal)
M + 2H2O —→ M(OH)2 + H2
(Alkaline earth metals)
 Reactivity towards hydrogen :
2M + H2 —→ 2MH
(M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)
M + H2 —→ MH2
(M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)
2BeCl2 + LiAlH4 —→ 2BeH2 + LiCl + AlCl3.
 Reactivity towards halogens :
2M + X2 —→ 2MX (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)
M + X2 —→ MX2 (M = Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba)
BeO + C + Cl2 BeCl2 + CO

 Solution in liquid ammonia : The fresh solution of alkali metals and
alkaline earth metals (except Be and Mg) is deep blue, paramagnetic and
highly reducing due to presence of ammoniated electrons.
 Solubility of alkaline earth metal carbonate in water :
Li2CO3 < Na2CO3 < K2CO3 < RbCO3 < Cs2CO3
 Solubility of alkaline earth metal carbonates in water.
BaCO3 < SrCO3 < CaCO3 < MgCO3 < BeCO3
 Solubility of alkaline earth metal sulphates in water :
BaSO4 < SrSO4 < CaSO4 < MgSO4 < BeSO4
 Thermal stability of alkali metal carbonates :
Li2CO3 < Na2CO3 < K2CO3 < Rb2CO3 < Cs2CO3
 Thermal stability of alkaline earth metal carbonates :
BeCO3 < MgCO3 < CaCO3 < SrCO3 < BaCO3
 Anamolous behaviour of Li and Be : It is due to very small size, high
I.E. and high polarising power (i.e., charge/radius)
 Diagonal relationship (similarities) between Li and Mg :
(i) Both Li and Mg are hard.
(ii) Both react with N2 to form nitrides.
The s-Block Elements 99

6Li + N2 —→ 2Li3N
3Mg + N2 —→ Mg3N2
(iii) Decomposition of carbonates :
Li2CO3 Li2O + CO2
MgCO3 MgO + CO2

(iv) Both LiCl and MgCl2 are deliquescent. They form hydrates salts
LiCl.2H2O and MgCl2.6H2O.
(v) Decomposition of nitrates :
4LiNO3 2Li2O + 4NO2 + O2
2Mg(NO3)2 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
 Diagonal relationship (similarities) between Be and Al :
(i) Both are passive to acids due to formation of oxide layer.
(ii) Hydroxides of both dissolve in alkali to form [Be(OH)4]2– and
[Al(OH)4]–.
(iii) Chloride of both has bridged structure.
(iv) Both have tendency to form complexes of BeF42–, AlF63–.
 Manufacturing of washing soda (Na2CO3.10H2O) :
Solvay process :
NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O (l) —→ NH4HCO3 (aq)
NH4HCO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) —→ NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl (aq)
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2NH4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
 Manufacturing of caustic soda (NaOH) : Castner-Kellner cell.
Cathode : Na+ + e– Na-Hg
Anode : Cl– —→ + e–
2Na-Hg + 2H2O —→ 2NaOH + 2Hg + H2
 Plaster of paris : (CaSO4.½H2O)
2(CaSO4.2H2O) 2(CaSO4).H2O + 3H2O
Gypsum

 Cement is a finely powdered mixture of calcium silicates and aluminate
along with small quantities of gypsum which sets into a hard stone like
mass when treated with water.
1 - Mark Questions
1. What is the oxidation state of K in KO2 ?
2. Why are group I element called alkali metals ?
3. Potassium carbonate cannot be prepared by solvay process. Why ?
4. LiCl is soluble in organic solvent. Why ?
5. Why are group 1 elements called alkali metals ?
6. Alkali metals are strong reducing agents. Why ?
7. Why do alkali metals give characteristics flame colouration ?
8. Arrange the following in order of increasing covalent character : MCl,
MBr, MF, MI (where M = Alkali metal) [Ans. MF < MCl < MBr < MI]
9. Alkali metals can not be obtained by chemical reduction method. Explain.
10. Why is sodium metal kept under kerosene oil ?
11. Why Be and Mg do not give characteristics colour to the flame ?

12. Arrange the alkaline earth metal carbonate in the decreasing order of
thermal stability.
13. Why do alkaline earth metals not form any superoxide ?
14. Why gypsum is added to cement ?
15. How plaster of paris is obtained from gypsum ?
16. BeO is insoluble in water but BeSO4 is soluble in water ? Why ?
17. Why second I.E. of group 2 elements is less than group 1 elements ?
18. What is quick lime ? How is it prepared ?
19. Why does Be shows similarities with Al ?
20. Name the alkaline earth metal hydroxide which is amphoteric.

2 - Mark Questions
1. Why are alkali metals soft and have low melting points ?
2. Write any four similarities between Li and Mg.
3. Why are potassium and caesium rather than Lithium used in photoelectric
cells ?
4. Why is Li2CO3 decomposed at a lower temperature whereas Na2CO3 at
higher temperature ?
5. Among the alkali metals which has :
(i) Highest melting point.
(ii) Most electropositive character
(iii) Lowest size of ion.
(v) Strongest reducing character. [Ans. (i) Li (ii) Cs (iii) Li (iv) Li]
6. Why does the solubility of alkali earth metal carbonates and sulphates
decreases down the group ?
7. Draw the structure of BeCl2 in (i) Vapour phase (ii) Solid state.
8. When CO2 gas is passed in lime water it turns milky but in case of excess
CO2 milkiness disappears. Support the statement by giving suitable
reaction equations.
9. (i) Eθ for M2+ (aq) + 2e– —→ M(s) (where M = Ca, Sr, Ba) is nearly
constant.
(ii) What is dead burnt plastar ? How is it obtained from gypsum?
10. Write two important uses of (i) Limestone (ii) Quick lime.
3 - Mark Questions
1. Assign reason for the following :
(i) Compounds of lithium are generally covalent.
(ii) Alkali metals are strong reducing agent.
(iii) LiCl is more covalent than NaCl.
2. Discuss the various reactions that occur in Solvay process.

3. Explain why ?
(i) Lithium salts are commonly hydrated.
(ii) Sodium peroxide is widely used as as oxidising agent.
(iii) Sodium wire is used to remove moisture from benzene but can’t be
used for drying alcohol.
4. Sodium hydroxide is generally prepared by electrolysis of brine solution
in the Castner-Kellner cell :
(i) Write the reactions that occur in the cell.
(ii) Write any two uses of NaOH.
5. Explain with suitable reasons :
(a) A solution of Na2CO3 is alkaline.
(b) Alkali metals are prepared by electrolysis of their fused chlorides.
(c) Sodium is found to be more useful than potassium ?
6. Arrange the following in order of property mentioned against each :
(i) BaCl2, MgCl2, BeCl2, CaCl2 (Increasing ionic character)
(ii) Mg(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 (Increasing solubility in water)
(iii) BeO, MgO, BaO, CaO (Increasing basic strength)
7. What happens when :
(i) Mg is burnt in air.
(ii) Quick lime is heated with silica.
(iii) Chlorine is heated with slaked lime.
8. Write the raw material required for the manufacture of portland cement ?
Why gypsum is added into it.
9. (i) Why alkaline earth metals cannot be obtained by reduction of their
oxide ?
(ii) Why the elements of group 2 are known as alkaline earth metals ?
10. (i) Alkaline earth metals forms ionic salt having bivalent cations. Explain.
Why ?
(ii) A piece of magnesium ribbon continues to burn in SO2. Why ?

5 - Mark Questions
1. Explain the following observation :
(a) LiI is more soluble than KI in ethanol.
(b) Sodium reacts with water less vigorously than potassium.
(c) LiF is insoluble in water.
(d) The mobilities of the alkali metal ions in aqueous solution are Li+ <
Na+ < K+ < Rb+ < Cs+.
(e) Lithium is the only alkali metal to form a nitride directly.
2. Complete the following reaction equations :

(i) BeCl2 + LiAlH4 →
(ii) CaO + SiO2 →
(iii) Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 →
(iv) CaO + P4O10 →
(v) Ca(OH)2 + CO2 →
3. Compare the solubility and thermal stability of the following :
Compounds of the alkali metals with those of alkaline earth metals

(a) nitrates (b) carbonates (c) sulphates.
4. Explain the significance of Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg)
and Calcium(Ca) in biological fluids.

 Electronic configuration : ns2np1.
 Oxidation states : B and Al show an oxidation state of + 3 only while
Gallium, Indium and Thallium show oxidation states of both + 1 and + 3.
Further due to inert pair effect, as we more down the group, the stability
of + 3 oxidation state decreases while that of +1 oxidation state increases.
 Inert pair effect : It is the reductance of the s-electrons of the valence
shell to take part in bnding. It arises due to poor or ineffective shielding
of the ns2 electrons of the valence shell by the intervening d or f electrons.
Inert pair effect increase down a group and thus the elements present in
the lower part of the group show lower oxidation states which is two units
less than the highest group oxidation state.
 Halides : All the elements of group 13 (except Tl) forms trihalides of
general formula MX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I).
Boron trihalides exist as only monomers, whereas aluminium trihalides
exist as dimers.
 Nature of Trihalides : The trihalides of group 13 elements have only six
electrons in the valence shell and have a strong tendency to accept a pair
of electrons to acquire the nearest inert gas configuration. So trihalides of
group 13 elements behave as Lewis acids.
 Borax : It is Na2B4O7.10H2O.
 Orthoboric acid (H3BO3) : It is weak monobasic acid.
 Diborane (B2H6) : It is dimer of BH3.
The p-Block Elements 105

 Electronic configuration : ns2 np2
 Oxidation states : Group 14 elements shows + 2 and + 4 oxide state. As
we move down the group stability of + 4 oxidation state decreases while
of + 2 oxidation state increases.
 Catenation : The property of self linking of atoms of an element through
covalent bonds to form straight or branched chains and rings of different
size is called catenation. Among group 14 elements carbon shows
maximum tendency for catenation. As we move down the group tendency
to show catenation property decreases.
 Formation of halides : (i) Tetrahalides : All the elements of group 14
from tetrahalides of the general formula MX4 where X = F, Cl, Br or I. All
these tetrahalides are covalent compounds and have tetrahedral structure.
The stability of these tetrahalides decreases as we move from C to Pb i.e.,
CX4 > SiX4 > GeX4 > SnX4 > PbX4
(ii) Dihalides : All the elements of group 14 dihalides of the formula MX2
where X = F, Cl, Br or I. The stability of these dihalides increases as we
moved down the group from C to Pb. Dihalides are generally ionic in
nature and behave as reducing agents. The reducing character decreases
in the order GeCl2 > SnCl2 > PbCl2.
 Formation of oxides : All the elements of this group form two types of
oxides (i) monoxides, (ii) dioxide.
(i) Monoxides : All the elements of group 14 form monoxides of the general
formul MO i.e., C, SiO, Geo, SnO and PbO. These oxides except SiO and
GeO are quite stable. CO is neutral while SnO and GeO are amphoteric.
(ii) Dioxides : All these elements from dioxides of the general formula
MO2. All these dioxides can be prepared by heating the elements in oxygen
except lead which forms lead monoxide. CO2 is a monomeric, linear
molecule and hence exists as a gas while the dioxides of all other elements
are crystalline solid with high melting points due to the formation of three
dimensional network of bonds.
 pπ-pπ and pπ-dπ multiple bonding : Amongst group 14 elements carbon
shows a pronounced ability to form pπ-pπ multiple bonds with itself (e.g.,
in graphite) and with other elements especially nitrogen and oxygen.
Silicon and other heavier elements of this group show negligible tendency
of this type.
pπ-dπ multiple bonding has been observed particularly in case of silicon
linked to oxygen and nitrogen. Thus trimethylamine N(CH3)3 is pyramidal

(N is sp3 hybridised) and is more basic whereas silicon compound
trisilylamine N(SiH3)3 is planar (N is sp2 hybridised) and is less basic.
In this case, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atom is transferred to
empty d-orbital of silicon pπ-dπ overlapping leading to planar structure.
 Diamond : In it C is sp3 hybridised.
 Graphite : In it C is sp2 hybridised.
 Fullerenes : In it C is sp2 hybridised.
 Carbon monoxide : 2C + O2 2CO. It is highly poisonous.
 Carbon dioxide : C + O2 CO2. It causes green house effect.

