ET 312 UNIT 3

The flow of fluids, whether liquids or gases, is a fundamental concept in fluid dynamics. Fluid flow can be
classified into different types based on various parameters, such as speed, viscosity, and the presence of
boundaries. Here, I'll provide an overview of fluid flow and its key concepts:

1. Types of Fluid Flow:

 Laminar Flow: In laminar flow, the fluid particles move in smooth, well-ordered layers or
streamlines. This type of flow occurs at lower velocities and is characterized by minimal
mixing between layers.

 Turbulent Flow: Turbulent flow involves chaotic, irregular motion of fluid particles. It
occurs at higher velocities and is associated with swirling, mixing, and eddy formation.
Turbulent flow is more common and energy-intensive than laminar flow.

2. Flow Regimes:

 Steady Flow: In steady flow, the fluid properties at a given point do not change over
time. The velocity, pressure, and other parameters remain constant.

 Unsteady Flow: Unsteady flow involves changes in fluid properties at a given point over
time. The velocity, pressure, and other parameters vary with time.

3. Bernoulli's Principle: Bernoulli's principle states that in an inviscid flow (no viscosity) of a
constant-density fluid, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a
decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. This principle is commonly
used to explain the lift generated by aircraft wings and the functioning of devices like Venturi
tubes.

4. Viscosity and Reynolds Number:

 Viscosity: Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. High viscosity fluids are
thick and resist deformation, while low viscosity fluids are thin and flow more easily.

 Reynolds Number (Re): The Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity that indicates
the relative importance of inertial forces to viscous forces in a fluid flow. It helps predict
whether a flow will be laminar or turbulent. For low Reynolds numbers, flow is usually
laminar, while for high Reynolds numbers, flow is often turbulent.

5. Flow in Pipes: Fluid flow through pipes is a common scenario. The flow can be characterized as:

 Poiseuille Flow: Laminar flow in a pipe with constant viscosity and pressure gradient.

 Hagen-Poiseuille Equation: Describes laminar flow in a cylindrical pipe and relates flow
rate, pressure drop, viscosity, and pipe dimensions.

 Darcy-Weisbach Equation: Used for calculating pressure drop due to friction in

turbulent flow through pipes.
 6. Fluid Dynamics Equations:

 Navier-Stokes Equations: These partial differential equations describe the motion of

fluid substances, accounting for the effects of viscosity and pressure gradients.

 Euler's Equation of Motion: Simplified form of the Navier-Stokes equations for inviscid
flows.

7. Applications: Fluid dynamics concepts are crucial in various fields, including aerodynamics,
hydrodynamics, civil engineering (designing pipelines, sewage systems), and biomechanics
(blood flow, respiratory airflow).

Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon with a wide range of applications. Understanding the principles and
equations governing fluid flow is essential for optimizing designs and solving engineering and scientific
problems related to fluid behavior.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

Discharge measurement refers to the process of determining the rate at which a fluid (usually water) is
flowing through a specific location, such as a river, stream, pipeline, or channel. Accurate measurement
of discharge is essential for various purposes, including water resource management, flood prediction,
environmental monitoring, and engineering design. Several methods are commonly used to measure
discharge:

1. Velocity-Area Method: This method is based on the principle that the discharge (Q) is equal to
the product of the cross-sectional area (A) of the flow and the average velocity (V) of the fluid.
The formula is: Q = A * V. To apply this method, you need to measure the cross-sectional area of
the flow and the velocity of the fluid at various points across the section. Common techniques to
measure velocity include using current meters, floats, or acoustic Doppler devices.

2. Float Method: This simple method involves releasing a buoyant object (float) into the flowing
water and measuring the time it takes to travel a known distance. By dividing the distance
traveled by the time taken, you can calculate the average velocity and subsequently the
discharge.

3. Current Meters: These are mechanical or electronic devices designed to measure water velocity
at a specific point. Mechanical current meters have rotating vanes that align with the flow
direction, while acoustic Doppler devices use the Doppler effect to measure velocity based on
the frequency shift of reflected sound waves.

4. Acoustic Doppler Methods: Acoustic Doppler devices emit sound waves into the water and
measure the frequency shift of the waves reflected off moving particles in the water. This
frequency shift is used to calculate water velocity and, subsequently, discharge.

5. Weirs and Flumes: Weirs and flumes are structures placed in a watercourse to create a known
flow constriction. By measuring the water level upstream of the weir or flume, you can
determine the flow rate. There are various types of weirs and flumes, such as rectangular,
triangular, and trapezoidal.
 6. Pitot-Static Tubes: These tubes are inserted into the flow, and they have two pressure
measurement points: one facing the flow (dynamic pressure) and the other perpendicular to the
flow (static pressure). The difference in pressure readings can be used to calculate velocity and,
subsequently, discharge.

