The hydraulic diameter (Dh) is a measure used in fluid mechanics for non-circular channels to

simplify flow analysis. It is calculated as:

4𝐴
Dh = 𝑃

where A is the flow's cross-sectional area, and P is the wetted perimeter. It is essential for
determining flow characteristics (like Reynolds number) in ducts, channels, and non-circular
pipes.

A streamline is an imaginary line in a fluid flow where the fluid's velocity vector is always
tangent to the line at every point. It represents the path a fluid particle would follow in steady
flow. Streamlines never intersect, and their density indicates flow speed—closer streamlines
mean higher velocity.

A streak line is the path traced by all fluid particles that pass through a specific point over
time. It shows the history of particles and is often visualized in experiments using dye or
smoke.

Inviscid flow refers to an idealized fluid flow where the effects of viscosity are neglected. It
assumes no internal friction between fluid layers, simplifying analysis by focusing on pressure
and velocity effects. It is often used in theoretical studies like potential flow analysis.

Steady flow is a type of fluid flow where the fluid's properties (velocity, pressure, density, etc.)
at a given point do not change over time. In steady flow, the conditions are constant, but they
can vary across different points in the flow field.

Unsteady flow is a type of fluid flow where the fluid's properties (such as velocity, pressure,
and density) change with time at any given point. It describes flow conditions that evolve
dynamically, such as pulsating or transient flows.

Uniform flow is a type of fluid flow where the velocity and other flow properties remain
constant at every point in the flow field. It means the flow does not vary spatially but can still
vary with time if it’s unsteady.
Non-uniform flow occurs when the velocity or other fluid properties vary from point to point
in the flow field. This type of flow is common in most practical scenarios, such as flow through
a pipe with varying cross-sectional area.

Reynolds Number
The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless quantity that predicts the flow regime of a fluid,
helping determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. It is calculated as:
𝜌𝑣𝐿
µ
Where:

• 𝜌 = fluid density

• v = fluid velocity

• L = characteristic length (e.g., diameter of a pipe)

• µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid

Significance:

• Laminar flow: When Re is low (typically Re<2000Re < 2000), flow is smooth and
orderly, with fluid layers sliding past one another.

• Turbulent flow: When Re is high (typically Re>4000Re > 4000), flow is chaotic with
eddies and vortices.

• Transitional flow: Between Re =2000 and 4000, flow may switch between laminar and
turbulent.

Reynolds number is crucial for predicting flow behaviour, pressure drop, heat transfer, and
designing fluid systems like pipes, ducts, and reactors.
Major losses in fluid flow refer to the energy lost due to friction as the fluid moves through
pipes or ducts. These losses depend on factors like pipe length, diameter, flow velocity, and
surface roughness. They are typically calculated using the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which
relates the pressure drop to these factors. Major losses impact the design of piping systems,
and the energy required for pumping fluids.

Minor losses are energy losses caused by changes in flow direction, velocity, or cross-
sectional area, such as bends, valves, and fittings in a pipe system. They are calculated using
a loss coefficient (KK) and the velocity head. Although smaller than major losses, they can still
significantly impact fluid flow and system efficiency.

Laminar flow is a smooth, orderly flow of fluid where layers of fluid move parallel to each
other with minimal mixing. It occurs at low velocities and is characterized by the following four
key characteristics:

1. Smooth and Steady: Fluid moves in smooth, parallel layers with no turbulence or
eddies.

2. Low Reynolds Number: Typically occurs when the Reynolds number (Re) is less than
2000, indicating low inertial forces relative to viscous forces.

3. Velocity Profile: In pipe flow, the velocity is highest at the centre and decreases
toward the walls, forming a parabolic velocity profile.

4. Viscous Dominance: The fluid's viscosity dominates the flow behaviour, with internal
friction between layers controlling the motion.

Laminar flow is common in small-diameter pipes or at low flow velocities.

Turbulent flow is a chaotic, irregular fluid flow characterized by eddies and vortices. It occurs
at higher velocities and is characterized by the following four key characteristics:

1. Chaotic and Irregular: The flow is unpredictable, with fluctuating velocities and
swirling eddies.

2. High Reynolds Number: Occurs when the Reynolds number (Re) is greater than 4000,
indicating dominant inertial forces over viscous forces.

3. Velocity Profile: In pipe flow, the velocity profile is flatter compared to laminar flow,
with faster flow near the centre and slower near the walls, but without the smooth
parabolic shape.

4. Increased Mixing: Turbulent flow enhances the mixing of fluid layers, improving heat
and mass transfer compared to laminar flow.

Turbulent flow is common in large-diameter pipes, high-velocity systems, and natural fluid
movements.

Assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation

The Bernoulli equation is based on several assumptions that simplify fluid flow analysis.
These assumptions are:

1. Steady Flow: The fluid's velocity at any given point does not change over time.

2. Incompressible Flow: The fluid's density remains constant throughout the flow (e.g.,
for liquids).

3. Non-viscous Flow: The fluid has no viscosity, meaning there is no internal friction
between layers.

4. Flow Along a Streamline: The equation applies to points along a single streamline
(the path that a fluid particle follows).

5. Constant Flow: The flow is continuous, with no sources or sinks of fluid within the
system.

These assumptions simplify the analysis of fluid flow but limit the applicability to real-world
situations where viscosity and compressibility may be important.
Surface tension is the force that acts on the surface of a liquid, causing it to behave like a
stretched elastic membrane. It results from the cohesive forces between liquid molecules,
which are stronger at the surface due to the lack of neighbouring molecules above. Surface
tension is responsible for phenomena like the formation of droplets, the ability of small
objects to float on water (if the weight is not too great), and the shape of bubbles.

Key Points:

• Surface Molecules: Molecules at the surface experience a net inward force since they
are not surrounded by similar molecules above.

• Units: Surface tension is measured in force per unit length, typically in N/m.

• Formula: The force due to surface tension can be calculated as:

F= γ.L

o F = force acting along the surface

o γ = surface tension (N/m)

o L = length along the surface

Surface tension plays a crucial role in capillary action, where liquids rise or fall in small tubes
due to the interaction of surface tension with the adhesive forces between the liquid and the
tube.

Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of
external forces like gravity. It occurs due to the intermolecular forces between the liquid and
the surrounding solid surface, as well as the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules
themselves.

Key Factors:

1. Adhesion: The attractive force between the liquid and the surface of a narrow tube
(e.g., glass).

2. Cohesion: The attractive force between the molecules of the liquid itself.
Formula:

The height to which a liquid rises or falls in a capillary tube can be determined by the following
equation:

2γ𝐜𝐨𝐬θ
h=
ρgr

Where:

• h = height of liquid rise (or fall)

• γ = surface tension of the liquid

• θ = contact angle between the liquid and the tube surface

• ρ = density of the liquid

• g = acceleration due to gravity

• r = radius of the capillary tube

The Eulerian approach is a method used in fluid mechanics to describe fluid flow by
observing the fluid properties at fixed points in space over time. Rather than tracking individual
fluid particles, the Eulerian approach focuses on the behaviour of the fluid at specific
locations (like points or control volumes).

Key Features:

1. Fixed Spatial Points: In the Eulerian approach, the observer focuses on specific
locations in the flow field and measures the properties (velocity, pressure,
temperature, etc.) as the fluid flows through these fixed points.

2. Control Volume: The fluid is analysed within a control volume, which is a specified
region of space, and the properties are evaluated at different time intervals as the fluid
passes through.

3. Flow Variables: The fluid's velocity, pressure, and other properties are functions of
space and time (e.g., u (x, y, z, t))

Example:

For a river, the Eulerian approach would involve measuring the velocity of the water at fixed
points along the riverbank, without tracking the movement of individual water molecules.

This approach is commonly used in most fluid dynamics’ problems, as it simplifies the
mathematical analysis, especially when dealing with complex flows.
The Lagrangian approach in fluid mechanics involves tracking individual fluid particles as they
move through space and time. Instead of observing fixed points in space (like in the Eulerian
approach), the Lagrangian method focuses on the motion and properties of specific particles.

Key Features:

1. Tracking Fluid Particles: The Lagrangian approach follows the path of fluid particles
as they move through the flow field, noting changes in their properties (velocity,
pressure, temperature, etc.) over time.

2. Particle-Based View: The analysis is done by observing the behaviours of individual

particles, rather than considering a control volume or fixed points.

3. Position and Time: The position of each fluid particle is described as a function of time
(e.g., r(t)) and their properties are studied as they change along their trajectory.

Example:

In the case of a moving boat on a river, the Lagrangian approach would involve tracking the
boat’s position and velocity as it moves through the water, rather than looking at fixed points
along the riverbank.

The Lagrangian method is useful in simulations or cases where individual particle behaviour is
important, such as tracking the dispersion of pollutants or studying fluid flows in complex
geometries.

Metacentric height (Hm) is the distance between the centre of gravity (G) and the metacentre
(M) of a floating body, such as a ship or boat. It is an important measure of the stability of
floating bodies. The metacentre is the point where the buoyant force acts when the body is
tilted.

Significance:

• Stability: The metacentric height determines whether a floating object will return to its
upright position after being tilted (stable), or if it will continue to tilt further (unstable).

• Greater Hm : Higher metacentric height leads to greater stability.

• Smaller Hm : Lower metacentric height results in less stability, making the body more
prone to tipping.
Stable and Unstable Cases:

1. Stable Equilibrium:

o In a stable equilibrium, if the body is tilted, it will return to its original position.
This occurs when the metacentric height (Hm) is positive, meaning the
metacentre (M) is above the centre of gravity (G).

o When tilted, the buoyant force creates a righting moment that tends to restore
the body to its upright position.

o Example: A boat or ship with a sufficiently large metacentric height is stable

and can recover from tilting caused by waves or wind.