 Silicones : Silicones are synthetic organosilicon compounds containing
repeated unit R2SiO held by Si-O-Si linkages.
Silicones are water repellent, heat resistant, chemically inert, resistant to
oxidation and attack by organic acids and are good electrical insulators.
1 - Mark Questions
1. Mention two important ores of Boron.
2. Name the elements of group 13 which forms only covalent compounds.
3. Why the atomic radius of gallium is less than that of Al ?
4. Why does Boron forms electron deficient compounds ?
5. Boron does not exist as B3+ ion. Why ?
6. Why the trihalide of group 13 elements fume in moist air ?
7. Aluminium form [AlF6]3– but boron does not form [BF6]3–.
8. Why boric acid is a monobasic acid ?
9. White fumes appear around the bottle of anhydrous AlCl3. Give reason.
[NCERT]
10. AlCl3 exist as dimer while BCl3 exist as monomer, why ?
11. Mention the type of hybridization of Boron in B2H6. [Ans. sp3]
12. Write the formula of inorganic benzene. [Ans. C6H6N6]
13. Why aluminium utensils should not be kept in water overnight.
14. Explain what happens when boric acid is heated.
15. BCl3 exists but BH3 does not. Explain.

16. Why SnCl4 is more covalent than SnCl2 ?
17. Why PbCl4 is good oxidising agent ?
18. What are germanes and plumbanes ?
19. Give one example of zeolite.
20. Mention the type of hybridization of carbon in diamond and graphite.
21. Why CCl4 is insoluble in water but SiCl4 is soluble in water? Explain.
22. Give two uses of silicones.
23. Why graphite is used as lubricant ?
24. Lead (Pb) do not form PbI4. Why ?
25. CO2 is gas while SiO2 is solid at room temperature. Explain why ?
26. Explain why silicon shows a higher covalency than carbon?
27. Out of carbon and silicon which can form multiple bonds and why ?
28. Write the formula of dry ice.
29. Mention the basic building unit of all silicates.
30. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity, but diamond is not. Why ?
2 - Mark Questions
1. Draw the structure of diborane.
(a) Borax is heated strongly.
(b) Boric acid is added to water.
3. Write balanced chemical equations for :
(a) BF3 + LiH —→
(b) B2H6 + NH3 —→
4. Write chemical reactions to justify amphoteric nature of Al.
5. Suggest reason why the B-F bond length in BF3 and BF4– differ.
6. Give reason for the following :
(i) BF3 act as weak Lewis acid.
(ii) Boron cannot show covalency more than four.

7. How can you explain higher stability of BCl3 as compared to TlCl3?
8. Give reason for the following :
(i) Aluminium alloys are used to make air craft body.
(ii) Aluminium wire is used to make transmission cables.
9. Describe the shapes of BF3 and BH4–. Assign the hybridization of boron
in these species.
10. Explain the chemistry of borax bead test.
11. [SiF6]2– is known whereas [SiCl6]2– not. Give reason.

12. Hydrolysis of SiCl4 take place but of CCl4 does not. Why ?
(a) CO2 is gas while SiO2 is solid at room temperature.
(b) Solid CO2 is known as dry ice.
14. Elemental silicon does not form graphite like structure as carbon does.
Give reason.
15. Suggest a reason as to why CO is poisonous?
16. How is excessive content of CO2 responsible for global warming ?
17. What is allotropy ? Name two elements which exhibit allotropy.
18. Write equations for the production of water gas and producer gas from
coke.
19. Define zeolite. Name the zeolite which converts alcohols directly into
gasoline.
 Arrange the hybrides of group 14 elements in increasing order of :
(a) Thermal stability
(b) Reducing power.
3 - Mark Questions
1. Give reasons of the following :
(i) In diborane, two B—H—B bonds are different from common covalent
bonds.
(ii) Aluminium metal shows amphoteric behaviour.
(iii) Quartz is used to develop extremely accurate clocks.

2. A certain salt X gives the following results :
(i) Its aqueous solution is alkaline to litmus.
(ii) It swells up to a glassy material Y on strong heating.
(iii) When conc. H2SO4 is added to a hot solution of X, white crystal of
an acid Z separates out. Write equations for all the above reactions and
identify X, Y and Z.
3. Write balanced equation for :
(i) B2H6 + H2O —→
(ii) Al + NaOH —→
(iii) NaOH + B2H6 —→
4. List two important properties in which boron differs from the rest of the
members of group. Mention the main reasons for the difference.
5. What are electron deficient compounds? Are BCl3 and SiCl4 electron
deficient species ? Explain.
6. Select the member(s) of group 14 that :

(i) Forms the most acidic dioxide.
(ii) Is commonly found in + 2 oxidation state.
(iii) Used as semiconductor.
7. What are allotropes ? Sketch the structure of two allotropes of carbon
namely diamond and graphite.
8. Give suitable reasons for the following :
(a) CO2 turns lime water milky, but if passed for a long time, the solutionl
become clear again.
(b) Graphite is a good conductor of electricity but diamond is insulator.
(c) Lead (IV) chloride is highly unstable towards heat.
9. (i) Write the resonance structure of CO32– and HCO3–.
(ii) Write the name of thermodynamically most suitable form of carbon.

10. (i) Explain why is there a phenomenal decreases in ionisation enthalpy
from carbon to silicon ?
(ii) Write an industrial application of silicones.
5 - Mark Questions
1. When metal X is treated with NaOH, a white precipitate ‘A’ is obtained,

which is soluble in excess of NaOH to give soluble complex (B). Compound
‘A’ is soluble in dilute HCl to form compound ‘C’. The compound ‘A’
when heated strongly gives ‘D’, which is used to extract metal. Identify
X, A, B, C and D. Write suitable equations to support their identities.
2. (i) If B-Cl bond has dipole moment explain why BCl3 molecules has zero
dipole moment.
(ii) A mixture of dil. NaOH and aluminium pieces is used to open drain.
Give reason.
(iii) Aluminium wire is used to make transmission cables. Why ?
3. (i) Identify the compounds X and Y in the following reactions :
(a) Na2B4O7 + 2HCl + 5H2O → 2NaCl + X
(b) X HBO2 Y.
(ii) Write the name of group 13 element which is used to measure high
temperature.
(iii) Why in case of Thallium + 1 oxidation state is more stable than + 3?
4. Compare the general trend in the following properties of the elements of
group 13 and 14 :
(a) Atomic size, (b) Ionisation enthalpy, (c) Metallic character, (d)
Oxidation states, (e) Nature of halides.
5. Name the following :
(a) The crystalline form of silica used in modern radio and T.V. broadcasting
and mobile radio communication.

(b) The oxides of carbon which form a complex with haemoglobin 300
times more faster than oxygen.
(c) The allotrope of carbon which has ‘f HΘ = 0.
(d) A type of polymer is semiorganic in nature.
(e) Two man made silicates.
6. Explain the formation of (i) water gas (ii) producer gas. Give their uses.
What happens when CO2 is passed through limewater? (i) for short duration
(ii) for long duration.

 The branch of chemistry which deals with hydrocarbons and their
derivatives is called organic chemistry.
 Carbon forms large number of organic compound because of its properties
of catention and tetravalency.
 Functional Group : An atom or a group of atoms joined in a specific
manner, which provides certain characteristics chemical properties to the
organic compounds, is called functional group.
 Homologues : A group or series of an organic compound each containing a
characteristics functional group from a homologous series and the members
of the series are called “homologues”.
 Fission of a Covalent Bond :
(a) Homolytic cleavage : In this cleavaage, one of the electrons of the
shared pair in a covalent bond goes with each of the bonded atoms.
• •
Cl • • Cl → C1 + C1
Free Radicals
(b) Heterolytic cleavage : In heterolytic cleavage the bond breaks in

such a fashion that the shared pair of electrons remains with one of
the fragment.
Ions
 Electron displacement effects in covalent bonds.

Inductive effect (I) : Polarisation of a bond caused by the polarisation of
adjacent bond is referred to as the inductive effect.

+ Inductive effect (+ I)
Two types of inductive effect
– Inductive effect (– I)
 It is a permanent effect and decrease with the increase in distance.

– I effect : —NO2 > —F > —Cl > —Br > —I > —OCH3 > – C6H5
+ I effect : —C(CH3)3 > — CH(CH3)2 > —C2H5 > —CH3
 Electromeric effect : The complete transfer of the shared pair of π
electrons of a multiple bound to one of the atoms in the presence of the
attacking reagent is called electromeric effect.
 If the transference of e– towards attacking reagent + E effect.
 If the transference of e– takes place away from attacking reagent – E effect.
 Resonance effect (+ R effect) : The polarity produced in the molecule

by the interaction of two π-bond and lone pair of electrons present on an
adjacent atom.
 Hyperconjugation : It is special kind of resonance in which delocalisation

of e– takes place through overlap between σ-bond orbital and π-orbital.
It is also called no bond resonance.

sp3–s
 IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds : Following rules are

used to write the IUPAC name of an organic compound.
Rule 1.
 Longest chain rule : The chain containing the principal functional group,
secondary functional group and multiple bonds as many as possible is the
longest possible chain.
In the absence of functional group, secondary group and multiple bonds,
the chain containing the maximum number of C-atoms will be the longest
possible chain e.g.,
Longest chain
9 Carbon atoms
Ch3 — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 CH—CH2—CH2—CH2—COOH
| | |
4 C-atom COOH 6 C-atom
C—C—C—C—C—C—C
|
C
C C Longest chain
Choose the word root from the table given below for the longest possible
chain.
Word Root for Carbon Chain
Chain length Word root Chain length Word root
C1 Meth- C7 Hept
C2 Eth- C8 Oct
C3 Prop- C9 Non
C4 But- C10 Dec
C5 Pent- C11 Undec
C6 Hex- C12 Dodec

Rule 2
 Lowest number rule : Numbering is done in such a way so that :
(1) branching if present gets the lowest number.
(2) the sum of numbers of side chain is lowest.
(3) principal functional group gets the lowest number.
Select the principal functional group from the preference series :
—COOH > —SO3H > —COOR > —COX > —CONH2 > —CN > —NC
> —CHO > C = O > —OH > —SH > —NH2 > —OR > = > ≡
Functional group other than the principal functional group are called
substituents.
Rule 3
 Naming the prefixes and suffixes : Prefix represents the substituent and
suffix is used for principal functional group.
Primary prefixes are cyclo, bicyclo, di, tri, tetra, tetrakis etc.
Secondary prefixes are tabulated below :
Substituent Prefix Substituent Prefix
—F Fluoro —N=N— diazo
—Cl Chloro —N=O nitroso
—Br Bromo —NO2 nitro
Primary suffix are ene, ane or yne used for double, single and triple bonds
respectively.
Secondary suffixes are tabulated below :
S.No. Class Formula Prefix Suffix
1. Acid halides halocarbonyl —oyl halide

2. Alcohols —OH hydroxy —ol
3. Aldehydes —CHO formyl —al
—carbaldehyde
4. Ketones C=O oxo —one
5. Amides —CONH2 carbamoyl —amide