7. Electromagnetic Flowmeters: These devices use Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction to

measure the velocity of conductive fluids. They are particularly useful for measuring flow in
pipes or closed conduits.

8. Tracer Methods: Tracer methods involve introducing a known quantity of tracer substance into
the flow and measuring its dispersion downstream. By analyzing the dispersion pattern, you can
calculate the average velocity and subsequently the discharge.

The choice of method depends on factors such as the flow conditions, available equipment, accuracy
requirements, and the specific characteristics of the fluid being measured. It's important to ensure that
the chosen method is appropriate for the given situation to obtain accurate and reliable discharge
measurements.

ET 213 UNIT 4

PIPE FLOW

Pipe flow refers to the movement of fluids (liquids or gases) through pipes or conduits. It's a
fundamental concept in fluid mechanics and engineering, as pipes are used in various applications such
as water distribution, oil and gas transportation, industrial processes, and more. Pipe flow can be
categorized into two main types: laminar flow and turbulent flow.

1. Laminar Flow: In laminar flow, fluid particles move in smooth, well-ordered layers or streamlines. The
flow is characterized by minimal mixing between layers, and the motion of each particle is predictable.
Laminar flow occurs at lower velocities and is more likely to occur in pipes with smaller diameters or at
lower fluid viscosities. It can be described by Poiseuille's law.

2. Turbulent Flow: Turbulent flow involves chaotic, irregular motion of fluid particles. The fluid particles
mix vigorously, leading to eddies, swirls, and fluctuations in velocity and pressure. Turbulent flow occurs
at higher velocities and is more common in larger pipes or when the fluid viscosity is high. Turbulent
flow is described by the Darcy-Weisbach equation, which accounts for the effects of pipe roughness on
flow resistance.

Factors Affecting Pipe Flow: Several factors influence the behavior of fluid flow in pipes:

 Reynolds Number (Re): The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that determines
whether flow is laminar or turbulent. It's defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces
and is calculated as Re = (ρVD)/μ, where ρ is fluid density, V is velocity, D is pipe diameter, and μ
is dynamic viscosity. Laminar flow generally occurs at low Reynolds numbers, while turbulent
flow occurs at high Reynolds numbers.
  Pipe Diameter: The diameter of the pipe affects the velocity profile and flow regime. Smaller
pipes are more likely to have laminar flow, while larger pipes tend to have turbulent flow.

 Fluid Viscosity: Viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. Higher viscosity tends to
promote laminar flow, while lower viscosity favors turbulent flow.

 Velocity: Higher velocities increase the likelihood of turbulent flow. At low velocities, flow is
more likely to be laminar.

 Roughness: The interior surface roughness of the pipe can influence the flow behavior. Rough
surfaces tend to promote turbulent flow by disrupting the smooth motion of fluid particles.

 Density: Fluid density affects the flow dynamics and the Reynolds number. Higher density may
lead to more turbulent flow, while lower density can contribute to laminar flow.

Equations for Pipe Flow: Two key equations are commonly used to describe pipe flow:

 Poiseuille's Law: Describes laminar flow in pipes and provides the relationship between flow
rate, pressure drop, viscosity, and pipe dimensions.

 Darcy-Weisbach Equation: Used for calculating pressure drop due to friction in turbulent flow
through pipes. The equation incorporates the friction factor, which accounts for the roughness
of the pipe surface.

Understanding pipe flow is crucial for designing efficient and effective fluid transport systems,
optimizing energy usage, and ensuring the safe and reliable operation of pipelines.

ET 213 UNIT 5

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

A hydraulic system is a technology that uses pressurized fluid, typically an incompressible liquid like oil,
to transmit power, control machinery, and perform various mechanical tasks. Hydraulic systems are
widely used in industries, construction, transportation, and various applications where precise control,
heavy lifting, and reliable operation are essential. Here are the key components and concepts of a
hydraulic system:

1. Components of a Hydraulic System:

 Fluid Reservoir: The fluid reservoir stores hydraulic fluid (usually hydraulic oil) that is used to
transmit power and lubricate the system.

 Hydraulic Pump: The pump is responsible for pressurizing the hydraulic fluid, creating a flow
that is used to generate mechanical force.

 Hydraulic Fluid: Hydraulic fluid is used to transmit pressure and force within the system. It must
have desirable properties such as incompressibility, stability, lubrication, and resistance to
temperature changes.
  Hydraulic Actuators: Actuators are devices that convert hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy. Hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors are common types of actuators. Hydraulic
cylinders produce linear motion, while hydraulic motors generate rotational motion.