2. Unstable Equilibrium:

o In an unstable equilibrium, if the body is tilted, it will continue to tilt further and
may even capsize. This happens when the metacentric height (Hm) is
negative, meaning the metacentre (M) is below the centre of gravity (G).

o The buoyant force then creates a moment that drives the body further away
from its upright position.

o Example: A tall, narrow boat or a ship with a low metacentric height may be
unstable and prone to capsizing.

3. Neutral Equilibrium:

o Neutral equilibrium occurs when the metacentric height is zero, meaning the
metacentre (M) and the centre of gravity (G) are aligned. In this case, tilting the
body does not create a restoring or tipping moment, and the body remains at
the new position.

Summary:

• Stable: Hm > 0, metacentre is above the centre of gravity, the body returns to upright
after tilting.

• Unstable: Hm < 0, metacentre is below the centre of gravity, the body continues tilting
further when disturbed.

• Neutral: Hm = 0, metacentre and centre of gravity are aligned, and the body remains
tilted.

The metacentric height is a critical factor in ship design and safety, ensuring stability in various
marine conditions.
A stagnation point in fluid dynamics is a point in a flow where the velocity of the fluid is zero.
At this point, the fluid comes to rest relative to the surface or object, and the entire kinetic
energy of the fluid is converted into pressure energy.

Key Characteristics:

1. Zero Velocity: At the stagnation point, the fluid particles are stationary, and there is no
movement relative to the object or surface.

2. High Pressure: Since the velocity is zero, the pressure at the stagnation point is at its
maximum. This is known as the stagnation pressure.

3. Common Locations: Stagnation points are typically found at the leading edge of an
object moving through a fluid (like an aircraft wing or a car front) or at points where the
fluid is forced to slow down, such as near a solid boundary.

At the stagnation point, the kinetic energy of the fluid is fully converted into pressure energy,
which is often used to calculate velocities and flow characteristics in fluid dynamics.

A real fluid is a fluid that exhibits viscosity, meaning it has internal resistance to flow due to
friction between its layers. Unlike ideal fluids, real fluids have properties like viscosity,
compressibility, and thermal conductivity, which affect their behaviour in practical fluid flow
scenarios. These properties cause energy losses, variations in flow velocity, and temperature
changes. Real fluids include water, air, oils, and gases, and their flow is more complex than
that of ideal fluids, which are assumed to be inviscid and incompressible for simplification in
theoretical analysis.

An ideal fluid is a hypothetical fluid that is incompressible and has no viscosity, meaning it
experiences no internal friction between its layers. In this idealized model, the fluid flows
without energy losses, and its flow is assumed to be steady and non-turbulent. The concept of
an ideal fluid simplifies the analysis of fluid dynamics by ignoring the complexities of real
fluids, such as viscosity and compressibility. Ideal fluids do not exist in the real world, but they
provide a useful approximation for understanding basic fluid flow behaviour in theoretical
studies.
A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under an applied shear force, meaning it can
flow. Fluids can be either liquids or gases and are characterized by their ability to take the
shape of their container. Unlike solids, fluids do not maintain a fixed shape but instead flow
and adapt to external forces. The primary properties of fluids include density, pressure,
velocity, temperature, and viscosity. Fluid dynamics, the study of fluid flow, is essential in
various fields like engineering, meteorology, and biology, as fluids are central to processes like
water transport, air circulation, and blood flow.

Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids are two types of fluids classified based on how
their viscosity behaves under different shear rates.

Newtonian Fluids:

• Definition: A Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose viscosity remains constant regardless of

the applied shear rate (the rate at which the fluid is deformed).

• Behaviour: The shear stress is directly proportional to the shear rate, and the
proportionality constant is the viscosity.

• Examples: Water, air, and most gases are Newtonian fluids. Their viscosity does not
change with changes in flow rate or applied force.

Non-Newtonian Fluids:

• Definition: A non-Newtonian fluid is one whose viscosity changes with the applied
shear rate, meaning its flow behaviour is not described by a simple linear relationship
between shear stress and shear rate.

• Behaviour: The relationship between shear stress and shear rate is more complex,
and the fluid may exhibit time-dependent properties (like thixotropy or rheopexy).

• Types:

o Shear-thinning: Viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate (e.g., ketchup,

blood).

o Shear-thickening: Viscosity increases with increasing shear rate (e.g.,

cornstarch in water).

o Bingham plastics: Behave like a solid until a certain yield stress is exceeded,
after which they flow (e.g., mayonnaise, toothpaste).

• Examples: Paint, yogurt, and sludge are common non-Newtonian fluids.

In summary, Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity, while non-Newtonian fluids exhibit
variable viscosity depending on factors like shear rate or time.