6. Amine —NH2 amino —amine
7. Carboxylic acid —COOH carboxy —carboxylic acid
8. Ester —COOR alkoxy carbonyl —alkyl alkanoate
9. Nitriles —CN cyano —nitrile
10. Sulphonic acid —SO2—OH sulpho —sulphonic acid
Here according to the rules, given above, the IUPAC name of a compound
can be written as ⇒ Prefixes + Word root + Suffixes.
 Primary prefix + secondary prefix + Word root + primary suffix +
secondary suffix
4 3 2 1
for e.g., CH3 CH — CH2 CHO ← Principal functional group
| (—al)
OH — substituent (hydroxy)
3 — Hydroxybutanal
↑ ↑ ↑
prefix word suffix
root
 If more than two similar functional groups are present, all the groups are
considered as substituent, for e.g.,
3 3 1
CH2 — CH — CH2
| | |
CN CN CN
Propane-1, 2, 3-tricarbonitrile
 Naming of Aromatic compounds : IUPAC accepted their common trivial
names e.g.,

 Purification and Characterization of Organic Compounds :
(1) Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen : Lassiagne’s extract is heated with
FeSO4 solution in presence of alkali, the solution is cooled and acidified
with dil. H2SO4. If a green or blue colouration is obtained, it confirms the
presence of N in the organic compound. The chemistry of the test is :
Na + C + N ——→ NaCN
From organic compound
2NaCN + FeSO4 → Fe[CN]2 + Na2SO4; Fe[CN]2 + 4NaCN → Na4[Fe(CN)6]
Sodium ferrocyanide
3Na4[Fe(CN)6] + 4Fe3+ Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3.xH2O + 12Na+

Ferric ferrocyanide (Prussian Blue)
This test is very delicate and is given by all compounds containing C
and N. NH2NH2, NaNO3 etc. do not respond to this test since they do not
contain carbon.
Formation of blood red colour indicates the presence of both N and S.
Na + C + N + S NaSCN
From organic compound Sodium thiocyanate or Sodium sulphocyanide
Fe3+ + → [Fe(SCN)]2+ + Na+

Ferric thiocyanate (blood red colour)
 Detection of sulphur : If S is present, during fusion with Na metal, Na2S
is formed which may be tested as follows :
(i) With sodium nitroprusside violet colouration is produced :
Na2S + Na2 [Fe(CN)5(NO)] → Na4[Fe(CN)5(NOS)]
Sodium nitroprusside (Violet colour)
(ii) With lead acetate, black ppt. of PbS is formed.
Na2S + (CH3COO)2 Pb → PbS + 2CH3COONa
 Detection of halogens :
(a) Lassaigne’s test : When the organic compounds is fused with Na
metal, the halogens combine with Na to form sodium halides.
The presence of these halides is tested with AgNO3 solution.
(i) A white ppt. soluble in NH4OH indictes chlorine.
(ii) A pale yellow ppt. partially soluble in ammonia indicates bromine.

(iii) A yellow ppt. insoluble in ammonia indicates iodine.
If the organic compound also contain N or S, the sodium extract is first
boiled with dil. HNO3 to decompose any cyanides or sulphides, otherwise
these will form ppt. with AgNO3 solution.
 Detection of phosphorus : Phosphorus is detected by fusing the organic
compound with sodium peroxide, in which phosphorus is converted into
sodium phosphate.
The fused mass is extracted with H2O and then boiled with conc. HNO3
and then ammonium molybdate is added. Appearance of yellow ppt. or
yellow colouration due to the formation of ammonium phosphomolybdate
indicates the presence of phosphorus.
 Estimation of carbon and hydrogen : Liebig’s method : A known mass
of the organic compound is heated strongly with excess of dry copper oxide
in a current of dry air or oxygen (free from CO2) when carbon present in
the organic compound is oxidised to CO2 and hydrogen to H2O.
C + 2CuO CO2 + 2Cu; 2H + CuO H2O + Cu
Percentage of carbon =
Percentage of Hydrogen =
 Estimation of nitrogen :
(a) Dumas method :
C + 2CuO CO2 + 2Cu; 2H + CuO H2O + Cu

N + CuO —→ N2 + Small amounts of oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of nitrogen + Cu CuO + N2
Percentage of nitrogen =
(b) Kjeldahl’s method :
Organic compound + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 Na2SO4

+ 2NH3 + 2H2O
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

Percentage of nitrogen :
 Estimation of halogens : (Carius method) :
Percentage of chlorine =
143.5
Percentage of bromine =
Percentage of iodine =
 Percentage of sulphur =
 Estimation of phosphorus : A known mass of the organic compound

is heated with fuming HNO3 in a Carius tube when phosphorus of the
organic compound is oxidized to H3PO4. Phosphoric acid thus formed
is precipitated as magnesium ammonium phosphate by adding magnesia
mixture (a solution containing MgCl2, NH4Cl and NH4OH.)
Percentage of phosphorus :
 Estimation of oxygen : A definite mass of an organic compound is

decomposed by heating with N2 gas. The mixture is then passed over red
hot coke when all oxygen is converted to CO. This mixture is then passed
through I2O5 when CO is oxidised to CO2 producing iodine. The % of
oxygen can be derived from the amount of CO2 or I2 produced.
Percentage of oxygen :
Method of Purification of organic compounds :

 Crystallisation : Process of solidification of a pure substance from its
dissolved state. This method is based upon differences in their solubility
in a given solvent or in mixture of solvents.

 Sublimation : It is a process of conversion of a solid into gaseous state
on heating without interchanging into liquid. The process is used for the
separation of volatile solids, which sublime on heating from the non-
volatile solids.
 Distillation : It is a process of conversion of a liquid into vapours by

heating followed by condensation of vapours. The method is used for the
purification of liquids which boil without decomposition and are present
with non-volatile impurities.
 Fractional distillation : Process used to separate mixture of two or
more miscible liquids having different boiling points. It is mainly used in
distillation of petroleum, coaltar and crude alcohol.
 Distillation under reduced pressure : This process is used when the
liquid has a tendency to decompose near its boiling point. Under reduced
pressure, the liquid will boil at a low temperature without decomposing.
 Steam distillation : Purification of a substance from non-volatile
impurities provided the substance itself is volatile in steam and insoluble
in water.
 Chromatography : Technique of separating the consitituents of a
mixture by the differential movement of individual components through
the stationary phase under the influence of mobile phase. Two types of
chromatography.
Chromatography
Adsorption Chromatography Partition Chromatography
Column Thin layer (TLC) Paper chromatography

Organic Compounds
Open chain or acyclic Closed chain

or aliphatic compounds or cyclic
e.g., alkane, alkene etc. compounds
Homocyclic Heterocyolic
: :
: :
O N S
H
Alicyclic Aromatic
e.g.,
cyclopropane cyclobutane cyclohexane
Benzenoid Non-benzenoid
e.g., O
HO
e.g.,
Benzene Naphthalene
Tropolone
1 - Mark Questions
1. Identify the most electronegative element in CH2FCl.
2. Write the hybrid orbitals used by 'C' in ethene .
3. Identifiy the tertiary (3°) and quarternary (4°) carbon in
4. How many σ and π bonds are there in
5. What is the functional group of (i) an aldehyde (ii) a nitro compound ?

2 - Mark Questions
6. How many σ and π bonds are present in each of the following
molecules ?
(a) HC ≡ CCH = CHCH3 (b) CH2 = C = CH—CH2CH3
[Ans. (a) σ = 10, π = 3 (b) σ = 12, π = 2]
7. Mention the hybridisation of C* and shape of the compound.
(a) H2C* = O (b) CH3—C* ≡ N
8. Which bond in more polar in the following pair of molecules :
(a) CH3—H or CH3—Br (b) CH3—NH3 or CH3—OH
9. Draw formula of first four members of homologeous series begining with
the compound CH2 = CH2.
10. (a) Why does carbon exhibit catenation to maximum extent ?
(b) Give hybridization of each carbon in following compound
CH2=CH—CN.
Nomenclature
1 - Mark Questions
1. Write the IUPAC name of
(a)
(b)
2. Draw structure of 3-isopropyl-2-methylhexane.

3. Write the structure of compound that contains both 1° and 2° alcohol.
4. Give IUPAC name of following :
(a)

(b)
5. Give IUPAC name of following bond-line formulae :
(a) (b)
2 - Mark Questions
6. Write the correct order of priority of the following functional groups :
—C≡N, , —OH,
7. Write the structural formula of :
(i) O-Ethylanisole (b) 4-ethyl-1-fluoro-2-nitrobenzene
8. Identify the functional groups in :
(a) (b)
9. Give IUPAC name of following :

(a) CH3 — (CH2)3 — CH — CH (CH3) — CH (CH3)2
|
CH2 — CH2 — CH (CH3)2
(b)
10. Give condensed and bond-line structural formulae and identify the
functional group(s) present, if any for :
(a) Cyclo octa-1, 5-dine
(b) 2(4-isobutylphenyl) propanoic acid

3 - Mark Questions
11. Draw the structure of :
(a) Pent-3-enoic acid
(b) 4-Methylpentanone
(c) 4-Ethyl-3-fluorophenol.
12. Write the IUPAC name of the following compound :
Isomerism
1 - Mark Questions
1. Write functional isomer of molecular formula C3H6O.
2. Write tautomeric form of following structures :
(a) (b)
3. Identify the chiral carbon in the given compound CH3—CHOH—CH2—

CH3.
2 - Mark Questions
4. What is the relationship between the members of the following pairs of
structures ?
5. Write all the possible isomers of the aromatic compound C8H10.

Concepts in Reaction Mechanism
1 - Mark Questions
1. Identify electrophilic centre in CH3CHO.
2. Identify nucleophilic centre in CH3Br.

3. Arrange the following in decreasing order of stability :

4. Which species can act as an acid and why ?
CH3—O– or CH3—OH
5. What types of attacking reagents are produced by heterolytic cleavage of
bonds ?
6. Out of CH3COOH and NO2CH2COOH which is more acidic in nature
and why ?
7. Identify the most stable carbocation among the following :

8. Identify the weakest nucleophile among the following :
– − –
N H 2 ,CH 3 — N — CH 3 ,CH 3 — N H

9. Select the nucleophile and electrophile in the following :
10. Give reason (CH3)3C+ is more stable than

2 - Mark Questions
11. Mark the electrophillic centre in the following molecules :
CH3CN, CH3I, CH3CHO, CH3CH2OH
12. Benzyllic free radical is more stable than allylic free radical. Explain with
resonance.
13. Classify each of the following carbon intermediates :
(a) (CH3)3C· (b)
(c) (d)
14. Classify whether the following reaction is rearrangement addition, or
elimination ?

15. Write the product of following reaction.
(1)
(2) CH3CH2CH2CH3
3 - Mark Questions
16. Write structure of various carbocation that can be obtained from
2-methylbutane. Arrange thee carbocation in order of increasing stability.
17. Classify the reaction type as elimination, rearrangement addition and
substitution.
(a)
(b)
(c) CH3—CH(Br)—CH(CH3)2
18. Follow the flow of electrons indicated by the curved arrows and predict
the products :
(a)
(b)
(c)

19. Name the electrophile/nucleophile generated by following species :
(a) HNO3 + H2SO4 (b) CH3COCl
(c) alc. KCN
20. Identify the nucleophiles, electrophiles and free radicals amongst the
following :
Cl+, BF3, (CH3)3N, ,

21. Which is more stable and why ?
(a) (b)
(c)
5 Mark Questions
(a) Arrange the following according to given property :

(dereasing order of stablity)
– – – –
(b) HC ≡ C, CH 2 =
C H, CH 3 – C H 2 , C H 3 (increasing order of stability)
(c)
(increasing order of stability)
(d)
(dereasing order of stablity)
(e) (decreasing order of

stablity)
Electronic Displacement in Covalent Bond

1-Mark Questions
1. Name the kind of effect that operates to explain the stability of carbocations.
2. Why inductive effect is also called transmission effect ?