 Control Valves: Control valves regulate the flow and pressure of the hydraulic fluid to control
the speed and direction of the actuators. They play a crucial role in precise control of the
system.

 Filters: Hydraulic systems include filters to remove contaminants from the fluid, ensuring
smooth operation and preventing damage to components.

 Accumulators: Accumulators store pressurized hydraulic fluid for immediate use when
additional power is required, acting as a temporary energy source.

2. Basic Principles:

 Pascal's Law: Pascal's principle states that a change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its container. This
principle forms the foundation of hydraulic systems, allowing force to be transmitted through
the fluid.

3. Operation:

 The hydraulic pump draws hydraulic fluid from the reservoir and pressurizes it.

 The pressurized fluid flows through control valves, which direct the fluid to specific actuators
based on the desired movement.

 The hydraulic actuators, such as cylinders or motors, convert the pressurized fluid's energy into
mechanical motion.

 Return lines channel the fluid back to the reservoir after it has done its work.

4. Advantages of Hydraulic Systems:

 High power density: Hydraulic systems can deliver high forces in compact designs.

 Precise control: Hydraulic systems can provide precise control of speed and force.

 Versatility: Hydraulic systems can be adapted for various applications, from heavy machinery to
aircraft landing gear.

 Reliability: Hydraulic systems are known for their durability and resistance to shock and
vibration.

5. Applications:

 Construction equipment: Hydraulic systems power excavators, cranes, bulldozers, and other
heavy machinery.

 Industrial machinery: Hydraulic systems are used in presses, lifts, injection molding machines,
and more.
  Aircraft: Hydraulic systems control landing gear, flaps, and other critical components in aircraft.

 Automotive: Hydraulic systems are used in braking systems and power steering.

 Agriculture: Hydraulic systems are used in tractors and other agricultural machinery.

6. Maintenance: Proper maintenance is crucial to ensure the reliable operation of hydraulic systems.
Regular fluid checks, filter replacements, and keeping the system free from contamination are essential
practices.

Hydraulic systems play a significant role in various industries due to their ability to provide powerful,
precise, and controlled mechanical actions.

ET 312 UNIT6

WATER TURBINE AND PUMPS

Water turbines and pumps are essential components used to harness and control the flow of water
for various purposes. They are commonly used in hydropower generation, water supply systems,
irrigation, industrial processes, and more. Let's explore the concepts and differences between water
turbines and pumps:

Water Turbines: Water turbines are devices that convert the kinetic energy of flowing water into
mechanical energy, which can be used to generate electricity or perform other types of work. Water
turbines are typically used in hydropower plants to generate renewable energy from the movement
of water. There are several types of water turbines, each designed for specific conditions and
efficiency levels:

1. Impulse Turbines: Impulse turbines operate with a high-speed jet of water striking the turbine
blades. Common types of impulse turbines include:

 Pelton Turbine: Uses a set of buckets to catch the high-velocity jet of water and
convert it into rotational energy.

2. Reaction Turbines: Reaction turbines operate by using the pressure difference between the
inlet and outlet of the turbine to create a continuous flow through the turbine blades.
Common types of reaction turbines include:

 Francis Turbine: Combines both radial and axial flow and is suitable for medium-head
applications.

 Kaplan Turbine: Has adjustable blades to optimize efficiency for a wide range of flow
rates and heads.

 Propeller Turbine: Consists of a set of fixed and rotating blades and is used for low-
head applications.

Water Pumps: Water pumps are devices used to move water from one location to another. They are
employed in various applications, such as water supply systems, irrigation, drainage, and industrial
processes. Pumps add energy to the fluid, increasing its pressure and allowing it to be transported.
Different types of pumps are designed for various flow rates, pressures, and applications:

1. Centrifugal Pumps: Centrifugal pumps use a rotating impeller to create a centrifugal force that
moves the fluid from the center of the impeller to the outer edges, generating a flow. They are
widely used for water supply, circulation, and low-pressure systems.

2. Positive Displacement Pumps: Positive displacement pumps operate by trapping a fixed

amount of fluid and then moving it to the outlet. Common types include:

 Reciprocating Pumps: Use pistons or diaphragms to move fluid in a back-and-forth

motion.

 Rotary Pumps: Operate by the rotation of a mechanism (e.g., gears, lobes, screws) to
move fluid.

Differences:

 Purpose: Water turbines convert water's kinetic energy into mechanical energy for power
generation, while pumps use mechanical energy to move water from one location to another.