3. Which permanent effect of organic compound is also known as ‘No bond
resonance effect’ ?
4. Which is correct and why ?
5. Write resonating structure of the following and show the movement of

electron by curved arrows :
(a) CH3—COO– (b) CH2 = CH—Cl
2 Mark Questions
6. Draw the resonating structure of :
(a) (b)
7. Write resonance structure of :
(a) C6H5NH2 (b) C6H5NO2
8. Explain why alkyl groups acts as e– donar when attached to a π-system.
9. Resonance structures of propenal are given below. Which of these
resonating structure is more stable ? Give reason.
CH2 = CH—CH = O
(I) (II)
10. Explain the following terms :
(a) Electromeric effect (b) Hyperconjugation
11. (a) Explain + I and – I effect.
(b) Select the group giving + I effect and – I effect from the following
list :
(i) —NO2 (ii) —CN (iii) Cl– (d) CH3–
12. Explain the importance of inductive effect in determination of acidic or
basic strength of substances.
13. Write resonance structure of CH2= CH—CHO. Indicate relative stability
of the contributing structures.
5-Mark Questions
(a) Give reason for the following :
(a) Chlorobenzene is o– and p– directing towards the electrophillic
substitution reaction.
(b) Inductive effect decrease with the increase in distance.
(c) Hyperconjugation effect is extended form of resonance effect.

(b) Arrange the following according to given property :
(a) —NO2, —COOH, —F, —CN, —I (increasing order of – I effect)
(b) CH3—, (CH3)2C—, (CH3)2CH—, CH3CH2—
(decreasing order of + I effect)
1 - Mark Questions
1. What conditions must be satisfied by a suitable solvent in the crystallization

method ?
2. Which technique can be used for purification of iodine that contains traces
of NaCl ?
3. When do we use hot water funnel for filteration ?
[Hint : When organic substance crystallises during filtration.]

4. A liquid (10 mL) has three components A, B, C. Which technique is most
suitable to separate A, B, C from such a small amount of mixture ?
5. A substance has boiling point 355 K, but it starts decomposing near this
temp. Which type of distillation process is suitable for its purification ?
6. Name the adsorbent used in column chromatography.
7. Which technique can be used to seperate napthlene from kerosene oil

present in its mixture ?
8. A mixture contains nitrobenzene and benzoic acid. How can this mixture be
separated into its constituents by technique of extraction using appropriate
chemical reagent ?
[Hint : By using hot water as solvent and adopting differential extraction.]
2 - Mark Questions
9. Name a suitable technique of separation of the components from a mixture
of :
(a) Water and aniline.
(b) Methanol and Propanone.

2-Mark Questions
1. A student was given the compound C6H4(NH2)SO3H for elemental
analysis, while performing Lassaigne’s test for N, what colour will he get
and why ?
2. Why diazonium salts do not show sodalime test for nitrogen ?
[Hint : Because salts do not liberate NH3 gas under there conditions.]
3. What is the function of fusing the organic compound with sodium
metal ?
4. If silver nitrate solution is added to chlorobenzene, will there be formation
of white ppt.
5. Name the oxidising agent used in the combustion tube along with the
organic compound. [Ans. CuO]
6. Why is it necessary to boil Lassaigne’s extract with HNO3 before testing
it for halogens ?
7. 0.25 g of an organic compound containing C, H and O was analysed by
the combustion method. The increase in the man of calcium chloride tube
and the potash bulbs at the end of the operation was found to be 0.15 g
and 0.1837 g respectively. Calculate the percentage composition of the
compound.
8. Will CCl4 give white precipitate of AgCl on heating it will silver nitrate
? Give reason.
9. For which type of compounds Kjeldahl’s method is not applicable ?
10. 0.90 of an organic compound on combustion 2.64 g of CO2 and 0.63 g of
H2O. Calculate the percentage of C and H in the compound.
3-Mark Questions
11. What will happens if a student acidifies the Lassaigne's extract with dil.
H2SO4 in place of dilute HNO3. Write the reaction involved.
12. (a) In DNA and RNA, nitrogen atom is present in the ring system. Can
Kjeldahl’s method is used for the estimation of N-present in these. Give
reasons.
(b) Why is it necessary to use ethanoic acid and not sulphuric acid for
acidification of sodium extract for testing sulphur by lead acetate test ?
13. 0.2325 g of an organic compound was analysed for nitrogen by Duma’s

method. 0.0317 L of moist nitrogen was collected at 25°C and 755.8 mm
pressure calculate the percentate of nitrogen.
[Ans. Aq. tension of water at 25°C is 23.8 mm Hg]
5-Mark Questions
14. (a) Out of the different gases formed in Duma’s method, which gas is not
observed over an aqueous solution of KOH.
(b) What is the function of adding small amount of K2SO4 and a little
amount of Hg or CuSO4 is Kjeldahl's flask ?
(c) Explain why a solution of KOH used to absorb CO2 evolved during
the estimation of carbon in an organic compound.
(d) An organic compound contain diazo group (—N=N—) or nitro
group or ‘N’ in the ring. Name the method used to estimate nitrogen
in the compound.
(e) In victor Meyer’s method, what is the gas collected in the gas jar ?
[Hint : Oxygen gas]
15. (a) 0.4 g of the compound was Kjeldahl’s and ammonia evolved was
absorbed into 50 ml of H2SO4 solution. The residual acid solution

was diluted with distilled water and the volume was made upto 150 ml.
20 ml of this diluted solution required 31 ml of NaOH solution for

complete neutratization. Calculate the % of N is compound.[Ans. 46.8%]
(b) Write the formula for the prursian blue colour obtained during
Lassaigne’s test for nitrogen.
(c) Give test to detect the presence of sulphur in compound.

Hydrocarbons
 Preparation of Alkanes :
(1) From unsaturated hydrocarbons :
Ni/Pt/Pd
C= C + H2 C C
Hetrolysis
H
+
H
-
H H
Ni/Pt/Pd H2 in Ni/Pt/Pd
C C + H2 C=C C C
Hetrolysis + -
H H
H
+
H
- H H
Dry
(2) Wurtz reaction  Alkyl Halide + Na → Higher alkane 
 ether 
R–X + 2Na + X–R R–R + 2 NaX

(3) Decarboxylation :

[Sodium salt of carboxylic acid + NaOH + CaO → Alkane [nc = 1 less]
CaO→ ?
R–CH 2 COONa + + NaOH 
∆
Hydrocarbons 133

Kolbe’s Electrolysis :

Current Higher alkane 
 Potassium salt of carboxylic acid (aq) →



Chemical Properties of Alkanes :



(1) Halogenation : One (H) atom is replaced by halogen at a time.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) CH3Cl + CH2Cl2 + CHCl3 + CCl4
(2) Aromatisation : n-Hexane or
 Preparation of alkenes :

(1) From alkynes [Alkyne + H2 —→ Alkene]
trans alkene
(2) From alkyl halide by (dehydrohalognation)

Carbon attached with halogen is α-carbons
Carbon attached with α-carbons is β-carbons
Halogen is removed and ‘H’-atom is removed from β-carbon to form
(C = C) double bond.
(3) By dehydration of alcohols (Loss of water molecule)

Carbon attached to alcohoic group is α-carbon.

Carbon attached to α-carbon is β-carbon.
(4) From vicinal dihalides [Compounds in which halogen atom are attached
with adjacent carbons]
Chemical Properties of Alkenes :

(1) Addition of Halogens :
(2) Addition of H—X :

(A) Markownikov’s rule (M.R.) : During electrophillic addition of
hydrogen halide, the electron deficient electrophile (E+) always attack
Hydrocarbons 135

on that doubly/triply bounded carbon atom. which already has greater
number of hydrogen atoms.
M.R.
CH3 CH = CH2 + H Br CH3 CH CH2
+ - Br H
H Br

(B) Peroxide/Kharasch effect (Anti M.Rule) : This effect takes place in
presence of peroxides when the hydrogen free radical attacks on that
doubly bonded carbon which has lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
CH3 Benzoyl
peroxide
CH3 CH = CH2 + H Br CH3 CH CH2 + CH3COOH
(C6H5CO)2O
H Br
H Br

(C) Ozonolysis
In this reaction all those carbons which form double bonds get finally
converted into carbonyl carbons.
If alkenes are symmetrical then both carbonyl compounds are same.
If more than two double bonds are present then we get atleast one compound
which has two carbonyl groups at the end. Such bifunctional compounds
are formed from that part of alkene which is in between the double bonds.
For cyclic alkenes :
(D) With potassium paramagnate :

(i) Cold dilute alkaline KMnO4 = Bayer’s reagent.
OH OH
C C = C C + cold dil Alk. KMno4 C C C C

[ Alkene + cold dil. KMnO
4 → Diol]
Bayer’s test for the presence of (C = C) bond
Compound + cold dil. alk. KMnO4 —→ Purple colour decolourised
∴ Compound is alkene.

(ii) Hot KMnO4
Case (1) :
= CO2 + H2O
Case (2) : =
Case (3) : =
+ hot KMnO4
Alkynes
Preparation :
(1) CaC2 + 2H2O —→ Ca(OH)2 + HC ≡ CH
Calcium carbide Acetylene
(2) From vicinal dihalides
Chemical properties :


(1) Hydration [Addition of water]
Hydrocarbons 137

(2) Addition of Halogen molecule : [Alkyne + 2X2 —→ Tetra halides]
(3) Ozonolysis : [Alkyne +O3 —→ Dicarbonyl compound]

(4) 3HC ≡ CH
Benzene
Preparation :

(1)
(2)
(3)
Chemical proprtics
(1) Nitration :
(2) Halogenation :

(3) Friedal-Craft Alkylation :
(4) Friedal-Craft Acylation :
Huckel’s Rule :
Conditions : (i) Compound must be planar.
(ii) Complete delocalisation of πe–

(iii) Presence of (4n + 2) πe–.(n = 1, 2, 3, ....)
Derivatives of Benzenes :

(o) (o)
meta

Ortho/Para directors : Group which direct the incoming electrophile to
attach at ortho/para positions.
Meta directors : Groups which direct the incoming electrophile to attack
at meta position.
Hydrocarbons 139

Hydrocarbons
1-Mark Questions
1. Give IUPAC name of
2. Five the IUPAC name of
3. Give the standard formula of 5-sec-butyl, 4-isopropyldecane.

4. Give the standard formula of 4-tert-butyl – 4-ethyl-2, 2, 5, 5-tetramethyl
hexane.
5. How we can obtain isobutane from n-butane?
6. n-Hexane
2-Mark Questions
7. Out of 2-methylpentane and 2, 3-dimethylpentane which has greater boiling
point and Why ?
8. Give the structure of alkyl halide which when treated with sodium metal in
presence of ether gives (CH3)2CH.CH(CH3)2.
9. Complete :
(i) (ii)
10. Explain :
(i) Staggered form of ethane is more stable than eclipsed form.
(ii)Wurtz reaction is carried out in dry ether.

Alkenes
1-Mark Questions
11. Give IUPAC name of
12. Give hybridisation of central carbon in allene (CH2=C=CH2)

13. Name the effect which decide the stability of alkenes.
14. Complete the reaction : CH3—CH=CH2 + HCl
15. Which gas is produced during addition of HBr in alkenes in presence of
peroxides ?
16. Name the reagent to convert CH3—C≡C—CH3 —→
2-Mark Questions
17. Arrange the alkenes in decreasing order of stability.
CH3—CH = CH(CH3), CH2 = CH2, CH3—CH = CH2
18. Complete the reaction CH2 = CH — C = CH2 + O3
|
CH3
20.
21. Name the alkene which will yield a mixture of cyclopentanone and propanal
on treatment with O3 followed by reduction with Zn.
22. An alkene on treatment with H—Br in presence of peroxide can generate
two types of free radicals and

Predict the final product.
23. Explain :
(i) Melting point of cis-2-Butene is lower than that of trans-2-Butene.
(ii) Kharasch/peroxide effect is spontaneous with HBr only.
Hydrocarbons 141

3 Mark Questions
(i) (CH3)2C = CH—CH3 + hot KMnO4 —→
(ii) (CH3)2C = CH.CH3 + cold dil. KMnO4 —→
Organic Peroxide
(iii) (CH3)2C = CH.CH3 + HBr
25. Indicate the reagents used to form the following products :
(i) (ii)
(iii)
26. (i) Convert: iso-propylbromide —→ n-propyl bromide.

(ii) Give IUPAC name of Vinyl chloride.
Alkynes
1 Mark Questions
27. Give IUPAC name of acetylene.
28. Which alkyne would you start with to prepare CH3—CH2—CH2—CO—
CH3 ?
29. Name the reagent used in the following changes :
30. Give the alkyne which produce acetic acid and proponoic acid on treatment
with alkaline KMnO4 at 100°C.
2 Mark Questions
31. Convert : Acetylene → Propylene.
32. Convert : Ethylene → Acetylene.
33. Obtain :
34. Give the product when 1-methylcyclohexane reacts with :

(i) aq. acidic KMnO4 (ii) O3 followed by Zn/CH3COOH.

3 Mark Questions
35. Pent-1-yne (A) (B) (C)
Catalyst
Identity A, B and C compounds and give their reactions.
Benzene
1 Mark Questions
36. Who discovered benzene ?
37. Give reason whether is aromatic or not.
38. Is pyrrole an aromatic compound or not ? Give reason.
39.
40. Give major product only
+ conc. HNO3 + conc. H2SO4 —→ ?

41. Give major product only

2 Mark Questions
42. (i) Convert Acetylene —→ Benzene
(ii)
43. Distinguish chemically butyne and but-2-yne.

44. (i) Planar, cyclic, conjugated compounds with (4n + 2) πe– are knows
as ...... .
(ii) Planar, cyclic, conjugated compounds with (4n) πe– are knows as ...... .
3 Mark Questions
45. Convert: Ethylene —→ Nitrobenzene.
Hydrocarbons 143

46. Give chemical tests to distinguish the following :
(i) Pent-1-yne and pent-2-yne
(ii) Ethylene and Acetylene
(iii) Ethane and Ethylene
(i) CH3COONa + NaOH —→
(ii) iso-butyl bromide + alc. KOH —→
(iii) iso-butyl alcohol + conc. H2SO4
(iv) (CH3)2C = CH.CH3 + HBr
(v) + H2O
(vi) (CH3)2C==CH2 + cold dil. KMnO4 —→

(vii) (CH3)2C==CH.CH3 + hot KMnO4 —→
(viii) (CH3)2C==CH.CH3 + O3
(ix) + 2 alc. KOH —→
(x) CaC2 + H2O —→

(xi) CHCl3 + Ag —→
H → +
(xii) CH3—C≡CH + H2O 
2+ Hg
(xiii) CH3—C≡CH2CH3 + O3
(xiv) CH3C≡CH + alc. KMnO4
(xv) C6H6 + H2
48. Conversions :
(i) Ethane → Ethyne
(ii) Acetylene → But-2-yne
(iii) Propene → Propanol

(iv) Acetic acid → Methane
(v) Acetylene → Acetone (CH3COCH3)
(vi) Acetylene → Cyclohexane
49. A hydrocarbon (X) on treatment with ammonical AgNO3 gave white
precipitate. On treatment with water in dil. H2SO4 and HgSO4, it gave
CH3—CHO. When (X) is treated with 1mol of NaNH2/NH3, along with
n-propyl bromide, gave compound (Y), which on treatment with Lindlar’s
catalyst gave (Z) compound (Z) on treatment with O3 along with Zn gave
HCHO and butanol. Identify X, Y, Z and givel all the reactions.
50. An alkyl halide C5H11Br(A) reacts with alc. KOH to give on alkene (B)
which reacts with Br2 to give compound (C), which on dehydrobromination
gives an alkyne (D). On treatment with sodium metal in liquid ammonia,
one mole of (D) Give one mole of sodium salt of (D) and half mole of H2(g).
Complete hydrogenation of (D) yields a straight chain alkane. Identify A,
B, C and D. Give the reaction involved.
51. The sex attractant pheromme of codling moth has the molecular formula
C13H24O. On catalytic reaction this compound gives 3-Ethyl-7-methyl-1-
decanol having molecular formula C13H28O. On reduction ozonolysis the
pheromme produces 2-pentane, 4-ketohexanal and 2-Hydroxyethanal. On
the basis of these information, Write the structure of this pheromme.
52. 896 ml of a hydrocarbon (A) having 87.80% C and 12.19% H weights 3.28
g at STP. Hydrogenation of (A) gives 2-methylpentane. Also compound (A)
on hydration in presence of H2SO4 and HgSO4 gives Ketone (B) having
molecular formula C6H12O. The ketone (B) gives a positive iodoform test.
Find the structure of (A) give all reactions.
[Hint : (i) 1 mole of a compound at STP contains 22400 mL volume
(ii) Ketones having structures gives positive iodoform test]
53. (a) Compound A{C10H18O} undergo reaction with H2SO4 at 250°C to yield
a mixture of two alkenes {C10H16}. The major alkene product (B) gives
only cyclopentanone after ozone treatment followed by reduction with Zn
in CH3COOH. Identify (A) and (B) give the reactions involved.
(b) Convert PhC≡CH —→ PhC≡C.CH3
(c) Benzene does not give addition reactions under normal conditions.
Hydrocarbons 145

Environmental chemistry deals with the study of the origin, transport,

reactions, effects, fates of chemical species in the environment.
 Environmental pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our
surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings.
 Main regions of atmosphere are (i) trophosphere (ii) Stratosphere
(iii) mesosphere and (iv) ionosphere.
 Pollutants can be (i) gaseous air pollutants (e.g., SO2, NO2, CO2, H2S,
O3 hydrocarbons etc. and (ii) particular pollutants (e.g., dust, mist, fumes,
smoke, smog etc.)
 Gaseous air pollutants : SO2 can cause acute irritation to the membranes
of the eyes resulting in tears and redness. It is also responsible for acid rain.
NO2 is extremely toxic to living tissues, textiles and in the production of
photochemical smog.
 Particulate pollutants : They are of two types :
(i) Visible particulate or viable particulates : There are the minute living
organisms that are disposed in atmosphere. Ex. Bacteria, fungi, moulds etc.
(ii) Non-viable particulates : These are formed either by the breakdown
of larger materials or by the condensation of minute particles and droplets.
For example mists, smoke, fumes and dust.
 Green House Effect is the phenomenon of warming of earth by absorption
and re-emission of solar radiations.
 Green house gases are CO2, CH4, O3 water vapours, chlorofluoro carbons
etc.
 Acid raid : When the pH of the rain water drops below 5.6, it is called acid
rain. It damages monuments and structures made of firm marble, corrode
articles made from metals, destroy plants and trees and it is also harmful
to the aquatic life in lakes and rivers.
 Ozone hole is formed over South Pole due to depletion of ozone layer.
CFCs and NO are responsible for ozone layer deplection.

 Effects of deplection of ozone layer : With the depletion of ozone layer,
more UV radiation filters into troposphere. UV radiations lead to ageing
of skin, cataract, sunburn, skin cancer, killing of many phytoplanktons,
damage to fish productivity etc.
 Smog is derived from smoke and fog.
 Classical smog occurs in cool humid climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog
and sulphur dioxide. It is also called reducing smog.
 Photochemical smog occurs in warm and dry sunny climate. It has high
concentration of oxidizing agents and therefore, it is also called as oxidizing
smog.
 There are three main components of photochemical smog : nitrogen oxides,
ozone and organic derivatives such as acrolein, formaldehyde, peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN). PAN has the highest toxicity to plants attacking younger
leaves and causing ‘bronzing’ and ‘glazing’ of their surface.
 Water Pollution : It is mainly caused by industrial waste which include
heavy metals like Cd, Pb and Hg.
 Eutrophication : The process is which nutrient enriched water bodies
support a dense plant population, which kills animal life by depriving
it of oxygen and result in subsequent loss of biodiversity is known as
Eutrophication.
 BOD : The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the
organic matter present in a certain volume of a sample of water, is called
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD).
 Land Pollution : It is caused by pesticides. Most pesticides can be divided
into three categories—Insecticides, Herbicides and fungicides.
 The environmental pollution can be controlled :
(a) By recycling of household and industrial wastes.
(b) By sewage treatment.
(c) Incineration converts organic material to CO2 and H2O.
 Green Chemistry is a way of thinking and is about utilizing the existing
knowledge and principles of chemistry and other science to reduce the
adverse impact on environment.
 Green Chemistry in Day to Day life :
(1) Dry cleaning of clothes by using liquified CO2 along with detergent
instead of tetrachloroethene.
(2) Bleaching of paper and clothes by using H2O2 a better bleaching agent
as compared to Cl2.
Environmental Chemistry 147

Environmental chemistry
1-Mark Questions
1. Define environmetntal pollution.
2. Name three toxic metals that can pollute the enviroment.
3. Name the four non-viable particulates present in atmosphere.
4. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of ozone in atmosphere.
5. What is the name of the compound formed when CO combines with blood ?
6. Which gas caused Bhopal Gas Tragedy ? Give its formula.
7. What is the meaning of the term eutrophication with regard to water
pollution ?
8. Every year some people die by being in a room containing a faulty heater
that uses coal, gas or oil. How might the death occur ?
9. Mention two ways to reduce air pollution caused by automobiles.
10. How fluoride in tooth paste protects teeth against decay ?
[Hint : By converting hydroxyapatite (enamel on the surface of the teeth)
into much harder fluorpatite]
11. What do you mean by Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ?
12. Greenhouse effect leads to global warming. Which substances are responsible
for greenhouse effect ? What does CFC stands for ?
13. What does CFC stands for ?
14. Which out of CO2 and CO is more toxic and why ?
15. Name the various components into which atmosphere can be divided.
2-Mark Questions
1. Write the adverse effect of excessive use of (i) fertilizers, and (ii) pesticides
in the soil.
2. Write down the reactions involved during the formation of photochemical
smog.
3. Why does rain water normally have a pH of about 5.6 ? When does it become
acid rain ? Why is acid rain considered as a threat to Taj Mahal ?
4. What are biodegradable and non-biodegradable pollutants ?
5. Explain giving reasons “The presence of CO reduce the amount of
haemoglobin available in the blood for carrying oxygen to body cells.”
6. What should be the tolerable limit of fluoride ions in drinking water ? What
happens if it is higher than 10 ppm ?
7. Name four methods for waste management.
8. “Oxygen plays a key role in the troposhere while ozone in the stratosphere.”
Explain.