 Energy Flow: Water turbines convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy, while pumps
convert mechanical energy to hydraulic energy.

 Application: Turbines are used for generating electricity, whereas pumps are used for various
tasks like water supply, irrigation, drainage, and industrial processes.

 Efficiency: Turbines are designed to maximize energy extraction efficiency, while pumps are
designed to maximize flow and pressure delivery efficiency.

 Components: Turbines have blades to capture water's energy, while pumps have impellers or
mechanisms to add energy to the fluid.

In summary, water turbines and pumps are crucial devices for harnessing and controlling the
movement of water in different ways: turbines for power generation and pumps for fluid
transportation.

ET 213 UNIT 7

INTRODUCTION TO OIL POWER HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

Oil power hydraulics and pneumatics are two distinct technologies used in various industrial,
manufacturing, and automation applications to transmit power and control mechanical systems using
fluids. Both systems utilize fluid pressure to achieve mechanical work, but they differ in the type of
fluid used and their respective advantages and applications. Let's introduce these concepts:

Oil Power Hydraulics: Oil power hydraulics, often referred to as hydraulic systems, use incompressible
fluids, usually hydraulic oil, to transmit power and control mechanical movements. Hydraulic systems
are known for their high force output, precise control, and ability to work in diverse environments.
Here are the key points:

 Fluid: Hydraulic systems use hydraulic oil or fluid as the medium to transmit pressure.
Hydraulic fluids are incompressible, allowing for the transfer of high forces with minimal loss.

 Components: A typical hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, hydraulic pump, control

valves, hydraulic actuators (such as hydraulic cylinders or hydraulic motors), and various hoses
and connectors.

 Advantages:

 High force output: Hydraulic systems can generate significant force, making them
suitable for heavy lifting and pressing applications.

 Precise control: Hydraulic systems allow for accurate control of speed, force, and
direction.

 Versatility: Hydraulic systems are used in various applications, from construction

equipment to industrial machinery.

 Applications:

 Heavy machinery: Cranes, excavators, bulldozers.

 Industrial machinery: Presses, machine tools, injection molding machines.

 Aerospace: Aircraft landing gear, flight control systems.

 Automotive: Brake systems, power steering.

Pneumatics: Pneumatics utilize compressed air as the working fluid to transmit power and control
mechanical systems. Pneumatic systems are often chosen for their simplicity, quick response time,
and safety. Here are the key points:

 Fluid: Pneumatic systems use compressed air as the medium to transmit pressure. Air is
compressible, which can lead to differences in behavior compared to hydraulic systems.

 Components: A typical pneumatic system includes a compressor, air reservoir, pneumatic

valves, pneumatic actuators (such as pneumatic cylinders), and air hoses.

 Advantages:

 Quick response: Pneumatic systems have fast response times, making them suitable
for applications requiring rapid movements.

 Simplicity: Pneumatic systems are often simpler in design and maintenance compared
to hydraulic systems.

 Safety: Air is non-flammable, making pneumatic systems safer in certain

environments.

 Applications:
  Automation: Robotics, assembly lines, conveyor systems.

 Packaging: Filling, sealing, labeling.

 Medical: Hospital beds, surgical instruments (where clean air is essential).

Key Differences:

 Fluid Type: Hydraulics use incompressible hydraulic oil, while pneumatics use compressible
air.

 Force Output: Hydraulics provide high force output, suitable for heavy-duty applications.
Pneumatics offer lower force output but quicker response times.

 Fluid Properties: Air is compressible and lightweight, while hydraulic oil is incompressible and
denser.

 Response Time: Pneumatic systems generally have faster response times than hydraulic
systems.

 Applications: Hydraulics are used where high force and precise control are needed, while
pneumatics are used in applications requiring quick movements and simplicity.

Both oil power hydraulics and pneumatics play vital roles in various industries, offering solutions for a
wide range of applications based on their respective strengths and characteristics.

ET213 UNIT 8

COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

A hydraulic system consists of several components that work together to transmit fluid pressure and
control mechanical movements. These components ensure the efficient operation of the system,
allowing it to generate high force, precise control, and reliable performance. Here are the key
components of a hydraulic system:

1. Reservoir (Fluid Tank): The reservoir holds the hydraulic fluid (often hydraulic oil) that is used
to transmit pressure. It also helps dissipate heat and allows for fluid expansion and
contraction. The reservoir typically includes a filter to prevent contaminants from entering the
system.

2. Hydraulic Pump: The pump is responsible for generating the flow of hydraulic fluid by
pressurizing it. It converts mechanical energy (typically from an electric motor) into hydraulic
energy. There are various types of hydraulic pumps, including gear pumps, vane pumps, and
piston pumps.