9. Write the effect of the folowing gases on human being : SO2, NO2, CO,
CO2.
10. What are viable and non-viable particulates ?
11. How does SO2 cause pollution ? Give steps to control it.
12. A person started using underground water after facing acute shortage
in municipality water supply. He felt taxative effect. What could be the
cause ?
3-Mark Questions
1. What do you understand by Ozone hole ? What are its consequences ?
2. What do you mean by green chemistry ? How will it help decrease
environmental pollution ?
3. How can domestic waste be used as manure ?
4. What is the composition of photochemical smog and classical smog ? How
do the two differ in their behaviour ?
5. A large no. of fish are suddenly found floating dead on a lake. There is no
evidence of toxic dumping but you find an abundance of phytoplankton.
Suggest a reason for the fish kill.
6. Do as directed :
(i) Name two important sinks of CO2.
(ii) What is marine pollution ?
(iii) What is humification ?
[Hint : Production of humus by micro-organism in soil]
7. In view of green chemistry name the following :
(i) A chemical which can be used in place of CFC as blowing agent.
(ii) A chemical which can replace chlorine containing bleaching in paper
industry.
8. Write the causes of depletion of ozone in the stratosphere. Write reactions
also.
9. What are the harmful effects of small size particulate matters ?
10. How oxides of nitrogen are generated ? What are the harmful effects of
oxides of nitrogen ?
5-Mark Questions
1. What do you understand by greenhouse effect ? What are the major
greenhouse gases ? Why does green house effect leads to global warming
? What could be the consequences of globa warming ?
2. Discuss the importance of dissolved oxygen in water. What processes are
generally responsible for the deoxygenation of the water ?
Environmental Chemistry 149

3. How is photochemical smog formed ? What are harmful effects of
photochemical smog ? Give some control measures to reduce photochemical
smog ?
4. What is soil pollutoin ? Mention four ways of controlling soil pollution.
5. Explain the following terms :
(a) Green house effect
(b) Green chemistry
(c) Ozone layer depletion
(d) Global warming
(e) Eutrophication
6. (a) Discuss the effects if green house gases were totally missing in earth’s
atmosphere.
(b) Chlorine radicals play an important role in ozone layer depletion. Write
chemical reactions in support of the statement.

Practice Paper-1
Class : XI—Chemistry (Theory)
Time Allowed : 3Hrs M.M. : 70
General Instructions :
(a) All questions are compulsory.
(b) Q. No. 1 to 5 are very short answer type questions and carry one mark each.
(c) Q. No. 6 to 10 are very short answer type questions and carry two marks
each.
(d) Q. No. 11 to 22 are short answer type questions and carry three marks each.
(e) Q. No. 23 is value based questions carries four marks.
(f) Q. No. 24 to 26 are long answer type questions and carry five marks each.
(g) Use log tables, if necessary, use of calculator is not allowed.
1.
Define limiting reagent 1
2.
Write the general electronic configuration of d-block elements ? 1
3.
Write vander Waal’s equation for n moles of ‘a’ real gas. 1
4.
What is the state of hybridisation of each carbon atom in C6H6 ? 1
5.
Predict the sign of the entropy change (∆S) for the following : 1
H2O(g) —→ H2O(l)
6. (i) Define Pauli’s exclusion principle. 2
(ii) Write electronic configuration of an atom having 2K, 8L, 5M electrons. 2
Or
The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg. If its kinetic energy is 3.0 ×
10–25 J. Calculate its wavelength. (Given h = 6.626 × 10–34 Js)
7. The concentration of hydrogen ion in a sample of soft dark is 3.8 × 10–3 M.
What is its pH ? (log 3.8 = 0.58) 2
Unsolved Paper 151

8. What happens when (write equation only) : 2
(i) Beryllium carbide reacts with water.
(ii) Sodium sulphate solution is added to an aqueous solution of barium
nitrate.
9. Propanal and Pentan-3-one are the ozonolysis product of an alkene. What
is the structural formula of the alkene ? 2
10. Write reactions to justify amphoteric nature of aluminium. 2
11. (a) Write the IUPAC name of the following : 3
(i) (ii)
(b) Which isomerism is shown by following pair of compounds :

CH3COOH and HCOOCH3
12. Account for the following : 3
(a) An anion is always bigger than its present atom.
(b) Chlorine (Cl) has move negative electron gain enthalpy thn fluroine (F).
(c) Noble gases have positive electron gain enthalpy.
13. Give the shapes of following covalent molecules using VSEPR theory : 3

(i) PCl5 (ii) BrF3 (iii) H2O.
14. A sample of drinking water was found to be severly contaminted with
chloroform CHCl3, supposed to be carcinogen. The level on contamination
was 15 ppm (by mass). 3

(i) Express this in percent by mass.
(ii) Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
15. (a) State Hess’s law. 3
(b) Use standard enthalpies of formation, calculate the value of ∆rHΘ for
the reaction.
2H2S (g) + 3O2(g) —→ 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
∆f HΘ[H2O (l)] = – 285.83 kJ/mol

∆f HΘ [H2S(g)] = – 21.17 kJ/mol


∆f HΘ [SO2(g)] = – 296.86 kJ/mol

16. (a) The molecular orbital theory to predict why the BE molecule does not
exist.
(b) Compare the stability of O2+ and O2 on the basis of M.O. theory. 3
17. (a) Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8g of oxygen and 4g of
hydrogen confined in a vessel of 1 dm3 at 27°C.
[Given R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1] 3
(b) Criticial temperature of CO2 and CH4 are 31.1°C and – 81.9°C
respectively. Which of there has stronger intermolecular forces and why ?
Or
(a) What would be the S.I. units of a quantity PV2T2/n ?
(b) Calculate the temperature of 4.0 moles of a gas occuping 5 dm3 at 3.32
bar (R = 0.083 bar dm3K–1 mol–1)
18. (a) What is the oxidation no. of Cr. in Cr2O72– ? 3
(b) Balance the equation :
MnO4– + Fe2+ —→ Fe3+ + Mn2+ + H+ (Acidic medium)
19. Complete the following chemical reactions. 3
(a) PbS(s) + H2O2(aq) —→
(b) MnO4– (aq) + H2O2(aq) —→
(c) Ca3N2 + H2O —→
20. Give reason for the following : 3
(a) PbCl4 is a powerful oxidising agent.
(b) Graphite acts as a good lubricant.
(c) Boron halides do nt dimerise like BH3
21. (a) Draw the structure of (i) BeCl2 (vapour) and (ii) BeCl2 solid
(b) Complete the equation :
Cl2 + Ca(OH)2 —→
22. Arrange the following in order of property mentioned against each : 3

(a)
(increasing order of stability)

(b) HCOOH, CH3COOH, CH3CH2COOH (increasing acidic strenth)
(c) (increasing order of stability)
Unsolved Paper 153

Valued Based Questions
23. Environmental pollution is causing a serious threat on the earth. Due to
cmbustion of fossil fuels, a number of poisonous and harmful gases enter
into the atmosphere. Every country has made strict laws for industries and
individual citizens to keeps pollution under control. 4
Now answer the following questions :
(a) Why is it advised not to sleep with burning coke angithi in a closed room
on winter nights ?
(b) What does the combustion of motor fuels cause pollution of the
atmosphere ?
(c) Name one natural source and one human activity by which SO2 enters
into atmosphere ?
24. (a) Explain the following with example : 5
(i) Common ion effect
(ii) Buffer solution.
(b) At a certain temperature and total pressure of 105 Pa, iodine vapours
contains 40% by volume of I atoms.
I2(g) 2I(g)
Calculate Kp for the equilibrium.
Or
(a) Define Le-Chatelier’s principle.
(b) Define pH.
(c) Equilibrium constant for the reason is 4.0. What will be the equilibrium
constant for the reverse reaction.
(d) Calculate the pH of 10–8 M HCl solution.
25. (a) Define Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Write its mathematical
expression. 5
(b) Calculate the uncertainty in the velocity of a cricket ball on mass 150
g. If the uncertainty in its position is of the order of 1 Å.
(h = 6.6 × 10–34 Kg m2s–1)
Or
(a) Which of the following orbitals are not possible ?
1p, 2s, 2p, 3s
(b) Which of the following sets of quantum number are not possible ? Give
reasons.
(i) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½
(ii) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = – ½

(c) Electrons are emitted with zero velocity from a metal surface when
it is expressed to radiatin of wavelength 6800Å. Calculate threshold
frequency (υ0) and work function (ω0) of the metal.
26. (a) Define the following with example : 5
(i) Wurtz reaction
(ii) Markovnikoff’s Rule.
(b) Give the main product of the region :
(i) + CH3—Cl
(ii) + HNO3
(iii) + H2O
Or
(a) How can you convert the following :
(i) Propan-1-ol to propan-2-ol
(ii) Ethyl chloride to n-Butane
(b) Complete the following reactions :
(i) CH3—CH= — =CH2 + HBr
(ii) CH3—Cl + Na
(iii)
Unsolved Paper 155

Practice Paper-1
Solution
1. The reactant which is completely consumed during the reaction is called

limiting reagent. 1
2. (n – 1)d 1–10 1–2
ns . 1
3. 1
2
4. sp hybridisation. 1
5. – ve, as randomners decrease. 1
–
6. (a) No two e in an atom can have same set of all the four quantum numbers.
1+1
–
(b) Total e = 15
E.C. = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Or
K.E. =
V=
V = 8.12 × 102 m/s = 812 m/s 1

h
λ=
mv
= 1
pH = – log [H+] ½
= – log(3.8 × 10–3) ½
= – log 3.8 = 3 = 3 – 0.58
= 2.42 1
(a) Be2C + 4H2O —→ 2Be(OH)2 + CH4 1
(b) Na2SO4 + Ba(NO3)2 —→ BaSO4 ↓ + 2NaNO3 1

9. ½+½
1
10. ∆H°= ∆E° + ∆ngRT
∆H°= – 10500 J – 2477.57 J
∆H°= – 12977.57 J/mol 1
∆G°= ∆H° – T∆S°
= – 12977.57 + 13141.8 ½
∆G°= 0.164 kJ, Process is non-spontaneous ½
11. (a) (i) 4-Nitro benzoic acid 1
(ii) 3-Methyl hexa-1, 5-diene 1
(b) Functional isomerism 1
12. (a) Because nuclear charge dercrease/e– increases. 1
– –
(b) Because of bigger size of chlorine/less e – e repulsion as compared to
fluorine. 1
(c) Because they have fully filled orbitals. 1
13. (a) Trigonal bipyramidal. 1
(b) Bent T-shape. 1
(c) Bent/V-shape. 1
14. (a) 15 ppm means 15 parts in million (106) parts.a
∴ % by mass= 1
(b) Molar mass of CHCl3 = 119.5 g/mol
100 g of sample contain chloroform = 1.5 × 10–3 g
∴ 1000 g of sample contain = 1
Molality of chloroform = 1
∴ Molality = 1.255 × 10–4 m

15. (a) 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4 (aq) —→ Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g) 1
+ –
(b) 2Al(s) + 2NaOH (aq) + 6H2O(l) → 2Na [Al(OH)4] (aq) + 3H2(g)
Sodium tetrahydroxo aluminate (III) 1
Unsolved Paper 157

16. (a) Be : σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ 2s2 σ*2s2
Bond order = 1
As bond order of Be2 is zero and does not exist.
(b) O2 : B.O = ½
O2+ : B.O = ½
=
O2+ > O2
Greater the bond order, move will be stability. 1
17. (a) =
=
Total no. of moles = 2 + 0.25 = 2.25 mol 1
3 3 –1 –1
V = 1dm , T = 300 K, R = 0.083 bar dm K mol
PV = nRT
P=
= 1
P = 56.025 bar
(b) CO2 has stronger intermolecular forces because it can be liquiefied at
temperature upto 31.1°C but CH4 can be liquefied only upto – 81.9°C.
Or
= 1
PV = nRT or T = 1
T= 1
18. (a) x = 6
(b) 5Fe2+ + MnO4– + 8H+ —→ 5Fe3+ + Mn+2 + 4H2O 2

19. (a) PbS + 4H2O2 —→ PbSO4 + 4H2O 1
(b) 2MnO4– + 6H+ + 5H2O2 —→ 2Mn+2 + 8H2O + 5O2 1
(c) Ca3N2 + 6H2O —→ Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3 1
20. (a) Because Pb+4 is reduced to more stable Pb+2. 1

(b) Because of its soft and slippery nature. 1

(c) Boron due its small size cannot four large size chlorine atoms around it
and hence exists as monmer. 1
21. (a) (i) 1

Solid State
(ii) 1
Solid State
(b) Cl2 + 2Ca(OH)2 —→ Ca(OCl)2 + H2O + CaCl2 1
Slaked lime Bleaching
powder
⊕ ⊕
CH CH CH CH < CH CH CH < (CH ) C+
3 2 2 2 3 2 33
|
CH
22. (a)  3 → 1
Increasing acidic strength

(b) 1

(c) 1
23. (a) On burning coke, a lot of CO is produced which causes anoxia. 1

(b) On burnign motal-fuels, toxic oxides of nitrogen is formed which affect
respiratory system. 1
(c) Due to volcanic eruption and through combustion of sulphur containing
fuels. 1
(d) Concern for environment. 1
Unsolved Paper 159

24. (a) (i) It is the shift in an ionic equilibrium caused by the addition of a solute
that provides caused by the addition of a solute that provides an ion
that takes part in the equilibrium.
(ii) The solution which resist the change in pH on dilution/addition of
acid or alkali. 1

(b) Partial pressure of I atom (PI) = 1
Partial pressure of I2 atom (PI2) = 1
KP = 1
(i) Correct statement. 1

(ii) negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration. 1
(iii) 1
(iv) 10–8 M HCl
[H+] = 10–8 + 10–7 2
[ [H+]
conc. due to water = 10–7]
or [H+] = 11 × 10–8⇒ PH = – log[11 × 10–8]
= 8 – 1.02 = 6.98
25. (a) It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and velocity
of a microscopic particle with accuracy or certainty. 1+1
Mathematically expression ∆x × ∆p >
(b) Mass of ball m = 150 g

= 150 × 10–3 kg = 0.150 kg
Uncertainty in position ∆x = 1Å = 10–10 m
∆x.∆V × m = 1
∆V =
= 1
= 3.52 × 10–24 m s–1 1

Or
(a) 1p as n = l, not possible.
(b) (i) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = + ½ not possible because n cannot be
zero. 1

(c) Energy of photon =
= 1
= 2.93 × 10–19 J
Energy of photon = K.E. + W0 = 0 + W0 = W0 1
W0= 2.93 × 10–19 J
Threshold frequency v0 = 1
26. (a) (i) It involves the chemical reaction between alkyl halides and metallic
sodium in presence of dry ether and from alkanes. 1
2R—X + 2Na R—R + 2NaX
(ii) It states that ‘more’ electronegative part of the addendum adds to
that carbon of double bond which contains lesser no. of H-atoms.
CH3—CH==CH2
(b) (i)
Or

(a) (i) CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CH==CH2
(ii) 2C2H5Cl + 2Na CH3CH2CH2CH3

(b) (i) CH3CH2CH2Br (ii) CH3—CH3 (iii) CH3—CH==CH—CH3
Unsolved Paper 161

Practice Paper-1
Class : XI
Blue Print
S.No. Name of Chapter V.S.A. S.A. S.A. L.A. Total Marks
1. Some Basic Concepts 1 1 04
of Chemistry
2. Structure of Atom 1 1 07
3. Classification of Elements 1 1 04
4. Chemical Bonding 2 06
5. States of Matter 1 1 04
6. Thermodynamics 1 1 04
7. Equilibrium 1 1 07
8. Redox Reaction 1 03
9. Hydrogen 1 03
10. s-Block 1 1 05
11. p-Block 1 1 05
12. Organic Chemistry 1 2 07
13. Hydrocarbon 1 1 07
14. Environmental Chemistry 1 VBQ 04
4 marks
Total 05 05 12 3+1 70
(VBQ)

Sample Question Paper
(a) All questions are compulsory.
(b) Q. No. 1 to 5 are Very Short Question carry one mark each.
(c) Q. No. 6 to 10 are Short Answer Questions and carry 2 marks each.
(d) Q. No. 11 to 22 are Short Answer Questions and carry 3 marks each.
(e) Q. No. 23 is Value Based Questions carries 4 marks.
(f) Q. No. 24 to 26 are Long Answer Questions and carry 5 marks each.
1. Which of the following has maximum number of significant figure ?

(i) 0.00453 (ii) 4.8046 (iii) 5.643.
2. How are 0.5 m NaOH and 0.5 M NaOH different from each other ?
3. Explain why Na+ is smaller in size than Na atom.
4. Draw resonating structures of CO32– ion.
5. Define critical temperature.
6. Determine the emperical formula of an oxide of iron which has 69.9% iron
and 30.1% dioxygen by man. [Atomic mass : Fe = 55.85, O = 16.00]
7. (a) Write the electronic configuration of Cu2+ ion.
(b) Why are Bohr’s orbits called stationary states.
8. (a) How many subshells are associated with 1H = 4 ?
(b) How many electrons will be present in the sbushells having ms value of
– for n = 4 ?
9. (a) What do you understand by isoelectronic species ?
(b) Write a cation and an anion which is isoelectronic with Ar.
10. Give the shapes of following covalent molecules using VSEPR theory :
(i) NH3 (ii) ClF5 2
Or
(a) Use molecular orbital theory to product why Be2 molecule does not
exist. 1+1
+
(b) Capare the stability of O2 and O2 .–
11. The work function for caesium atom is 1.9 eV. Calculate.
(a) The threshold wavelength.
(b) If the caesium element is irradited with a wavelength of 500 nm, calculte
the kinetic energy of ejected electron. [Given 1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19J]
1½ + 1½
Unsolved Paper 163

12. Use the periodic table to identify the following :
(a) A group whose elements show valence 2 and 6. 1
(b) A metal which can form a predominantly stable covalent halide of the
formula MX. 1
(c) The group having metalloid, non-metal liquid as well as gas at room
temp. 1
– +
13. Compare the relative stabilities of O2 and N2 and comment on their
magnetic behaviour. 3
14. Give reasons for the following : 3
(i) H2O has higher boiling point than HF.
(ii) Ice foats on the surface of water.
(iii) KHF2 exists but KHCl2 does not.
15. What is the hybridisation of the central tom in (i) H3O+, (ii) XeF2, (iii) XeF4 ?
What are their shapes ? 3
16. (a) In terms of Charle’s law, explain why – 273°C is the lowest
temperature ? 3
(b) 20 ml of hydrogen measured at 15°C are heated to 35°C, what is the
new volume at the sme pressure.
17. Define vander waal’s equation. The vander Waal’s constants for two gases
are as follows : 3
Gas a (atm L2 mol–1) b(L mol–1)
X 1.39 0.0391
Y 3.59 0.427
Which of them more easily liquefiable and which has greater molecular
size ?
18. (a) Name the different salts that cause permanent hardness of water. (any
two) 3
(b) How do we obtain demineralised water from hard water after passing it
from synthetic ion exchange resins ? Give reaction ?
19. What happen when : 3
(a) Boric acid is added to water.
(b) Al is treated with dil. NaOH.
(c) BF3 is treated with NH3
20. Write IUPAC names of the following : 3
(a) (b)
(c)

21. Write the naming reactions :
(i) Wurtz reaction
(ii) Decarboxylation of sodium salt of fatty acid
(iii) Friedal Craft reaction.
Or
Complete the following reaction :
(a) CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr
(b) CH3—Cl + Na
(c)
22. (a) Mention two similarities in the behaviour of Be and Al to show that they
have diagonal relationship.
(b) What is the biological importance of Na in our body ?
23. A factory was started near a village. Suddenly villagers started feeling the
presence of irritating vapours in the village and cases of headache, chestpain,
cough and breathing problem increased. Anil a science student blamed the
emission from the chimney of the factory for such problems ?
Reading the above paragraph, answer the following questions :
(a) Explain what could happen ?
(b) Give chemical reactions for the support of your explanation.
(c) Mention the values shown by student in paragraph.
24. (a) What happens when :
(i) Propene is treated with HBr.
(ii) Benzene is treated with methyl chloride in the presence of anhyd.
AlCl3
(iii) When methyl bromide treated with sodium metal in presence of dry
ether.
(b) Prove that phenolic group is ortho and para directing.
Unsolved Paper 165

Or
(a) How is benzene obtained from ethyne ? What is process called ?
(b) What happens when ethyne is heated with water in the presence of
mercuric sulphate and dilute hydrochloric acid ?
(c) What is Markownikow's Kov rule ?
25. (a) Equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the equilibrium
(b) Write the conjugate acids for the Bronsted base OH– and CH3COO–.
(c) Determine the pH of 10–8 MHCl solution taking into account the H+
produced by water also. (log 11 = 1.0414).
26. (a) Propanal and pentan-3-one are the ozonolysis product of an alkene. What
is the structural formula of the alkene ?
(b) An Alkyl halide (A) of formula C6H13Cl on treatment with alcoholic
KOH give two isomeric alkenes (B) and (C)(C6H12). Both alkenes on
hydrogenation give 2, 3-dimethyl butane. Predict the structure of A, B
and C.

Marking Scheme
1. 4.8046. 1
2. In 0.5 m NaOH, 1 mol NaOH present in 1 kg solvent while in 1.0 M NaoH,
1 mol NaOH present in 1 L of solution. 1
3. Na+ has only 2 shells and more effective nuclear charge. 1
4.
5. Refer NCERT
Appearance of gas at that temperature is called critical temperature CO2
= – 30.98°C.
6. Element % by mass At mass Relative Simple Whole no.
Fe 69.9 55.85 1 2
O 30.1 16.00 1.5 3
Empirical formula : Fe2O3

7. (a) Cu2+ (27) [Ar]3d 94s°.
(b) When an electron is revolving in Bohr’s orbit it does not lose energy.
8. (a) n = 4, l = 0, 1, 2, 3
s, p, d, f subshells are associated with n = 4.
(b) Total number of electrons in shell n = 4 is 32 half of this i.e., 16 elements
will have ms = – .
9. (a) The species having the same number of electrons are called iso electric
species.
(b) Ca2+, Cl–
10. (a) M.O. configuration of Be2 molecule is :
σ1s2 σ*1s2 σ2s2 σ*2s2
Bond order = (4 – 4) = 0
Since bond order is zero Be2 molecule is not possible.
Unsolved Paper 167

(b) B.O. (O2+) = (10 – 5) = 2.5
B.O. (O2–) = (10 – 7) = 1.5

Since B.O. of O2+ is more than that of O2–, O2+ is more stable.
(c)
11. (a) W0 =
λ0 =
(b) E = W0 + K.E.
K.E. =
= 19.88 × 10–19 (0.2 – 0.15)

= 0.994 × 10–19 J
12. (a) Group-16
(b) Lithium
(c) Group-17
13. M.O. electronic configuration of O2–
= Bond order =
M.O. electronic configuration of N2+
Bond order =

As bond order of N2+ > bond order of O2–. Therefore, N2+ is more stable
than O2–.
14. (i) Due to strong hydrogen bonding or greater intermolecular hydrogen
bonding in H2O than in H-F. H2O forms four bond with other water
molecule wheres HF forms only two H-bonds.
(ii) Density of ice is less than (water) liquid form.
(iii) Due to H-bonding in HF H—F.....H—F.....H—F. This can dissociate to
give HF2– ion and hence KHF2 exists but no H-bnding in H—Cl. So
HCl2– ion not exist.
15. (i) sp3, pyramidal.
(ii) sp3d, linear.
(iii) sp2d2, square planar.
16. (a) At – 273°C, volume of the gas becomes equal to zero i.e., the gas ceases
to exist. 1