3. Control Valves: Control valves regulate the flow and pressure of hydraulic fluid to control the
speed, direction, and force of hydraulic actuators. They direct the fluid to specific actuators
based on the desired movement.
 4. Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic actuators convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
There are two main types of hydraulic actuators:

 Hydraulic Cylinders: These devices generate linear motion. They consist of a cylinder
barrel, piston, rod, and seals.

 Hydraulic Motors: Hydraulic motors generate rotary motion. They can be used to drive
various machinery, such as conveyor belts or industrial equipment.

5. Hoses and Pipes: Hoses and pipes transport hydraulic fluid between different components of
the system. Hoses are flexible and allow for movement, while pipes are more rigid and used
for fixed connections.

6. Filters: Filters are crucial to maintain the cleanliness of the hydraulic fluid. They remove
contaminants and particles from the fluid to prevent damage to components and maintain
system efficiency.

7. Accumulators: Accumulators store pressurized hydraulic fluid, acting as a temporary energy

source. They provide additional power during peak demand or absorb shocks in the system.

8. Pressure Relief Valves: Pressure relief valves ensure that the hydraulic system does not
exceed safe pressure limits. If pressure surpasses a predetermined level, the relief valve opens
to release excess fluid and maintain system integrity.

9. Pressure Gauges: Pressure gauges measure the pressure within the hydraulic system. They
help operators monitor and adjust system performance.

10. Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers dissipate heat from the hydraulic fluid, helping to maintain
proper operating temperatures and prevent overheating.

11. Seals and O-Rings: Seals and O-rings are used to prevent fluid leakage and maintain the
integrity of the system. They are found in various components, such as cylinders and valves.

12. Fittings and Connectors: Fittings and connectors are used to join hoses, pipes, and other
components, creating a sealed hydraulic circuit.

These components work together to create a closed hydraulic circuit that allows hydraulic fluid to
flow, generate pressure, and control mechanical movements. Proper design, installation, and
maintenance of these components are essential for ensuring the reliable and efficient operation of the
hydraulic system.

ET 213 UNIT 9

COMPONENTS OF PNUEMATIC SYSTEM

A pneumatic system comprises several components that work together to use compressed air to
transmit power and control mechanical movements. These components enable the system to perform
tasks that require quick responses, simplicity, and efficient energy transfer. Here are the key
components of a pneumatic system:

1. Air Compressor: The air compressor is responsible for generating compressed air by drawing in
ambient air and pressurizing it. The compressed air is stored in an air reservoir or receiver
tank.

2. Air Reservoir (Receiver Tank): The reservoir stores the compressed air, helping to stabilize
pressure fluctuations and provide a steady supply of air for the system.

3. Filters: Filters remove contaminants such as dust, dirt, and moisture from the compressed air.
Clean air is essential to maintain the efficiency and longevity of the pneumatic system.

4. Regulator: The regulator controls and maintains the pressure of the compressed air to a
specific level. It ensures that the system operates within the desired pressure range.

5. Pressure Relief Valve: Similar to hydraulic systems, pressure relief valves prevent the
pneumatic system from exceeding safe pressure limits. If pressure rises above the set limit,
the valve opens to release excess air.

6. Pneumatic Valves: Pneumatic valves control the flow of compressed air to various actuators
and devices. They determine the direction, speed, and sequence of movements.

7. Actuators: Pneumatic actuators convert the energy of compressed air into mechanical motion.
The two main types of pneumatic actuators are:

 Pneumatic Cylinders: These devices produce linear motion. They consist of a cylinder,
piston, rod, and seals.

 Pneumatic Motors: Pneumatic motors produce rotary motion, which can be used for
various applications.

8. Air Hoses and Tubing: Air hoses and tubing transport the compressed air between
components. They are flexible to accommodate movement and connections.

9. Fittings and Connectors: Fittings and connectors are used to join hoses, tubes, and other
components, creating a sealed pneumatic circuit.

10. Pressure Gauges: Pressure gauges measure the pressure within the pneumatic system,
allowing operators to monitor and adjust system performance.

11. Solenoid Valves: Solenoid valves are electromechanical valves that are commonly used in
pneumatic systems to control the flow of air to actuators based on electrical signals.

12. Mufflers and Silencers: These components reduce noise generated by the rapid release of
compressed air, making the pneumatic system quieter and more comfortable to work with.

Pneumatic systems are often chosen for their simplicity, quick response times, and safety features.
Proper design, installation, and maintenance of these components are crucial for ensuring the reliable
and efficient operation of the pneumatic system.