(b) According to Charle’s law : =
V1 = 20 mL V2 = ? mL
T1 = 15 + 273 = 288 K T2 = 35 + 272 = 308 K
V2 = =
Volume of hydrogen gas at 35°C = 21.38 ML
17. (a)
(b) Greater the value of ‘a’, more easily the gas is liquefiable. Similarly,
greater the value ‘b’ greater is the molecular size. Hence, gas ‘y’ will be
more easily liquefiable and will have greater molecular size.
18. (a) CaCl2, MgCl2
(b) In cation exchange resin

In anion exchange resis

Finally H+ + OH– H2O(l)
19. (i) B(OH)3 + 2H2O → B(OH)4 + H3O+ 1
(ii) 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O → 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 3H2 1
(iii) BF3 + NH3 → [H3N → BF3] (Adduct) 1
Unsolved Paper 169

20. IUPAC Name :
(i) Propylbenzene
(ii) 2, 5 - Dinethyl heptane
(iii) 3-Chloropropanal
21. Wurtz’s reaction :
(i) 2CH3Cl + 2Na CH3—CH3 + 2NaCl 1
ethane
(ii) Decarboxylation of sodium salt of fatty acid with soda line. 1
RCOONa + NaOH R—H + Na2CO3
(iii) Friedal Craft reaction :When benzene treated with alkyl halide in
presence of AlCl3, Alkyl benzene in formed. 1
(a) CH3—CH = CH2 + HBr CH3—CH2—CH2—Br 1
(b) 2CH3Cl + Na CH3—CH3 + 2NaCl 1

(c) CH3—CH==CH—CH3
+ CH3—CH2—CH==CH2 + KCl + H2O 1

22. (a) (i) Like Al, Be is not readily attacked by acids because of the presence
of an oxide film on the surface metal.
(ii) Be(OH)2 dissolved in excess of NaOH to give [Be(OH)4]2– just as
Al(OH)3 dissolve in NaOH to form [Al(OH)4]–1.
(b) Na+ ions are present in blood plasma and in the interstitial fluid. These
ions participate in the transmission of nerve signals and in regulating
the flow of water across cell membranes.
23. (i) The symptoms of the villagers show that oxides of nitrogen and sulphur
are caming out of the chimney of factory. This is due to combustion of
fossil fuel like coal, gasoline etc.
(ii) N2 + O2 2NO
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
S + O2 → SO2
(iii) Environment concern, scientific altitude.

24. (a) (i) CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr —→ CH 3 – CH – CH 3
|
Br
2 — Bromopropane
(ii)
(iii) 2CH2Br + 2Na CH3—CH3 + 2NaBr
(b) This is because of + R (resonance effect) —OH group. The electron

density is increased at o- and p-positions as compared to at m-position.
Hence the new group will enter at p-position.
Or
24. (a)
(b) HC≡CH + HOH [H2C==CH—OH]
(c) H2C==CH—CH3 + HBr —→
25. (i) K =
(ii) H2O, CH3COOH

(iii) Total [H3O+] = [H3O+]acid + [H3O+]H2O
–8 –7
= 10 + 10
= 11 × 10–8 M
pH = – log(H3O+)
pH = – log (11 × 10–8)
Unsolved Paper 171

pH = – (log 11 + log 10–8)
pH = 8 – log 11
pH = 8 – 1.0414 = 6.9586
26. (a) CH 3 – CH 2 – CH = C – CH 2 – CH 3
|
C3 H 5
3-Ethylhe - 3- one
(b) (i)
(ii)
(iii)

Common Annual School Examination, 2015-16
Subject : Chemistry
Class : XI
Time : 3 Hrs.] [M.M. : 70
(i) All questions are compulsory.

(ii) Q. No. 1 to 5 are Very Short Answer Question carrying 1 mark each.
(iii)Q. No. 6 to 10 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 2 marks each.
(iv) Q. No. 11 to 22 are Short Answer Questions and carrying 3 marks each.
(v) Q. No. 23 is Value Based Questions carries 4 marks.
(vi) Q. No. 24 to 26 are Long Answer Questions and carrying 5 marks each.
(vii)Use log tables, if necessary, Use of calculator is not allowed.
1. In a reaction A + B2 → AB2, identify the limiting reagent when 2 mole of

A are mixed with 3 mole of B2.
2. Write the general electronic configuration of f-block elements.
3. Define critical temperature.
4. Classify the following as Lewis acid or Lewis base :
NH4+ and NH3
5. What is the oxidation number of Mn in KMnO4 ?
6. (a) How many sub-shells are associated with n = 4 ?
(b) How many electrons will be present in these sub-shell having ms value
of – ½ for n = 4 ?
7. Give one point to differentiate the following thermodynamic terms :
(a) Extensive properties and intensive properties.
(b) Isothermal process and isobaric process.
(a) K2CO3 cannot be prepared by Solvay process.
(b) Alkali metals are not found in nature in free state.
Or
Write balanced equations for the equation between :
(a) Na2O2 and water
(b) Na2O and CO2
9. Give suitable reasons for the following :
(a) [SiF6]2– is known whereas [SiCl6]2– not.
Unsolved Paper 173

(b) Diamond is covalent, yet it has high melting point.
10. (a) What type of isomerism is shown by pentane and 2-methyl butane ?
(b) Write the name of isomerism among the followiang compounds :
CH3—CH2—CHO and
11. Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample which
has density 1.40 g ml–1 and the mass percent of nitric acid in it being 69%.
Molar mass of HNO3 = 63 g mol–1.
(a) An anion is always bigger than its parent atom.
(b) Chlorine (Cl) have more negative electron gain enthalpy than fluorine
(F). [Atomic no. F = 9, Cl = 17]
13. Give the shapes of following covalent molecules using VSEPR theory :
(a) CIF3 (b) XeF4 (c) AsF5
14. Compare the relative stability of the following species on the basis of
molecular orbital theory and indica their magnetic properties :
O2+, O2–, O2–2
15. (a) In terms of Charle’s law, explain why – 273°C is the lowest temperature ?
(b) Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8 g of dioxygen and 4 g of
dihydrogen confined in a vess of 1 dm3 at 27°C.
[R = 0.083 bar dm3 K–1 mol–1]
16. (a) For the reaction, 2Cl(g) → Cl2(g), what are the signs of ∆H and ∆S ?
(b) For the reaction at 298 K, 2A + B → C, ∆H = 400 kJ mol–1 and ∆S = 0.2 kJ
K–1 mol–1. At what temperature will the reaction becomes spontaneous ?
17. Balance the following redox reaction in basic medium : (Write steps of any
one method used)
MnO4–(aq) + I–(aq) → MnO2(s) + I2(s)
18. (a) Name the different salts that cause permanent hardness of water.
(Any two)
(b) How do we obtain demineralised water from hard water after passing it
from synthetic ion exchange resins ? Give reactions ?
19. (a) Mention two similarities in the behaviour of Be and Al to show that they
have diagonal relationship.
(b) What is the biological importance of Na in our body ?

(a) Boric acid is added to water.
(b) Al is treated with dil. NaOH.
(c) BF3 is treated with NH3.
21. Write the IUPAC names of the following :
(a)
(b)
(c)
Or

(a) Identify the reagent shown underlined as electrophile or nucleophile :
CH3COOH + → CH3COO– + H2O
(b) On complete combustion of 0.246 g of an organic compoundgave 0.198
ga of CO2 and 0.1014 g of H2Oo. Determine the percentage composition
of carbon and hydrogen in the compound.
(a) CH3—CH==CH2 + HBr
(b) CH3—Cl + Na
(c)
23. A factory was started near a village. Suddenly villagers started feeling the
presence of irritating vapours in the village and cases of headache, chest
pain, cough, dryness of throat and breathing problems incresed. Anil a
science student blamed the emissions from the chimney of the factor for
such problems.
After reading the above paragraph, answer the following questions :
(a) Explain what could have happened ?
Unsolved Paper 175

(b) Give chemical reactions for the support of your explanation.
(c) Mention the values shown by the student in the above paragraph.
24. (a) Write the electronic configuration of Cr(Z = 24). Why is it differen from
the expected configuration ?
(b) The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg and its kinectic energy is
3 × 10–25 J. Calculate its wavelength.
(c) Which of the following orbitals is not possible and why ?
2d, 2s, 3p, 3s
Or
(a) Calculate the wavelength and frequency of limiting line of Lyman series
(Rydberg constant = 109677 cm–1).
(b) Give quantum numbers for electrons with highest energy in sodium atom
(Z = 11).
(c) Which of the following sets of quantum number are not possible ? Give
reasons :
(i) n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = – ½
(ii) n = 0, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = – ½
25. (a) Equilibrium constant for a reaction is 10. What will be the equilibrium
(b) Write the conjugate acids for the Bronsted base OH– and CH3COO–.
(c) Determine the pH of 10–8 M HCl solution taking into account the H+
produced by water also. (log 11 = 1.0414)
Or
(a) At certain temperature and total pressure of 105 Pa, iodine vapour

contains 40% by volume of I atoms :
I2(g) 2I(g)
Calculate Kp for the equlibrium.
(b) What is the effect of :

(i) Addition of H2
(ii) Removal of CO
on the equilibrium : 2H2(g) + CO(g) CH3OH(g)

(c) Mention one application of solubility product.
26. (a) Propanal and pentan-3-one are the ozonolysis product of an alkene. What
is the structural formul of the alkene ?
(b) Give the main products of the reactions :
(i) + CH3—Cl
(ii)
(iii) + Cl2
Or
(a) An alkyl halide (A) of formula C6H13Cl on treatment with alcoholic
KOH give two isomeric alkenes (B) and (C) (C6H12). Both alkenes on
hydrogenation give 2, 3-Dimethyl butane. Predict the structure of A, B
and C.
(b) Why does benzene show electrophilic substitution easily ?
(c) Name the compound that will be required to obtain butane using Kolbe’s
electrolysis process.
Unsolved Paper 177

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Brief Notes, Textbook Solutions, Solved Papers

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S. No. Chapter Name Page No.

1. Some Basic Concepts 1

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 Standard Temperature Pressure (STP) : 0°C (273.15 K) temperature

Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 1

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 Molar Volume (Vm) : It is volume occupied by one mole of any substance.

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 Percentage Composition : Mass % of the element

 Empirical Formula : It represents the simplest whole number ratio of

 Information Conveyed by a chemical equation :

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

(i) 1 molecule of N2 + 3 molecules of H2 → 2 molecules of NH3

Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 3

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 Molarity (M) : It is number of moles of solute dissolved per litre (dm3)

Molarity equation : M1V1 = M2V2

Molality is independent of temperature.

1. Name two chemical compounds used in treatment of cancer.

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Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 5

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(i) 0.0125 + 0.8250 + 0.025 (ii)

Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 7

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Calculate the volume of oxygen gas liberated at STP by heating 12.25 g

1. Give three main points of difference between a compound and a mixture.

Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 9

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Some Basic Concepts Of Chemistry 11

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(b) Isobars : Atoms of different element with same mass no.

(d) Isoelectronic Species : Atoms, molecules or ions with same no. of

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(c) Amplitude : The height of crest or depth of a trough denoted by ‘a’.

λ Inc. υ Dec. Dec. Energy Dec.

mv2 = K. energy by which e– is emitted from metal surface.

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Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

(2) As n increases, Energy of e– becomes less – ve [Due to less force of Proton

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Rydberg constant = 109678 cm–1

ni = 1, nf = 2, 3, 4, .... [Lyman series] (UV)

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3 0, 1, 2 l=2 ‘d’ subshell

describes e– can have clockwise spin motion or e– can have

anticlockwise spin motion . An orbital can have maximum two e–

one with clockwise and other with anticlockwise spin.

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F3B : NH3 H3N BF3